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Chapter The First Global Age: Europe, 16 the Americas, and Africa 1492–1750 Chapter Preview 1 Conquest in the Americas 2 Spanish and Portuguese Colonies in the Americas 3 Struggle for North America 4 Turbulent Centuries in Africa 5 Changes in Europe Chapter Review and Assessment Land Claims in the Americas and Africa, 1675 By 1675, Spain, France, Britain, and Portugal possessed sizable overseas empires. Oceangoing trade ships carried tons of goods between Europe and the Americas and Africa. CHAPTER EVENTS GLOBAL EVENTS SECTION 1 Conquest in the Americas Reading Focus Vocabulary What were the results of the first encounters between the Spanish and Native Americans? How did Spanish conquistadors conquer the Aztec and Incan empires? Why were the Spanish victorious? conquistador immunity alliance civil war Taking Notes this diagram. As you read, add other factors that help to explain why the Spanish were able to conquer Native American empires. Add as many boxes as you need. Print out Various factors enabled the Spanish to conquer the Aztec and Incan empires. Setting the Scene Spanish soldiers who reached the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán in 1519 were amazed by its size and splendor. From the emperor's palace, reported one soldier, “We had a clear view of the … [majestic temples] of the nearby cities, built in the form of towers and fortresses, … and others … all whitewashed, and wonderfully brilliant.” Within a few years, the Spanish had captured and destroyed the Aztec capital. In its place, they built a new capital, Mexico City, that became the heart of the Spanish empire in the Americas. First Encounters In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed in the islands that are now called the West Indies, in the Caribbean. There, he encountered the Taíno people. The Taínos lived in villages and grew corn, yams, and cotton, which they wove into cloth. They were friendly and generous toward the Spanish. Friendly relations soon evaporated, however. Spanish conquistadors (kahn kees tuh dohrz), or conquerors, followed in the wake of Columbus. They settled on the islands of Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic and Haiti), Cuba, and Puerto Rico. They seized the gold ornaments worn by the Taínos, then made them pan for more gold. At the same time, the newcomers forced the Taínos to convert to Christianity. Meanwhile, a deadly but invisible invader was at work—disease. Europeans unknowingly carried diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza to which Native Americans had no immunity, or resistance. These diseases spread rapidly and wiped out village after village. As a result, the Native American population of the Caribbean islands declined by as much as 90 percent in the 1500s. This cycle of disease and death was repeated in many other places across the Western Hemisphere. The Conquistadors From Cuba, Spanish explorers probed the coasts of the Americas. They spread stories of empires rich in gold. Attracted by the promise of riches as well as by religious zeal, a flood of adventurers soon followed. Cortés in Mexico Among the earliest conquistadors was Hernan Cortés. Cortés landed on the coast of Mexico in 1519 with about 600 men, 16 horses, and a few cannons. As he headed inland toward Tenochtitlán, he was helped by Malinche (mah lihn chay), a young Indian woman who served as his translator and adviser. The Spanish called her For images and information about the Aztecs and the Doña Marina. Malinche knew both the Mayan and Aztec languages, and she learned Spanish quickly. Spanish conquest, visit www.phschool.com. From Malinche, Cortés learned that many conquered peoples hated their Aztec overlords. The Aztecs, you will recall, sacrificed thousands of captives to their gods each year. Malinche helped Cortés arrange alliances with these discontented groups. They would help one another fight the Aztecs. Moctezuma's Dilemma Meanwhile, messengers brought word about the newcomers to the Aztec emperor Moctezuma. He wondered if the leader of the pale-skinned, bearded strangers might be Quetzalcoatl, the god-king who had long ago vowed to return from the east. Moctezuma sent gifts of gold and silver, but urged the strangers not to continue to Tenochtitlán. Cortés had no intention of turning back. Fighting and negotiating by turns, he led his forces inland toward the capital. At last, they arrived in Tenochtitlán, where they were dazzled by the grandeur of the city. Fall of Tenochtitlán Moctezuma welcomed Cortés to his capital. However, relations between the Aztecs and Spaniards soon grew strained, and the Aztecs drove the Spanish from the city. Moctezuma was killed in the fighting. Cortés retreated to plan an assault. In 1521, in a brutal struggle, Cortés and his Indian allies captured and demolished Tenochtitlán. An unknown Aztec lamented, “Broken spears lie in the road; / We have torn our hair with grief. / The houses are roofless now, and their walls are red with blood.” On the ruins of Tenochtitlán, the Spanish later built Mexico City. Pizarro in Peru Cortés's success inspired other adventurers. Among them was Francisco Pizarro. He arrived in Peru in 1532, just after the Incan ruler Atahualpa (ah tah wahl pah) won the throne from his brother in a bloody civil war. A civil war is fought between groups of people in the same nation. Helped by Indian allies, Pizarro captured Atahualpa after slaughtering thousands of his followers. The Spanish demanded a huge ransom for the ruler. The Incas paid it, but the Spanish killed Atahualpa anyway. Despite continuing resistance, the invaders overran the Incan heartland. From Peru, Spanish forces surged across Ecuador and Chile. Before long, Spain added much of South America to its growing empire. Reasons for Victory How could a few hundred European soldiers conquer huge Native American empires with populations in the millions? Several reasons explain the amazing Spanish success. 1. Superior military technology was a key factor. The Spaniards' horses frightened some Indians, who had never seen such animals. Spanish muskets and cannons killed Indian soldiers, while metal helmets and armor protected the Spanish from the Indians' arrows and spears. 2. Division and discontent among the Indians aided the Spanish. The Spanish won allies by playing on old hatreds among rival Indian groups. In fact, Indians provided Cortés and Pizarro with much of their fighting power. 3. Disease brought by the Europeans weakened the Aztecs and Incas. As tens of thousands of Indians died, some of the bewildered and demoralized survivors felt that their gods were less powerful than the god of their conquerors. 4. Many Indians believed that the disasters they suffered marked the world's end. To Aztecs, the destruction of Tenochtitlán signaled the end of the reign of the sun god. Native Americans continued to resist the invaders, however. For years, Mayas fought Spanish rule. Long after the death of Atahualpa, revolts erupted among the Incas. Throughout the Americas, Indians resisted Europeans by preserving aspects of their own culture, such as language, religious traditions, and clothing. Ongoing Resistance Looking Ahead The Spanish seized gold and silver statues and ornaments from the Aztecs and Incas. After depleting these sources, they forced Native Americans to mine silver in Peru and Mexico. In the 1500s and early 1600s, treasure fleets sailed each year to Spain or the Spanish Philippines loaded with gold and silver. This flood of wealth created both benefits and problems for the economy of Europe. An Aztec ornament SECTION 2 Spanish and Portuguese Colonies in the Americas Reading Focus Vocabulary How did Spain rule its empire in the Americas? What were the chief features of colonial society and culture? How did Portugal and other European nations challenge Spanish power? viceroy plantation encomienda peon peninsular creole mestizo mulatto privateer Taking Notes this partially completed concept web. As you read, write key facts and ideas about the Spanish empire in the Americas in the appropriate circles. Add as many circles as you need. Print out Native American, African, and European traditions blended to form new cultures in the Americas. Setting the Scene Spain was immensely proud of its rich silver mines in the Potosí region of Peru. By the 1540s, tons of Potosí silver filled Spanish treasure ships. Year after year, thousands of Native Americans were forced to extract the rich ore from dangerous shafts deep inside the Andes Mountains. Many Indians died in the terrible conditions, only to be replaced by thousands more. Scenes such as this were repeated in Mexico, the Caribbean, and other parts of Spain's empire. A flood of Spanish settlers and missionaries followed the conquistadors. Wherever they went, they claimed the land and its people for their king and Church. When there was resistance, the newcomers imposed their will by force. As devout Christians, they thought it was their duty to bring their religion and civilization to the Indians. From the first, though, Christian Europeans had much to learn from the peoples that they conquered. In the end, a new culture emerged that reflected European, Native American, and African traditions. Ruling the Spanish Empire In the 1500s, Spain claimed a vast empire stretching from California to South America. In time, it divided these lands into five provinces. The most important were New Spain (Mexico) and Peru. Spain was determined to maintain strict control over its empire. To achieve this goal, the king set up the Council of the Indies to pass laws for the colonies. He also appointed viceroys, or representatives who ruled in his name, in each province. Lesser officials and audiencias, or advisory councils of Spanish settlers, helped the viceroy rule. The Council of the Indies in Spain closely monitored these colonial officials to make sure they did not assume too much authority. The Catholic Church To Spain, winning souls for Christianity was as important as gaining land. The Catholic Church played a key role in the colonies, working with the government to convert Native Americans to Christianity. Church leaders often served as royal officials and helped to regulate the activities of Spanish settlers. As Spain's American empire expanded, Church authority expanded along with it. Franciscan, Jesuit, and other missionaries baptized thousands of Native Americans. In frontier regions, they built mission churches and worked to turn new converts into loyal subjects of the Catholic king of Spain. They forcibly imposed European culture over Native American culture. They also introduced European clothing, the Spanish language, and new crafts such as carpentry and locksmithing. To make the empire profitable, Spain closely controlled its economic activities, especially trade. Colonists could export raw materials only to Spain and could buy only Spanish manufactured goods. Laws forbade colonists from trading with other European nations or even with other Spanish colonies. The most valuable resources shipped from Spanish America to Spain were silver and gold. The Economy Sugar cane was introduced into the West Indies and elsewhere and quickly became a profitable resource. The cane was refined into sugar, molasses, and rum. Sugar cane, however, had to be grown on plantations, large estates run by an owner or the owner's overseer. Finding the large numbers of workers needed to make the plantations profitable was a major problem. At first, Spanish monarchs granted the conquistadors encomiendas, the right to demand labor or tribute from Native Americans in a particular area. The conquistadors used this system to force Native Americans to work under the most brutal conditions. Those who resisted were hunted down and killed. Disease, starvation, and cruel treatment caused catastrophic declines in the population. A few bold priests, like Bartolomé de las Casas, condemned the evils of the encomienda system. In vivid reports to Spain, Las Casas detailed the horrors that Spanish rule had brought to Native Americans and pleaded with the king to end the abuse. Bartolomé de las Casas Prodded by Las Casas, Spain passed the New Laws of the Indies in 1542, forbidding enslavement of Native Americans. The laws were meant to end abuses against Native Americans, but Spain was too far away to enforce them. Many Native Americans were forced to become peons, workers forced to labor for a landlord in order to pay off a debt. Landlords advanced them food, tools, or seeds, creating debts that workers could never pay off in their lifetime. A Brutal System Bartolomé de las Casas, a conquistador turned priest, spoke out against the encomienda system and the treatment of Native Americans: “It is impossible to recount the burdens with which their owners loaded them, more Bringing Workers From Africa To fill the labor shortage, Las Casas urged than [75 to 100 pounds], colonists to import workers from Africa. Africans were immune to tropical making them walk [hundreds diseases, he said, and had skills in farming, mining, and metalworking. Las of miles]…. They had wounds on their shoulders Casas later regretted that advice because it furthered the brutal African and backs, like animals…. To slave trade. Colonists had begun bringing Africans to the Americas as tell likewise of the whipearly as 1502. lashings, the beatings, the cuffs, the blows, the curses, As demand for sugar products skyrocketed, the settlers imported millions and a thousand other kinds of Africans as slaves. They were forced to work as field hands, miners, or of torments to which their masters treated them, while in truth they were working hard, would take much time servants in the houses of wealthy landowners. Others became peddlers, skilled artisans, artists, and mechanics. and much paper; and would be something to amaze mankind.” In time, Africans and their American-born descendants greatly —Bartolomé de las outnumbered European settlers in the West Indies and parts of South Casas, Short Description of America. Often, they resisted slavery by rebelling or running away. In the the Destruction of the Indies cities, some enslaved Africans earned enough money to buy their freedom. Primary Source How were the conditions Las Casas describes linked to the encomienda system? Colonial Society and Culture In Spanish America, the mix of diverse peoples gave rise to a new social structure. The blending of Native American, African, and European peoples and traditions resulted in a new American culture. At the top of colonial society were peninsulares, people born in Spain. (The term peninsular referred to the Iberian Peninsula, on which Spain is located.) Peninsulares filled the highest positions in both colonial governments and the Catholic Church. Next came creoles, American-born descendants of Spanish settlers. Creoles owned most of the plantations, ranches, and mines. Social Structure Other social groups reflected the mixing of populations. They included mestizos, people of Native American and European descent, and mulattoes, people of African and European descent. Native Americans and people of African descent formed the lowest social classes. Cities Spanish settlers preferred to live in towns and cities. The population of Mexico City grew so quickly that by 1550 it was the largest Spanishspeaking city in the world. Colonial cities were centers of government, commerce, and European culture. Around the central plaza, or square, stood government buildings and a Spanish-style church. Broad avenues and public monuments symbolized European power and wealth. Cities were also centers of intellectual and cultural life. Architecture and painting, as well as poetry and the exchange of ideas, flourished. To meet the Church's need for educated priests, the colonies built universities. The University of Mexico was established as early as 1551. A dozen Spanish American universities were busy educating young men long before Harvard, the first university in the 13 English colonies, was founded in 1636. Education Women wishing an education might enter a convent. One such woman was Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz. Refused admission to the University of Mexico because she was a girl, Juana entered a convent at the age of 16. There, she devoted herself to study and the writing of poetry. She earned a reputation as one of the greatest poets ever to write in the Spanish language. Cultural Blending Although Spanish culture was dominant in the cities, the blending of diverse traditions changed people's lives throughout the Americas. Settlers learned Native American styles of building, ate foods native to the Americas, and traveled in Indian-style canoes. Indian artistic styles influenced the newcomers. At the same time, settlers taught their religion to Native Americans. They also introduced animals, especially the horse, that transformed the lives of many Native Americans. Africans added to this cultural mix with their farming methods, cooking styles, and crops, including okra and palm oil. African drama, dance, and song heightened Christian services. In Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere, Africans forged new religions that blended African and Christian beliefs. The Portuguese Colony in Brazil A large area of South America remained outside the Spanish empire. By the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, Portugal claimed Brazil. Portugal issued grants of land to Portuguese nobles, who agreed to develop the land and share profits with the crown. Landowners sent settlers to build towns, plantations, and churches. Unlike Spain's American lands, Brazil offered no instant wealth from silver or gold. Early settlers clung to the coast, where they cut and exported brazilwood, used to produce a precious dye. Before long, they turned to plantation agriculture and cattle raising. They forced Indians and Africans to clear land for sugar plantations. As many as five million Africans were sent to Brazil. The Economy The thickly forested Amazon basin remained largely unexplored by settlers. However, ruthless adventurers slowly pushed inland. They attacked and enslaved Native American peoples and claimed for themselves land for immense cattle ranches. Some even discovered gold. As in Spanish America, a new culture emerged in Brazil that blended European, Native American, and African patterns. European culture dominated the upper and middle classes, but Native American and African influences left their mark. Portuguese settlers, for example, eagerly adopted Indian hammocks. A settler expressed his enthusiasm: A New Culture “Would you believe that a man could sleep suspended in a net in the air like a bunch of hanging grapes? Here this is the common thing…. I tried it, and will never again be able to sleep in a bed, so comfortable is the rest one gets in the net.” —quoted in Latin America: A Concise Interpretive History (Burns) Challenging Spanish Power In the 1500s, the wealth of the Americas helped make Spain the most powerful country in Europe. Its lofty position fueled envy among its European rivals. Many English and Dutch shared the resentment that French king Francis I felt when he declared, “I should like to see Adam's will, wherein he divided the Earth between Spain and Portugal.” European nations challenged Spain's power in various ways. To get around Spain's strict control over colonial trade, smugglers traded illegally with Spanish colonists. In the Caribbean and elsewhere, Dutch, English, and French pirates preyed on Spanish treasure ships. Some pirates, called privateers, even operated with the approval of European governments. England's Queen Elizabeth, for example, knighted Francis Drake for his daring raids on Spanish ships and towns. Like the Spanish, the Dutch, English, and French hunted for gold empires and for a northwest passage to Asia. As you will read, these nations explored the coasts and planted settlements in North America. Piracy on the Seas Of all the privateers who plundered Spanish colonies, none was bolder than the Englishman whom the Spanish called El Draque (the Dragon). But Sir Francis Drake was more than just a pirate. He was also a skilled and daring explorer. Drake led the second expedition ever to sail around the world. After a violent storm, he rounded the tip of South America in 1578 with only his flagship, the Golden Hind. But that one ship was enough. Spain's settlements along the Pacific coast were unguarded. After all, no hostile ship had ever made it into these waters before! Drake plundered one Spanish town and captured two treasure ships before continuing on his mission. Thanks to these raids and others, El Draque enriched his queen—and won the lasting hatred of the Spanish. Theme: Geography and History Why was Drake able to surprise the Spanish? SECTION 3 Struggle for North America Reading Focus Vocabulary What problems did settlers in New France face? What traditions of government evolved in the 13 English colonies? How did competition for power affect Europeans and Native Americans? missionary revenue compact Taking Notes this partially completed table. As you read, fill in key information on the French and English colonies in North America. Print out France and England set up colonies and competed for dominance in North America. Setting the Scene In the 1600s, other European powers moved into the Americas and began building settlements. France, the Netherlands, England, and Sweden joined Spain in claiming parts of North America. At first, the Europeans were disappointed. North America did not yield vast treasure or offer a water passage to Asia, as they had hoped. Before long, though, the English and French were turning large profits by growing tobacco in Virginia, fishing off the North Atlantic coast, and trading fur from New England to Canada. By 1700, France and England controlled large parts of North America. As their colonies grew, they developed their own governments, different from each other and from that of Spanish America. Building New France By the early 1500s, French fishing ships were crossing the Atlantic each year to harvest rich catches of cod off Newfoundland, Canada. Distracted by wars at home, however, French rulers at first paid little attention to Canada—New France, as they called it. Not until 1608 did Samuel de Champlain build the first permanent French settlement in Quebec. Jesuits and other missionaries, hoping to spread Christianity to Native Americans, soon followed. They advanced into the wilderness, trying to convert Native Americans they met. Slow Growth Helped by Native American allies, French explorers and fur traders traveled inland, claiming vast territory. Soon, France's American empire reached from Quebec to the Great Lakes and down the Mississippi to Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico. The population of New France grew slowly. Wealthy landlords owned huge tracts, or areas of land, along the St. Lawrence River. They sought Samuel de Champlain 1567(?)–1635 Samuel de Champlain was an explorer, geographer, and mapmaker. As founder and first governor of the French colony of Quebec, he is known as the Father of New France, the French colonial empire in North America. Champlain explored many of the waterways of New settlers to farm the land, but the harsh Canadian climate attracted few French peasants. Many who went to New France soon abandoned farming in favor of fur trapping and trading. They faced a hard life in the wilderness, but the soaring European demand for fur ensured good prices. Fishing, too, supported settlers who lived in coastal villages and exported cod and other fish to Europe. In the late 1600s, the French king Louis XIV set out to strengthen royal power and boost revenues, or income from taxes, from his overseas empire. He appointed officials to oversee justice and economic activities in New France. He also sent more settlers and soldiers to North America. The Catholic Louis, however, prohibited Protestants from settling in New France. Government Policy By the early 1700s, French forts, missions, and trading posts stretched from Quebec to Louisiana. Yet the population of New France remained small compared to that of the 13 English colonies expanding along the Atlantic coast. The 13 English Colonies The English built their first permanent colony at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. Its early years were filled with disaster. Many settlers died of starvation and disease. The rest survived with the help of friendly Native Americans. The colony finally made headway when the settlers started to grow and export tobacco, a crop they learned about from the Indians. In 1620, other English settlers, the Pilgrims,* landed at Plymouth, Massachusetts. They were seeking religious freedom, rather than commercial profit. Before coming ashore, they signed the Mayflower Compact, in which they set out guidelines for governing their North American colony. A compact is an agreement among people. Today, we see this document as an important early step toward self-government. It read: “We, whose names are underwritten … having undertaken for the Glory of God, and Advancement of the Christian Faith … a voyage to plant [a] colony in the [Americas] … do enact, constitute, and frame, such just and equal Laws … as shall be thought most [fitting] and convenient for the general Good of the Colony.” —Mayflower Compact Many Pilgrims died in the early years of the Plymouth colony. Local Indians, however, taught them to grow corn and helped them survive in the new land. Soon, a new wave of Puritan immigrants arrived to establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In the 1600s and 1700s, the English established 13 colonies. Some, like Virginia and New York, were commercial ventures, organized for profit. Others, like Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, were set up as havens for persecuted religious groups. Growth Geographic conditions helped shape different ways of life in the New England, middle, and southern colonies. In New England, many settlers were farmers who transferred to North America the village life they had France. He especially loved the St. Lawrence River, which he said was “beautiful as the Seine, rapid as the Rhône, and deep as the sea.” He helped to make it the main highway for trade through New France and to make himself the force behind the colony's settlement. Theme: Impact of the IndividualWhy is Champlain considered the Father of New France? enjoyed in England. In parts of the South, there emerged a plantation economy based on tobacco, rice, and other crops. Like New Spain, the English colonies needed workers to clear land and raise crops. A growing number of Africans were brought to the colonies and sold as slaves. In several mainland colonies, enslaved Africans and their descendants outnumbered people of European descent. Government Like the rulers of Spain and France, English monarchs asserted control over their American colonies. They appointed royal governors to oversee colonial affairs and had Parliament pass laws to regulate colonial trade. Yet, compared with settlers in the Spanish and French colonies, English colonists enjoyed a large degree of selfgovernment. Each colony had its own representative assembly elected by propertied men. The assemblies advised the royal governor and made decisions on local issues. The tradition of consulting representative assemblies grew out of the English experience. Beginning in the 1200s, Parliament had played an increasingly important role in English affairs. Slowly, too, English citizens had gained certain legal and political rights. England's American colonists expected to enjoy the same rights. When colonists later protested British policies in North America, they viewed themselves as “freeborn Englishmen” who were defending their traditional rights. *Pilgrims were a band of English Puritans, a Protestant group, who rejected the practices of the official Church of England. Competing for Power By the 1600s, Spain, France, England, and the Netherlands were competing for colonies and trade around the world. All four of these nations had colonies in North America, where they often fought over territory. After several naval wars with the Netherlands, the English seized the Dutch colony of New Netherland in 1664 and renamed it New York. English settlers in Georgia clashed with the Spanish in nearby Florida. Competition was also fierce in the Caribbean region. Dutch planters developed sugar production in the Caribbean into a big business. The French acquired Haiti, the richest of the sugar colonies, as well as Guadeloupe and Martinique. The English took Barbados and Jamaica. By the 1700s, the French and English Caribbean islands, worked by enslaved Africans, had surpassed the whole of North America in exports to Europe. During the 1700s, Britain and France emerged as bitter rivals for power around the globe. They clashed in Europe, North America, Africa, and Asia. In North America, the French and Indian War raged from 1754 to 1763. A worldwide struggle, known as the Seven Years' War, erupted in Europe in 1756 and spread to India and Africa. British-French Rivalry Although France held more territory in North America, the British colonies had more people. Trappers, traders, and farmers from the English colonies were pushing west into the Ohio Valley, a region claimed by France. The French, who had forged alliances with local Indians, fought to oust the intruders. During the war, British soldiers and colonial troops launched a series of campaigns against the French in Canada and on the Ohio frontier. At first, France won several victories. Then, in 1759, the tide turned in Britain's favor. From ships anchored in the St. Lawrence River, British troops launched an attack on Quebec, the capital of New France. The British scaled steep cliffs along the river and captured the city. Though the war dragged on until 1763, the British had won control of Canada. The 1763 Treaty of Paris officially ended the worldwide war. The treaty ensured British dominance in North America. France ceded Canada and its lands east of the Mississippi River to Britain. As you have read, the British also forced the French out of India. France, however, regained the rich sugar-producing islands in the Caribbean and the slavetrading outposts in Africa that the British had seized during the war. The Peace Treaty Impact on Native Americans As in Spanish America, the arrival of European settlers in North America had a profound impact on Native Americans. Some Native Americans traded or formed alliances with the newcomers. On the Great Plains, as we will see, the arrival of the horse transformed the lifestyle of buffalo-hunting Indians. War and Disease Frequently, however, clashes erupted. As settlers claimed more land, Native Americans resisted their advance. Bitter fighting resulted. In the end, superior weapons helped the English to victory. Year by year, the flood of new settlers pushed the frontier—and the Indians— slowly westward. As elsewhere, the Native American population of North America plummeted. Disease weakened or killed large numbers. For example, in 1608, an estimated 30,000 Algonquins lived in Virginia. By 1670, there were only about 2,000 Algonquins remaining. Native American Legacy While encounters with Europeans often brought disaster to Native American societies, the Indian way of life helped shape the emerging new culture of North America. Settlers adopted Native American technologies. From Indians, they learned to grow corn, beans, squash, and tomatoes and to hunt and trap forest animals. Today's Thanksgiving menu of turkey and pumpkin pie reflects Indian foods. Trails blazed by Indians became highways for settlers moving west. Across the continent, rivers like the Mississippi, lakes like Okeechobee, and mountains like the Appalachians bear Indian names. Some Europeans came to respect Native American medical knowledge. Today, many people are taking a new look at Indian religious traditions that stress respect for the natural environment. SECTION 4 Turbulent Centuries in Africa Reading Focus Vocabulary How did the arrival of Europeans in Africa lead to the Atlantic slave trade? How did the slave trade contribute to the rise of new African states? What groups battled for power in southern Africa? triangular trade repeal monopoly Taking Notes this partially completed flowchart. As you read, fill in key events in the development of the Atlantic slave trade. Add as many boxes to the chart as you need. Print out The Atlantic slave trade, the rise of new states, and power struggles created turbulence in Africa. Setting the Scene “The first object which saluted my eyes when I arrived on the coast was the sea, and a slave ship which was then riding at anchor and waiting for its cargo. These filled me with astonishment, which was soon converted into terror when I was carried on board.” So wrote Olaudah Equiano. In the 1750s, when he was 11 years old, Equiano was seized from his Nigerian village by slave traders. He was then transported as human cargo from West Africa to the Americas. Enslaved Africans like Equiano formed part of an international trade network that arose during the first global age. Encounters between Europeans and Africans had been taking place since the 1400s. By then, Africa was home to diverse societies, and Islam had become an important force in some parts of the continent. As Europeans arrived, they would bring their own influences to Africa. European Outposts in Africa In the 1400s, Portuguese ships explored the coast of West Africa, looking for a sea route to India. They built small forts along the West African coast to trade for gold, collect food and water, and repair their ships. The Portuguese lacked the power to push into the African interior. They did, however, attack the coastal cities of East Africa, such as Mombasa and Malindi, which were hubs of international trade. With cannons blazing, they expelled the Arabs who controlled the East African trade network and took over this thriving commerce for themselves. The Portuguese, however, gained little profit from their victories. Trade between the interior and the coast soon dwindled. By 1600, the onceprosperous East African coastal cities had sunk into poverty. Other Europeans soon followed the Portuguese into Africa. The Dutch, the English, and the French established forts along the western coast of Africa. Like the Portuguese, they exchanged muskets, tools, and cloth for gold, ivory, hides, and slaves. The Atlantic Slave Trade In the 1500s, Europeans began to view slaves as the most important item of African trade. Slavery had existed in Africa, as elsewhere around the world, since ancient times. Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Persians, Indians, and Aztecs often enslaved defeated foes. Our word slave comes from the large number of Slavs taken from southern Russia to work as unpaid laborers in Roman times. The Arab empire also used slave labor, often captives taken from Africa. In the Middle East, many enslaved Africans worked on farming estates or large-scale irrigation projects. Others became artisans, soldiers, or merchants. Some rose to prominence in the Muslim world even though they were officially slaves. The Atlantic slave trade began in the 1500s, to fill the need for labor in Spain's American empire. In the next 300 years, it grew into a huge and profitable business. Each year, traders shipped tens of thousands of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic to work on tobacco and sugar plantations in the Americas. European and African Slave Traders Europeans seldom went into the interior to take part in slave raids. Instead, they relied on African rulers and traders to seize captives in the interior and bring them to coastal trading posts and fortresses. There, the captives were exchanged for textiles, metalwork, rum, tobacco, weapons, and gunpowder. The slave trade intensified as the demand for slaves increased in the Americas and as the demand for luxury goods increased in Africa. Merchants from many lands engaged in the slave trade. Arabs brought human cargoes out of East Africa. Portuguese traders carried slaves to the Americas from West Africa. A Portuguese soldier is depicted in the delicate ivory carving. The Atlantic slave trade formed one part of a three-legged trade network known as the triangular trade. On the first leg, merchant ships brought goods to Africa to be traded for slaves. On the second leg, known as the Middle Passage, the slaves were transported to the West Indies. There, the enslaved Africans were exchanged for sugar, molasses, and other products. On the final leg, these products were shipped to Europe or European colonies in the Americas. The prosperity of port cities such as Nantes in France, Bristol in England, and Salem in Massachusetts thus depended in large part on the slave trade. Triangular Trade For enslaved Africans, the Middle Passage was a horror. Once purchased, Africans were packed below the decks of slave ships. Hundreds of men, women, and children were crammed into a single vessel. Slave ships became “floating coffins” on which up to half the Africans on board died from disease or brutal mistreatment. Horrors of the Middle Passage Some enslaved Africans resisted. A few tried to seize control of the ship and return to Africa. Others committed suicide by leaping overboard. One African recalled such an incident during the Middle Passage: “One day … two of my wearied countrymen who were chained together … jumped into the sea; immediately another … followed their example…. two of the wretches were drowned, but [the ship's crew] got the other, and afterwards flogged him unmercifully for thus attempting to prefer death to slavery.” King Affonso 1456–1543 “Most powerful and excellent King of the Kongo, We convey you greetings in that We much love and esteem you.” So wrote the king of Portugal to King Affonso in 1512. Affonso (born Nzinga —Olaudah Equiano, The Life of Gustavus Vassa Mbemba) had a long and warm relationship with the Portuguese. However, some African Leaders Resist Some African leaders tried to slow down the years later, in 1526, Affonso transatlantic slave trade or even to stop it altogether. They used different wrote in dismay to the king of forms of resistance. But in the end, the system that supported the trade was Portugal: ”Merchants are simply too strong for them. taking every day our natives, sons of the land and sons of An early voice raised against the slave trade was that of Affonso I, ruler of Kongo in west-central Africa. As a young man, Affonso was tutored by Portuguese missionaries. After becoming king in 1505, he called on the Portuguese to help him develop Kongo as a modern Christian state. Before long, however, Affonso grew alarmed. Each year, more and more Portuguese came to Kongo to buy slaves. They offered high prices, and government officials and local chiefs eagerly entered the trade. Even Christian missionaries began to buy and sell Africans. Affonso insisted that “it is our will that in these Kingdoms there should not be any trade of slaves nor outlet for them.” Kongo, he stated, could benefit from contacts with Europe, but the trade in human lives was evil. His appeal failed, and the slave trade continued. In the late 1700s, another African ruler, the almamy of Futa Toro in northern Senegal, tried to halt the slave trade in his lands. Since the 1500s, French sea captains had bought slaves from African traders in Futa Toro. The almamy decided to put a stop to this practice. In 1788, he forbade anyone to transport slaves through Futa Toro for sale abroad. The sea captains and local chiefs protested, and called on the almamy to repeal, or cancel, the law. The almamy refused. He returned the presents the captains had sent him in hopes of winning him over to their cause. “All the riches in the world would not make me change my mind,” he said. The almamy's victory was short-lived, however. The inland slave traders simply worked out a new route to the coast. Sailing to this new market, the French captains easily purchased the slaves that the almamy had prevented them from buying in Senegal. There was nothing the almamy could do to stop them. Historians are still debating the number of Africans who were affected by the Atlantic slave trade. In the 1500s, they estimate, about 2,000 enslaved Africans were sent to the Americas each year. In the 1780s, when the slave trade was at its peak, that number topped 80,000 a year. By the 1800s, when the overseas slave trade was finally stopped, an estimated 11 million enslaved Africans had reached the Americas. Another 2 million probably died under the brutal conditions of the voyage between Africa and the Americas. Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade The slave trade caused the decline of some African states and the rise of others. In West Africa, the loss of countless numbers of young women and men resulted in some small states disappearing forever. At the same time, there arose new African states whose way of life depended on the slave trade. The rulers of these powerful new states waged war against other Africans so they could gain control of the slave trade in their region and reap the profits. Rise of New African States Among the large states that rose in West Africa in the 1600s and 1700s were Oyo, Bornu, and Dahomey. Another state, the Asante kingdom, emerged in the area occupied by modern Ghana. The Asante Kingdom In the late 1600s, an able military leader, Osei Tutu, won control of the trading city of Kumasi. From there, he conquered neighboring peoples and organized the Asante kingdom. Osei Tutu claimed that his right to rule came from heaven. Leading chiefs served as a council of advisers but were subject to the royal will. Officials chosen by merit rather than by birth supervised an efficient bureaucracy. They managed the royal monopolies over gold mining and the our nobles and vassals and our relatives, because the thieves and men of bad conscience … grab them and get them to be sold…. Our country is being completely depopulated.” In the end, Affonso's ties to Portugal were not strong enough. He sought help to build modern ships, but no Portuguese shipbuilders ever arrived. And his attempts to end the slave trade had no effect. Theme: Impact of the IndividualWhy do you think Affonso is admired today, even though his efforts failed? slave trade. A monopoly is the exclusive control of a business or industry. The Asante traded with Europeans on the coast, exchanging gold and slaves for firearms. But they shrewdly played off rival Europeans against one another to protect their own interests. In the 1700s and early 1800s, an Islamic revival spread across West Africa. It began among the Fulani people in northern Nigeria. The scholar and preacher Usman dan Fodio denounced the corruption of the local Hausa rulers. He called for social and religious reforms based on the Sharia, or Islamic law. In the early 1800s, Usman inspired Fulani herders and Hausa townspeople to rise up against their rulers. Islamic Crusades Usman and his successors set up a powerful Islamic state. Under their rule, literacy increased, local wars quieted, and trade improved. Their success inspired other Muslim reform movements in West Africa. Between about 1780 and 1880, more than a dozen Islamic leaders rose to power, replacing old rulers or founding new states in the western Sudan. Battles for Power in Southern Africa Over many centuries, Bantu-speaking peoples had migrated into southern Africa. In 1652, Dutch immigrants also arrived in the region. They built Cape Town to supply ships sailing to or from the East Indies. Dutch farmers, called Boers, settled around Cape Town. Over time, they ousted or enslaved the Khoisan herders who lived there. The Boers held to a Calvinist belief that they were the elect, or chosen, of God. They looked on Africans as inferiors. In the 1700s, Boer herders and ivory hunters began to push north from the Cape Colony. As they did, they had to battle several powerful African groups. Shaka and the Zulus The Zulus had migrated into southern Africa in the 1500s. In the early 1800s, they emerged as a major force under a ruthless and brilliant leader, Shaka. He built on the successes of earlier leaders who had begun to organize young fighters into permanent regiments. Between 1818 and 1828, Shaka waged relentless war and conquered many nearby peoples. He absorbed their young men and women into Zulu regiments. By encouraging rival groups to forget their differences, he cemented a growing pride in the Zulu kingdom. Shaka's wars disrupted life across southern Africa. Groups driven from their homelands by the Zulus adopted Shaka's tactics. They then migrated north, conquering still other peoples and creating their own powerful states. Later Shaka's half brother took over the Zulu kingdom. About this time, the Zulus faced a new threat, the arrival of well-armed, mounted Boers migrating north from the Cape Colony. In 1815, the Cape Colony passed from the Dutch to the British. Many Boers resented British laws that abolished slavery and otherwise interfered in their way of life. To escape British rule, they loaded their goods into covered wagons and started north. In the late 1830s, several thousand Boer families joined this “Great Trek.” Boers Versus Zulus As the migrating Boers came into contact with Zulus, fighting quickly broke out. At first, Zulu regiments held their own. But in the end, Zulu spears could not defeat Boer guns. The struggle for control of the land would rage until the end of the century. SECTION 5 Changes in Europe Reading Focus Vocabulary How did European explorations lead to a global exchange? What impact did the commercial revolution and mercantilism have on European economies? How did these changes affect ordinary people? inflation capitalism entrepreneur joint stock company mercantilism tariff Taking Notes this diagram. As you read, fill in ways in which exploration and increased trade affected life in Europe. To help you get started, part of the diagram has been filled in. Print out European exploration and increased trade stimulated a global exchange, a commercial revolution, and other changes in Europe. Setting the Scene In 1570, Joseph de Acosta visited the Americas. He wrote in amazement about the many strange forms of life that he saw there. “[There are] a thousand different kinds of birds and beasts of the forest, which have never been known, neither in shape nor name….” To Europeans like Acosta, the Americas seemed like a “new world.” European explorations between 1500 and 1700 brought major changes to Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Here, we will look at the impact that these explorations had on Europe itself. A Global Exchange When Columbus returned to Spain in March 1493, he brought with him “new” plants and animals that he had found in the Americas. Later that year, Columbus returned to the Americas. With him were some 1,200 settlers and a collection of European animals and plants. In this way, Columbus began a vast global exchange that would have a profound effect on the world. In addition to people, plants, and animals, it included technology and even disease. Because this global exchange began with Columbus, we call it the Columbian Exchange. New Foods From the Americas, Europeans brought home a variety of foods, including tomatoes, pumpkins, and peppers. Perhaps the most important foods from the Americas, however, were corn and the potato. Easy to grow, the potato helped feed Europe's rapidly growing population. Corn spread all across Europe and to Africa and Asia, as well. Europe's Sweet Tooth At the same time, Europeans carried a wide variety of plants and animals to the Americas. Foods included wheat and grapes from Europe itself, and bananas and sugar cane from Africa and Asia. Cattle, pigs, goats, and chickens, unknown before the European encounter, added protein to the Today, we take sugar for granted. But at one time, it was strictly a luxury item that few European households Native American diet. Horses and donkeys also changed the lives of Native could afford. Then, in 1493, Columbus brought sugar Americans. The horse, for example, gave the nomadic peoples of western cane plants to the Caribbean. North America a new, more effective way to hunt buffalo. Impact on Population The transfer of food crops from continent to continent took time. By the 1700s, however, corn, potatoes, manioc, beans, and tomatoes were contributing to population growth around the world. While other factors help account for the population explosion that began at this time, new food crops from the Americas were probably a key cause. The Columbian Exchange sparked the migration of millions of people. Each year, shiploads of European settlers sailed to the Americas. Europeans also settled on the fringes of Africa and Asia. The Atlantic slave trade forcibly brought millions of Africans to the Americas. The Native American population declined drastically. The new crop thrived. As sugar supplies increased, sugar prices fell, and the former luxury item appeared on more and more European tables. It was also used to sweeten a popular new treat from the Americas— chocolate. Still, Europe's new “sweet tooth” had a tragic side effect. In just 150 years, close to 4 million Africans were shipped as slaves to The vast movement of peoples led to the transfer of ideas and technologies. the Caribbean and Brazil to work the sugar plantations Language also traveled. Words such as pajama (from India) or hammock there. and canoe (from the Americas) entered European languages. Theme: Global InteractionWho was originally responsible for bringing sugar cane to the Americas? A Commercial Revolution The opening of direct links with Asia, Africa, and the Americas had farreaching economic consequences for Europeans. Among these consequences were an upsurge in prices, known as the price revolution, and the rise of modern capitalism. The Price Revolution In the early modern age, prices began to rise in parts of Europe. The economic cycle that involves a rise in prices linked to a sharp increase in the amount of money available is today called inflation. European inflation had several causes. As the population grew, the demand for goods and services rose. Because goods were scarce, sellers could raise their prices. Inflation was also fueled by an increased flow of silver and gold. By the mid-1500s, tons of these precious metals were flowing into Europe from the Americas. Rulers used much of the silver and gold to make coins. The increased money in circulation, combined with the scarcity of goods, caused prices to rise. Expanded trade and the push for overseas empires spurred the growth of European capitalism, the investment of money to make a profit. Entrepreneurs, or enterprising merchants, organized, managed, and assumed the risks of doing business. They hired workers and paid for raw materials, transport, and other costs of production. Growth of Capitalism As trade increased, entrepreneurs sought to expand into overseas ventures. Such ventures were risky. Capitalist investors were more willing to take the risks when demand and prices were high. Thus, the price revolution of the early modern age gave a boost to capitalism. Entrepreneurs and capitalists made up a new business class devoted to the goal of making profits. Together, they helped change the local European economy into an international trading system. New Business Methods Early capitalists discovered new ways to create wealth. From the Arabs, they adapted methods of bookkeeping to show profits and losses from their ventures. During the late Middle Ages, as you have read, banks sprang up, allowing wealthy merchants to lend money at interest. The joint stock company, also developed in late medieval times, grew in importance. It allowed people to pool large amounts of capital needed for overseas ventures. The growing demand for goods led merchants to find ways to increase production. Traditionally, guilds controlled the manufacture of goods. But guild masters often ran small-scale businesses without the capital to produce for large markets. They also had strict rules regulating quality, prices, and working conditions. Bypassing the Guilds Enterprising capitalists devised a way to bypass the guilds. The “puttingout” system, as it was called, was first used to produce textiles but later spread to other industries. Under the “putting-out” system, a merchant capitalist distributed raw wool to peasant cottages. Cottagers spun the wool into thread and then wove the thread into cloth. Merchants bought the wool cloth from the peasants and sent it to the city for finishing and dyeing. Finally, the merchants sold the finished product for a profit. The “putting-out” system separated capital and labor for the first time. From this system controlled by merchants, the next step would be the capitalist-owned factories of the Industrial Revolution of the 1700s, as you will read. Mercantilism European monarchs enjoyed the benefits of the commercial revolution. In the fierce competition for trade and empire, they adopted a new economic policy, known as mercantilism, aimed at strengthening their national economies. The Banana Wars Mercantilists supported several basic ideas. They believed that a nation's real wealth was measured in its gold and silver treasure. To build its supply Governments have been using tariffs to protect their of gold and silver, they said, a nation must export more goods than it own industries for years. This imported. Overseas empires were central to the mercantile system. Colonies, said mercantilists, existed for the benefit of the parent country. They provided resources and raw materials not available in Europe. In turn, they enriched a parent country by serving as a market for its manufactured goods. The Role of Colonies To achieve these goals, European powers passed strict laws regulating trade with their colonies. Colonists could not set up their own industries to manufacture goods. They were also forbidden to buy goods from a foreign country. In addition, only ships from the parent country or the colonies themselves could be used to send goods in or out of the colonies. Increasing National Wealth Mercantilists urged rulers to adopt policies to increase national wealth and government revenues. To boost production, governments exploited mineral and timber resources, built roads, and backed new industries. They imposed a single national currency and established standard weights and measures. Governments also sold monopolies to large producers in certain industries as well as to big overseas trading companies. Finally, governments imposed tariffs, or taxes on imported goods. Tariffs were designed to protect local industries from foreign competition by increasing the price of imported goods. practice continues today, as the “Banana Wars” between the United States and Europe demonstrate. American multinational companies produce bananas in countries like Honduras and Ecuador. Former European colonies in the Caribbean also produce bananas. European governments decided to let Caribbean bananas come into their countries more cheaply than the bananas produced by American firms, thus taking market share from the American firms. To retaliate, the United States government placed a 100 percent tariff on certain goods from Europe, making them much more expensive. Some 500 years after they began, tariff wars go on. Theme: Continuity and ChangeWhy do tariff wars develop? The Lives of Ordinary People How did these economic changes affect Europeans? In general, their impact depended on a person's social class. Merchants who invested in overseas ventures acquired wealth. But the price revolution hurt nobles. Their wealth was in land, and they had trouble raising money to pay higher costs for stylish clothing and other luxuries. Some sold off land, which in turn reduced their income. In towns and cities, the wages of hired workers did not keep up with inflation, creating poverty and discontent. Most Europeans were still peasants. Europe's growing involvement in the world had little immediate effect on their lives. Changes took generations, even centuries, to be felt. For example, tradition-bound peasants were often reluctant to grow foods brought from the Americas. Only in the later 1700s did German peasants begin to raise potatoes. Even then, many complained that these strange-looking tubers tasted terrible. Within Europe's growing cities, there were great differences in wealth and power. Successful merchants dominated city life. Guilds, too, remained powerful. And as trade grew, another group—lawyers—gained importance for their skills in writing contracts. Middle-class families enjoyed a comfortable life. Servants cooked, cleaned, and waited on them. Other city residents, such as journeymen and other laborers, were not so lucky. They often lived in crowded quarters on the edge of poverty. Regardless of social class, European families were patriarchal. As husband and father, a man was responsible for the behavior of his wife and children. Women had almost no property or legal rights. A woman's chief roles were as wife and mother. Society stressed such womanly virtues as modesty, household economy, obedience, and caring for the family. Middle-class women might help their husbands in a family business. Peasant women worked alongside their husbands in the fields. Looking Ahead In the 1500s and 1600s, Europe emerged as a powerful new force on the world scene. The voyages of exploration marked the beginning of what would become European domination of the globe. In the centuries ahead, competition for empire would spark wars in Europe and on other continents. European expansion would spread goods and other changes throughout the world. It would also revolutionize the European economy and transform its society. The concept of “the West” itself emerged as European settlers transplanted their culture to the Americas and, later, to Australia and New Zealand. For centuries, most Europeans knew little or nothing about other lands. Exposure to different cultures was both unsettling and stimulating. As their horizons broadened, they had to reexamine old beliefs and customs.