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Introduction to Sociology & The Sociological Imagination "Sociology" is composed of two words : socius, meaning companion or associate; and 'logos', meaning science or study. The etymological meaning of "sociology" is thus the science of society Auguste Comete, the founding father of sociology, defines sociology as the science of social phenomena "subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of investigation". Emile Durkheim: "Science of social institutions". Ogburn and Nimkoff : "Sociology is the scientific study of social life". Max Weber defines sociology as " the science which attempts the interpretative understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a casual explanation of its course and effects". What is Sociology ...is the scientific study of human behavior in groups and of the social forces that influence that behavior. ...the scientific study of human society and social behavior. Sociology - A systematic and objective study of society and social behavior. What do we mean by systematic? The ways of establishing facts. Pre-Science Method Authority Intuition Logic Defining the Sociological Perspective “Sociology is the scientific study of human society and social interactions.” What makes sociology “scientific?” The Sociological Imagination C. Wright Mills coined the term “sociological imagination” to refer to “...the vivid awareness of the relationship between private experience and the wider society.” Sociology and Common Sense Common sense assumptions are usually based on very limited observation. Moreover, the premises on which common sense assumptions are seldom examined. Sociology seeks to: • use a broad range of carefully selected observations; and • theoretically understand and explain those observations. While sociological research might confirm common sense observation, its broader base and theoretical rational provide a stronger basis for conclusions. Sociology and Science The Scientific Method Science is “...a body of Analyze Data systematically arranged knowledge that shows the operation of general laws.” As a science, sociology employs the scientific method Gather Data Choose research design Formulate hypotheses Review of literature Basic Postulates of Science Definite Order of Recurrent Events Knowledge is Superior to Ignorance Communication is Based on Sense Perception There are Cause and Effect Relationships Within the Physical and Social Order Scientist/Observer Has the Capacity to Conceptually Relate and Assign Meaning Science Is: Theoretical Empirical Logical Cumulative Subject to Reliable Checking The Development of Sociology Sociology emerged as a separate discipline in the nineteenth century This was a time of great social upheaval due largely to the French and Industrial Revolutions Several early sociologists shaped the direction of the discipline Pre-Sociological Influences Even though Plato is not considered the “father” of sociology-he is probably the first person to systematically study society in a “sociological” way. In other words, he thought like a sociologist. Plato’s Six Basic Assumptions of Society Man is an organism. Organisms tend toward survival. Man survives in groups. Man is a social animal. Man lives in an ordered society. The order of society is knowable. Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Responsible for coining the term “sociology” Set out to develop the “science of man” that would be based on empirical observation Focused on two aspects of society: • Social Statics—forces which produce order and stability • Social Dynamics—forces which contribute to social change The new social science that Comte sought to establish was first called social physics but he later found the term stolen by another intellectual so he coined the word sociology, a hybrid term compounded of Latin and Greek parts (Coser, 1971, p. 3). Comte first used the term sociology in print in 1838 (Perdue, 1986, p. 37). Positivism . . . seeks to describe only what “obviously” is, what one can really be positive about, that is, sense data. A strict positivist, seeing a black sheep on a meadow could not say, “There is a black sheep.” He could only say, “I see a sheep, one side of which is black.”(Rapoport, 1953, p. 74) In other words, Comte saw a need for a scientific approach toward studying structures of and interactions within society. While many aspects of society are “obvious” to us in a vague manner, the scientific method uncovers sociological phenomena that are not always so obvious. August Comte’s philosophy based on his conclusion that an intellectual discipline progresses only to the degree that it is grounded in facts and experience, i.e., rests on information about which one can reasonably make positive statements. . . (Hoult, 1974, pp. 243-244) Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) Authored one of the earliest analyses of culture and life in the United States entitled Theory and Practice of Society in America Translated Comte’s Positive Philosophy into English Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) Authored the first sociology text, Principles of Sociology Most well known for proposing a doctrine called “Social Darwinism” • Suggested that people who could not compete were poorly adapted to the environment and inferior • This is an idea commonly called survival of the fittest ) Karl Marx (1818-1883 Marx is the father of conflict theory Saw human history in a continual state of conflict between two major classes: • Bourgeoisie—owners of the means of production (capitalists) • Proletariat—the workers Predicted that revolution would occur producing first a socialist state, followed by a communist society Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) Durkheim moved sociology fully into the realm of an empirical science Most well known empirical study is called Suicide, where he looks at the social causes of suicide Generally regarded as the founder of functionalist theory Max Weber (1864-1920) Much of Weber’s work was a critique or clarification of Marx His most famous work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism directly challenged Marx’s ideas on the role of religion in society Weber was also interested in bureaucracies and the process of rationalization in society The Development of Sociology in the United States American sociology had its beginnings at the University of Chicago in the early 20th century The early emphasis was on empirical study of communities and neighborhoods Later, East Coast schools such as Columbia and Harvard Universities began sociology departments, producing scholars such as W.E.B. Dubois, Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton Theoretical Perspectives: Functionalism Functionalism sees society as a system of highly interrelated parts that work together harmoniously The image that functionalists use to understand society is a living organism Each part of society works together for the benefit of the whole much like a living organism Functionalism …theory stressing the contributions made by social or cultural phenomena to the system of which they are a part. (an overriding concern with the conditions of equilibrium, stability and maximum efficiency.) Society is a set of interrelated parts; cultural consensus exists and leads to social order; natural state of society-balance and harmony (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 1997, p. 18). Views society as a vast organism whose parts are interrelated; social problems are disruptions of this system. Also holds that problems of social institutions produce patterns of deviance or that institutions must address such patterns through strategic social change (Kornblum, Julian, & Smith, 1998, p. 8). Individuals are socialized by society's institutions; socialization is the process by which social control is exerted; people need society and its institutions (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 1997, p. 18). Theoretical Perspectives: Conflict Theory Conflict theory is grounded in the work of Karl Marx Society is understood to be made up of conflicting interest groups who vie for power and privilege This dynamic results in continuous social change, which is the normal state of affairs Conflict theory focuses heavily on inequality and differential distribution of power and wealth …a theoretical perspective that emphasizes conflict, contradiction, inequality, and injustice as permanent aspects of society and a major source of social change. Theoretical Perspectives: The Interactionist Perspective Focuses on how individuals make sense of and interpret the world This perspective tends to focus on the “micro-order” of small groups Has given rise to several specific approaches: Symbolic Interactionism developed by George Herbert Mead Ethnomethodology developed by Harold Garfinkel Dramaturgy developed by Erving Goffman Mind, Self and Society Mind, Self and Society . The title of the book serves as the key concepts of symbolic interaction theory. The mind refers to an individual's ability to use symbols to create meanings for the world around him. Individuals use language and thought to accomplish this goal. Self refers to an individual's ability to reflect on the way that he/she is perceived by others. Finally, society, according to Mead is where all of these interactions are taking place. The "I" and the "me" While establishing the idea of self, Mead introduces a distinction between the “I and the me respectively, the active and socialized aspects of the person. The "me" is a similar concept to Cooley's looking glass self. The term refers to people shaping their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them. Ethnomethodology is a perspective within sociology which focuses on the way people make sense of their everyday world. People are seen as rational actors, but employ practical reasoning rather than formal logic to make sense of and function in society. Ethno refers to a particular socio-cultural group [think a particular, localized community of surfers]; method refers to the methods and practices this particular group employs in its everyday activities [related to surfing]; and Sociology refers to the systematic description of these methods and practices Dramaturgical, social interaction is analyzed in terms of how people live their lives like actors performing on a stage. This analysis offers a look at the concepts of status and role. A status is like a part in a play, and a role serves as a script, supplying dialogue and action for the characters. As on the stage, people in their everyday lives manage settings, clothing, words, and nonverbal actions to give a particular impression to others. Goffman described each individual’s “performance” as the presentation of self, a person’s efforts to create specific impressions in the minds of others. This process is sometimes called "impression management". Goffman makes an important distinction between "front stage" and "back stage" behavior. As the term implies, "front stage" actions are visible to the audience and are part of the performance. People engage in "back stage" behaviors when no audience is present. For example, a server in a restaurant is likely to perform one way in front of customers but might be much more casual in the kitchen. It is likely that he or she does things in the kitchen that might seem unseemly in front of customers. Stages or regions refer to the three distinct areas where different individuals with different roles and information can be found. There are three stages: front, back and outside. Comparing Theoretical Perspectives Perspective Scope of Analysis StructuralMacro Functionalism Level Point of View 1. 2. 3. Conflict Theory Macro Level 1. 2. 3. Interactionist Micro-Level 1. 2. Focus of Analysis Various parts of society are interdependent Social systems are highly stable Social life governed by consensus & cooperation Society accommodates between competing interest groups Society unstable and prone to change Social life conflict-laden Functional and dysfunctional aspects of society Actions have symbolic meanings Meanings can vary How people make sense of their world 1. How social inequalities produce conflict 2. Who benefits from social arrangements Careers in Sociology Market research Advertising Government official Criminal justice Pre-law Sociological Theories A theory is a statement of how and why facts are related. “John moves to NY from Kansas, has gone on five dates, but none of the women like him. Why?” Sociological Theories Structural-Functional Approach - approach looking at how large parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. “John is having a hard time because he is not going on dates with women who are most similar to him. Dating and marriage works for society because it allows to people with common interests to work towards common goals. He is from Kansas…the girls are from NY. It is not a good fit.” Sociological Theories Social-Conflict Approach – society is a place for conflict, groups of people are in conflict, and society is constantly changing. “John is having a hard time because he is trying to date upper class women from NY. Upper class women look down on middle and lower class men.” Sociological Theories Gender-Conflict Approach - looking at conflict and inequality between men and women “On dates, John is too patriarchal. As a man, he is insensitive to women. He is degrading to women, and does not treat them with the respect they deserve.” Sociological Theories Race-Conflict Approach - looking at the conflict between racial and ethnic groups “John reveals on his date that he is ½ Native American and talks about his heritage and background. The European American women he dates discriminate against him.” Sociological Theories Symbolic-Interaction Approach – society is the product of everyday actions of individuals “During dates, John is just not smooth. He does not possess the verbal skills to flatter and impress women.” Ways to Do Sociology After you have decided upon a theoretical approach, you must decide what is your purpose for using this sociological theory. In other words, what research orientation do you want to take? There are three general orientations… Research Orientation Positivist Sociology – This is the most common research orientation. We gain knowledge by gathering data systematically. With this way of doing sociology, the researcher is a neutral observer. “To understand John’s tough luck, a positivist sociologist would give surveys to John and all his dates, look at census data for the ratio of men and women…etc.” Research Orientation Interpretive Sociology – this orientation focuses on the meanings people place in their actions. For this approach, the researcher is a participant. “To understand John’s plight, the interpretive sociologist may go on a double date with John to understand the interactions between John and his dates. Or, he or she may just enjoy the dating scene in NYC and find out what people want and think.” Research Orientation Critical Sociology – focuses on the need for social change. In this way, the sociologist is an activist. “The sociologist may discuss with John his blunders at disrespecting women. Or, the sociologist may want to start some culturally awareness classes so that women will not be prejudiced towards John.” Research Methods Once you have decided on a theory, and the way you want to approach the situation, then you have to go about finally conducting your research. How do you do this? Experiment – Used to investigate cause and effect Survey – subjects respond to a series of statements or questions on a questionnaire or interview Participant Observation – Sociologists involve themselves in the day to day activities of people Existing Sources – Sometimes sociologists use information (data) that has been gathered by others Response Paper Assignment Think of a situation or phenomena from your life that can be understood using a sociological perspective. First describe that situation. Second, describe how a sociologist might conduct a study of your situation through one specific theoretical approach and one specific research orientation. Third, describe a second theoretical approach and research orientation. Fourth, compare and contrast the two potential studies. Which would you use? Which study you think may provide the most understanding and why? Source Introduction to Sociology: Henry L. Tischler (Prepared by Charles E. Faupel) SOC1013 Introduction to Sociology Compiled by:Ronald Keith Bolender, Ed.D. (1996)Nova Southeastern University www.bolenderinitiatives.com http://home.dbio.uevora.pt/~eje/weber.html http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-sociology-definitionthemes-careers-in-sociology.html References Charon, J. M., & Vigilant, L. G. (2009). The meaning of sociology (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Coser, L. A. (1971). Masters of sociological thought: Ideas in historical and social context. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Denisoff, R. S., Callahan, O., & Levine, M. H. (1974). Theories and paradigms in contemporary sociology. Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock Publishers. Hoult, T. F. (1974). Dictionary of modern sociology. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield, Adams & Company. Kornblum, W., Julian, J., & Smith, C. D. (1998). Social problems (9th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. . References Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd ed.). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press Rapoport, A. (1953). Operational philosophy: Integrating knowledge and action. New York: Harper & Brother Publishers. Mooney, L. A., Knox, D., & Schacht, C. (1997). Understanding social problems. New York: West Publishing. Perdue, W. D. (1986). Sociological theory: Explanation, paradigm, and ideology. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company.