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Introduction to Sociology & The Sociological
Imagination
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"Sociology" is composed of two words : socius,
meaning companion or associate; and 'logos', meaning
science or study. The etymological meaning of "sociology"
is thus the science of society
Auguste Comete, the founding father of sociology, defines
sociology as the science of social phenomena "subject to
natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the
object of investigation".
Emile Durkheim: "Science of social institutions".
Ogburn and Nimkoff : "Sociology is the scientific study of
social life".
Max Weber defines sociology as " the science which
attempts the interpretative understanding of social action
in order thereby to arrive at a casual explanation of its
course and effects".
What is Sociology
 ...is the scientific study of human behavior in groups and of the
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social forces that influence that behavior.
...the scientific study of human society and social behavior.
Sociology - A systematic and objective study of society and social
behavior.
What do we mean by systematic?
The ways of establishing facts.
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Pre-Science Method
Authority
Intuition
Logic
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Defining the Sociological Perspective
 “Sociology is the scientific study of human society and social
interactions.”
 What makes sociology “scientific?”
The Sociological Imagination
C. Wright Mills coined the term “sociological
imagination” to refer to “...the vivid awareness of
the relationship between private experience and
the wider society.”
Sociology and Common Sense
 Common sense assumptions are usually based on very limited
observation.
 Moreover, the premises on which common sense assumptions are
seldom examined.
 Sociology seeks to:
• use a broad range of carefully selected observations; and
• theoretically understand and explain those observations.
 While sociological research might confirm common sense
observation, its broader base and theoretical rational provide a
stronger basis for conclusions.
Sociology and Science
The Scientific Method
 Science is “...a body of
Analyze Data
systematically arranged knowledge
that shows the operation of general
laws.”
 As a science, sociology employs the
scientific method
Gather Data
Choose research design
Formulate hypotheses
Review of literature
Basic Postulates of Science
 Definite Order of Recurrent Events
 Knowledge is Superior to Ignorance
 Communication is Based on Sense Perception
 There are Cause and Effect Relationships Within the Physical
and Social Order
 Scientist/Observer Has the Capacity to Conceptually Relate
and Assign Meaning
Science Is:
 Theoretical
 Empirical
 Logical
 Cumulative
 Subject to Reliable Checking
The Development of Sociology
 Sociology emerged as a separate discipline in the nineteenth
century
 This was a time of great social upheaval due largely to the
French and Industrial Revolutions
 Several early sociologists shaped the direction of the discipline
Pre-Sociological Influences
Even though Plato is not considered the “father” of sociology-he is probably the first person to systematically study
society in a “sociological” way.
In other words, he thought like a sociologist. Plato’s Six Basic
Assumptions of Society
 Man is an organism.
 Organisms tend toward survival.
 Man survives in groups.
 Man is a social animal.
 Man lives in an ordered society.
 The order of society is knowable.
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
 Responsible for coining the term “sociology”
 Set out to develop the “science of man” that would be based on
empirical observation
 Focused on two aspects of society:
• Social Statics—forces which produce order and stability
• Social Dynamics—forces which contribute to social change
 The new social science that Comte sought to establish was first
called social physics but he later found the term stolen by
another intellectual so he coined the word sociology, a hybrid
term compounded of Latin and Greek parts (Coser, 1971, p. 3).
 Comte first used the term sociology in print in 1838 (Perdue,
1986, p. 37).
Positivism . . . seeks to describe only what “obviously” is, what
one can really be positive about, that is, sense data. A strict
positivist, seeing a black sheep on a meadow could not say,
“There is a black sheep.” He could only say, “I see a sheep, one
side of which is black.”(Rapoport, 1953, p. 74) In other words,
Comte saw a need for a scientific approach toward studying
structures of and interactions within society. While many
aspects of society are “obvious” to us in a vague manner, the
scientific method uncovers sociological phenomena that are not
always so obvious. August Comte’s philosophy based on his
conclusion that an intellectual discipline progresses only to the
degree that it is grounded in facts and experience, i.e., rests on
information about which one can reasonably make positive
statements. . . (Hoult, 1974, pp. 243-244)
Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)
 Authored one of the earliest analyses of culture and life in the
United States entitled Theory and Practice of Society in
America
 Translated Comte’s Positive Philosophy into English
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
 Authored the first sociology text, Principles of Sociology
 Most well known for proposing a doctrine called “Social
Darwinism”
• Suggested that people who could not compete were poorly
adapted to the environment and inferior
• This is an idea commonly called survival of the fittest
)
Karl Marx (1818-1883
 Marx is the father of conflict theory
 Saw human history in a continual state of conflict
between two major classes:
• Bourgeoisie—owners of the means of production
(capitalists)
• Proletariat—the workers
 Predicted that revolution would occur producing first
a socialist state, followed by a communist society
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
 Durkheim moved sociology fully into the realm of an
empirical science
 Most well known empirical study is called Suicide, where he
looks at the social causes of suicide
 Generally regarded as the founder of functionalist theory
Max Weber (1864-1920)
 Much of Weber’s work was a critique or clarification of Marx
 His most famous work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism directly challenged Marx’s ideas on the role of
religion in society
 Weber was also interested in bureaucracies and the process of
rationalization in society
The Development of Sociology in the United States
 American sociology had its beginnings at the University of
Chicago in the early 20th century
 The early emphasis was on empirical study of communities and
neighborhoods
 Later, East Coast schools such as Columbia and Harvard
Universities began sociology departments, producing scholars
such as W.E.B. Dubois, Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton
Theoretical Perspectives: Functionalism
 Functionalism sees society as a system of highly
interrelated parts that work together harmoniously
 The image that functionalists use to understand
society is a living organism
 Each part of society works together for the benefit of
the whole much like a living organism
Functionalism
…theory stressing the contributions made by social or cultural
phenomena to the system of which they are a part.
(an overriding concern with the conditions of equilibrium, stability and
maximum efficiency.) Society is a set of interrelated parts; cultural
consensus exists and leads to social order; natural state of society-balance and harmony (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 1997, p. 18).
Views society as a vast organism whose parts are interrelated; social
problems are disruptions of this system. Also holds that problems of
social institutions produce patterns of deviance or that institutions
must address such patterns through strategic social change
(Kornblum, Julian, & Smith, 1998, p. 8).
Individuals are socialized by society's institutions; socialization is the
process by which social control is exerted; people need society and
its institutions (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 1997, p. 18).
Theoretical Perspectives: Conflict Theory
 Conflict theory is grounded in the work of Karl Marx
 Society is understood to be made up of conflicting interest
groups who vie for power and privilege
 This dynamic results in continuous social change, which is
the normal state of affairs
 Conflict theory focuses heavily on inequality and
differential distribution of power and wealth
 …a theoretical perspective that emphasizes conflict,
contradiction, inequality, and injustice as permanent aspects
of society and a major source of social change.
Theoretical Perspectives: The Interactionist Perspective
 Focuses on how individuals make sense of and interpret the
world
 This perspective tends to focus on the “micro-order” of small
groups
 Has given rise to several specific approaches:
 Symbolic Interactionism developed by George Herbert Mead
 Ethnomethodology developed by Harold Garfinkel
 Dramaturgy developed by Erving Goffman
 Mind, Self and Society
 Mind, Self and Society . The title of the book serves as the
key concepts of symbolic interaction theory. The mind
refers to an individual's ability to use symbols to create
meanings for the world around him. Individuals use
language and thought to accomplish this goal. Self refers to
an individual's ability to reflect on the way that he/she is
perceived by others. Finally, society, according to Mead is
where all of these interactions are taking place.
 The "I" and the "me"
 While establishing the idea of self, Mead introduces a
distinction between the “I and the me respectively, the
active and socialized aspects of the person. The "me" is a
similar concept to Cooley's looking glass self. The term
refers to people shaping their self-concepts based on their
understanding of how others perceive them.
 Ethnomethodology is a perspective within sociology which
focuses on the way people make sense of their everyday world.
People are seen as rational actors, but employ practical
reasoning rather than formal logic to make sense of and
function in society. Ethno refers to a particular socio-cultural
group [think a particular, localized community of
surfers]; method refers to the methods and practices this
particular group employs in its everyday activities [related to
surfing]; and Sociology refers to the systematic description of
these methods and practices
Dramaturgical, social interaction is analyzed in terms of
how people live their lives like actors performing on a
stage. This analysis offers a look at the concepts of status
and role. A status is like a part in a play, and a role serves
as a script, supplying dialogue and action for the
characters. As on the stage, people in their everyday lives
manage settings, clothing, words, and nonverbal actions to
give a particular impression to others. Goffman described
each individual’s “performance” as the presentation of
self, a person’s efforts to create specific impressions in the
minds of others. This process is sometimes called
"impression management".
Goffman makes an important distinction between "front stage"
and "back stage" behavior. As the term implies, "front stage"
actions are visible to the audience and are part of the
performance. People engage in "back stage" behaviors when no
audience is present. For example, a server in a restaurant is
likely to perform one way in front of customers but might be
much more casual in the kitchen. It is likely that he or she does
things in the kitchen that might seem unseemly in front of
customers.
Stages or regions refer to the three distinct areas where
different individuals with different roles and information can be
found. There are three stages: front, back and outside.
Comparing Theoretical Perspectives
Perspective Scope of
Analysis
StructuralMacro
Functionalism Level
Point of View
1.
2.
3.
Conflict
Theory
Macro
Level
1.
2.
3.
Interactionist
Micro-Level
1.
2.
Focus of
Analysis
Various parts of society
are interdependent
Social systems are
highly stable
Social life governed by
consensus &
cooperation
Society accommodates
between competing
interest groups
Society unstable and
prone to change
Social life conflict-laden
Functional and
dysfunctional
aspects of
society
Actions have
symbolic meanings
Meanings can vary
How people
make sense of
their world
1. How social
inequalities
produce conflict
2. Who benefits
from social
arrangements
Careers in Sociology
 Market research
 Advertising
 Government official
 Criminal justice
 Pre-law
Sociological Theories
 A theory is a statement of how and why facts are
related.
“John moves to NY from Kansas, has gone on five dates, but
none of the women like him. Why?”
Sociological Theories
 Structural-Functional Approach - approach looking at how
large parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.
“John is having a hard time because he is not going on dates with
women who are most similar to him. Dating and marriage
works for society because it allows to people with common
interests to work towards common goals. He is from
Kansas…the girls are from NY. It is not a good fit.”
Sociological Theories
 Social-Conflict Approach – society is a place for conflict,
groups of people are in conflict, and society is constantly
changing.
“John is having a hard time because he is trying to date upper
class women from NY. Upper class women look down on
middle and lower class men.”
Sociological Theories
 Gender-Conflict Approach - looking at conflict and inequality
between men and women
“On dates, John is too patriarchal. As a man, he is insensitive
to women. He is degrading to women, and does not treat them
with the respect they deserve.”
Sociological Theories
 Race-Conflict Approach - looking at the conflict between racial
and ethnic groups
“John reveals on his date that he is ½ Native American and
talks about his heritage and background. The European
American women he dates discriminate against him.”
Sociological Theories
 Symbolic-Interaction Approach – society is the product of
everyday actions of individuals
“During dates, John is just not smooth. He does not possess
the verbal skills to flatter and impress women.”
Ways to Do Sociology
 After you have decided upon a theoretical approach, you must
decide what is your purpose for using this sociological theory.
In other words, what research orientation do you want to take?
There are three general orientations…
Research Orientation
 Positivist Sociology – This is the most common research
orientation. We gain knowledge by gathering data
systematically. With this way of doing sociology, the
researcher is a neutral observer.
“To understand John’s tough luck, a positivist sociologist
would give surveys to John and all his dates, look at census
data for the ratio of men and women…etc.”
Research Orientation
 Interpretive Sociology – this orientation focuses on the
meanings people place in their actions. For this approach, the
researcher is a participant.
“To understand John’s plight, the interpretive sociologist may
go on a double date with John to understand the interactions
between John and his dates. Or, he or she may just enjoy the
dating scene in NYC and find out what people want and think.”
Research Orientation
 Critical Sociology – focuses on the need for social change. In
this way, the sociologist is an activist.
“The sociologist may discuss with John his blunders at
disrespecting women. Or, the sociologist may want to start
some culturally awareness classes so that women will not be
prejudiced towards John.”
Research Methods
 Once you have decided on a theory, and the way you want
to approach the situation, then you have to go about
finally conducting your research. How do you do this?
 Experiment – Used to investigate cause and effect
 Survey – subjects respond to a series of statements or
questions on a questionnaire or interview
 Participant Observation – Sociologists involve
themselves in the day to day activities of people
 Existing Sources – Sometimes sociologists use
information (data) that has been gathered by others
Response Paper Assignment
Think of a situation or phenomena from your life that can
be understood using a sociological perspective. First
describe that situation. Second, describe how a
sociologist might conduct a study of your situation
through one specific theoretical approach and one specific
research orientation. Third, describe a second theoretical
approach and research orientation. Fourth, compare and
contrast the two potential studies. Which would you use?
Which study you think may provide the most
understanding and why?
Source
 Introduction to Sociology: Henry L. Tischler (Prepared by
Charles E. Faupel)
 SOC1013 Introduction to Sociology Compiled by:Ronald
Keith Bolender, Ed.D. (1996)Nova Southeastern University
www.bolenderinitiatives.com
 http://home.dbio.uevora.pt/~eje/weber.html
 http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-sociology-definitionthemes-careers-in-sociology.html
References
Charon, J. M., & Vigilant, L. G. (2009). The meaning of
sociology (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice
Hall.
Coser, L. A. (1971). Masters of sociological thought: Ideas in
historical and social context. New York: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich.
Denisoff, R. S., Callahan, O., & Levine, M. H. (1974). Theories
and paradigms in contemporary sociology. Itasca, IL: F. E.
Peacock Publishers.
Hoult, T. F. (1974). Dictionary of modern sociology. Totowa, NJ:
Littlefield, Adams & Company.
Kornblum, W., Julian, J., & Smith, C. D. (1998). Social problems
(9th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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References
Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd
ed.). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press
Rapoport, A. (1953). Operational philosophy: Integrating
knowledge and action. New York: Harper & Brother
Publishers.
Mooney, L. A., Knox, D., & Schacht, C. (1997). Understanding
social problems. New York: West Publishing.
Perdue, W. D. (1986). Sociological theory: Explanation,
paradigm, and ideology. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield Publishing
Company.