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ÓÄÊ 811.111(07) ÁÁÊ 81.2Àíãë Ñ 12 Ñ 12 Ñààêÿí À. Ñ. Àíãëèéñêàÿ ãðàììàòèêà : áàçîâûé òåîðåòè÷åñêèé êóðñ / À. Ñ. Ñààêÿí. — Ì. : Ýêñìî, 2013. — 336 ñ. — (Èíîñòðàííûé ÿçûê: øàã çà øàãîì). ISBN 978-5-699-58560-1  ýòîì ïîñîáèè ïðåäñòàâëåí áàçîâûé òåîðåòè÷åñêèé êóðñ ãðàììàòèêè ñîâðåìåííîãî àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. Ñ åãî ïîìîùüþ âû ñìîæåòå ñèñòåìàòèçèðîâàòü ñâîè çíàíèÿ, ïðîÿñíèòü íåïîíÿòíûå ìîìåíòû, ïîâòîðèòü âñå âàæíûå ïðàâèëà è èñêëþ÷åíèÿ. Àâòîð îáðàùàåò îñîáîå âíèìàíèå íà çíà÷èìûå òîíêîñòè è íþàíñû, à òàêæå ðàññêàçûâàåò îá èçìåíåíèÿõ, ïðîèçîøåäøèõ â ñîâðåìåííîì àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå.  äîïîëíåíèå ê ýòîìó âû íàéäåòå â êíèãå îñíîâíûå ñâåäåíèÿ îá àíãëèéñêîé ïóíêòóàöèè. Ïîñîáèå ïðåäíàçíà÷åíî äëÿ èçó÷àþùèõ àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê íà ïðîäîëæàþùåì óðîâíå, ñòóäåíòîâ, ñëóøàòåëåé ÿçûêîâûõ êóðñîâ — âñåõ, êîìó õîòåëîñü áû îñâåæèòü è ñèñòåìàòèçèðîâàòü ñâîè çíàíèÿ ïî ãðàììàòèêå àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. ÓÄÊ 811.111(07) ÁÁÊ 81.2Àíãë ISBN 978-5-699-58560-1 © Ñààêÿí À.Ñ., 2013 © ÎÎÎ «Èçäàòåëüñòâî «Ýêñìî», 2013 Contents Ïðåäèñëîâèå . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MORPHOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Noun and its Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CASE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GENDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE ARTICLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The main cases of the use of the indefinite and definite articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Indefinite Article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Definite Article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Generic Use of the Definite Article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Articles with the Names of Meals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Use of Articles with Material Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Use of Articles with Uncountable Abstract Nouns . . . . . The Use of Articles with the Names of Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . The Use of Articles with Nouns Denoting Parts of the Day and Seasons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Use of Articles with Geographic(al) Names . . . . . . . . . . . The Use of Articles with Proper Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Use of Articles with Names of Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Articles with Nouns in Apposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Articles with the Nouns bed, school, town, college, hospital, jail, prison, market, table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Use of Articles in With-, Like-, In-phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . The Use of Articles in and with Of-phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Use of Articles with Some Set-Phrases and Free Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 12 20 24 29 32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 32 35 38 39 40 43 45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 48 52 55 57 ...... ...... ...... 59 60 61 ...... 62 3 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Adjective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Numeral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Pronoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Personal Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Possessive Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Demonstrative Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indefinite Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Self — Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interrogative (Question) Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . Relative and Conjunctive Pronouns . . . . . . . . . Reciprocal Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Adverb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE PRESENT TENSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Present Simple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Present Progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Present Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Present Perfect Progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . THE PAST TENSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Past Simple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Past Progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Past Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Past Perfect Progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE FUTURE TENSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Future Simple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Future Progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Future Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Future Perfect Progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Means of Expressing Future Actions in Reported Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Sequence of Tenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE DIRECT MOODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE INDIRECT (OBLIQUE) MOODS . . . . . . . . The Subjunctive Mood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Conditional Mood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... English ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 77 81 84 85 86 87 102 104 105 106 106 111 118 119 122 127 131 135 135 139 142 144 146 146 148 150 152 154 155 156 160 167 168 169 169 173 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс MIXED TYPES OF SENTENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE OLD SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Modal Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAN AND MAY (COMPARISON) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MUST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HAVE TO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MUST AND HAVE TO (COMPARISON) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BE TO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WOULD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SHALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NEED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SHOULD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OUGHT TO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DARE (TO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE MODAL PHRASES HAD BETTER, WOULD RATHER The Verbals (The Non-Finite Forms of the Verb) . . . . . . . . THE INFINITIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Complex Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE GERUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Verb Characteristics of the Gerund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE INFINITIVE AND THE GERUND (COMPARISON) . . The Verbal Noun and the Gerund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PARTICIPLE I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Nominative Absolute Participle Construction . . . . . . . . . PARTICIPLE II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SYNTAX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Simple Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO THE AIM OF COMMUNICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO THEIR STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE MAIN MEMBERS OF THE SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . The Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Predicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 176 177 180 182 184 186 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 196 199 201 202 203 204 212 215 215 221 223 224 228 229 232 . . . . . . . . . . . 235 . . . . . . . . . . . 235 . . . . . . . . . . . 235 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 239 240 242 5 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс WORD ORDER. INVERSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AGREEMENT OF THE PREDICATE WITH THE SUBJECT IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE SECONDARY MEMBERS OF THE SENTENCE . . . . . . . THE OBJECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE ATTRIBUTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Composite Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE COMPLEX SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compound-Complex Sentences.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRENDS IN ENGLISH PUNCTUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 261 261 262 262 265 265 266 274 275 275 SUPPLEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glossary of Grammatical Terms Punctuation Practice . . . . . . . . . . Seven Easy Ways to Look Bad. . The List of Irregular Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 298 309 316 318 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Ïðåäèñëîâèå Ýòî ó÷åáíîå ïîñîáèå ÿâëÿåòñÿ áàçîâûì òåîðåòè÷åñêèì êóðñîì ãðàììàòèêè ñîâðåìåííîãî àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà äëÿ ó÷èòåëåé ñðåäíèõ øêîë, ãèìíàçèé, âûñøèõ ó÷åáíûõ çàâåäåíèé, äëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ ïåðâîãî, âòîðîãî è òðåòüåãî êóðñîâ ôàêóëüòåòîâ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà, à òàêæå äëÿ øèðîêîãî êðóãà ëèö, èçó÷àþùèõ àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíî. Äàííîå ó÷åáíîå ïîñîáèå ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíîå èçëîæåíèå îñíîâíîãî òåîðåòè÷åñêîãî îáúåìà çíàíèé, íåîáõîäèìîãî äëÿ îâëàäåíèÿ ñòðîåì ÿçûêà è ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ íàâûêîâ óñòíîé è ïèñüìåííîé ðå÷è. Êíèãà «Àíãëèéñêàÿ ãðàììàòèêà: áàçîâûé êóðñ» ïîñòðîåíà íà îñíîâå ôàêòè÷åñêîãî ìàòåðèàëà, ïðåäñòàâëÿþùåãî ñîáîé ëèòåðàòóðíûé è ðàçãîâîðíûé ÿçûê Âåëèêîáðèòàíèè è ÑØÀ êîíöà XX è íà÷àëà XXI âåêîâ.  íåé îòðàæåíû òå èçìåíåíèÿ, êîòîðûå ïðîèçîøëè â ñèñòåìå àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà íà ðóáåæå äâóõ òûñÿ÷åëåòèé. Âíèìàíèþ ÷èòàòåëÿ ïðåäëàãàåòñÿ ðàçäåë ïî àíãëèéñêîé ïóíêòóàöèè, êîòîðàÿ íå ïîëó÷èëà äîñòàòî÷íîãî îñâåùåíèÿ â îòå÷åñòâåííîé ëèòåðàòóðå è ïðåäñòàâëÿåò çíà÷èòåëüíûå òðóäíîñòè äëÿ èçó÷àþùèõ àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê. 7 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ïðèëîæåíèå ñîäåðæèò ìàòåðèàë ñïðàâî÷íîãî õàðàêòåðà: ñïèñîê ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ òåðìèíîâ, ïîëíûé ñïèñîê ôîðì íåïðàâèëüíûõ ãëàãîëîâ, ïðàêòèêóì ïî ïóíêòóàöèè, íåêîòîðûå òèïè÷íûå îøèáêè è ñïîñîáû èõ óñòðàíåíèÿ. Ïðåäëàãàåìàÿ êíèãà ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé ïåðåðàáîòàííîå èçäàíèå ó÷åáíîãî ïîñîáèÿ, èñïîëüçóåìîãî ñ 1980 ãîäà íà ôàêóëüòåòàõ èíîñòðàííûõ ÿçûêîâ (àíãëèéñêèõ îòäåëåíèÿõ), íà ôàêóëüòåòàõ íà÷àëüíûõ êëàññîâ è äîøêîëüíîãî âîñïèòàíèÿ, áèîëîãîõèìè÷åñêèõ ôàêóëüòåòàõ, â ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèõ êîëëåäæàõ ã. Ìîñêâû, à òàêæå â ðÿäå âóçîâ Ðîññèéñêîé Ôåäåðàöèè. Àâòîð In richness, good sense, and convenience, no other of the living languages may be put beside English. Jakob Grimm Language is a means of human communication. Language is also the most basic and marvellously complex instrument of culture. Try to imagine the world without language. In fact, you cannot do so, because language is perhaps the most ancient heritage of the human race. Language exists only when it is listened to, as well as when it is spoken. Language shows a person: speak and I’ll say who you are. Language has great power. It can bring us together, it can praise, delight, inspire. But it can also hurt, offend, destroy. English has always been a hybrid language, what Daniel Defoe called “your Roman-Saxon-DanishNorman-English”. The English language consists of the three constituent parts: the phonological system, the lexical system, the grammatical system. Phonetics is a science which studies the phonic system of the language (sounds, intonation, etc.) Lexicology is a science which studies the wordstock of the language, its building material (words, phrases, etc.) 9 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс You can have perfect pronunciation and the richest vocabulary imaginable, but you won’t be able to speak a language if you don’t know how to make up sentences with the help of which we communicate, that is if you don’t know its grammatical structure. Grammar is a science which studies the structure of the language. The two parts of English Grammar are: Morphology and Syntax. Morphology deals with Parts of Speech. Syntax studies the Sentence, different types of sentences and their meanings. Morphology All the words of the English language are grouped into different types of classes which are traditionally called parts of speech. Morphology is a part of grammar which studies parts of speech. The classification of words into parts of speech is based on the three main principles: 1) the grammatical meaning; 2) the form; 3) the syntactical function. There are notional and functional parts of speech. Notional parts of speech have independent meanings and functions in the sentence. Functional words serve to connect words or sentences, or to specify the meanings of other words. The notional parts of speech are: — The Noun — The Adjective — The Pronoun — The Numeral — The Verb — The Adverb — The Interjection The functional parts of speech are: — The Preposition — The Conjunction — The Particle — The Article 11 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Noun and its Classification The noun denotes objects, substances, living beings (people and animals), abstract notions, different phenomena. The English noun has the grammatical categories of number, case and is associated with the article. There are different classifications of the Noun. The most important are the Semantic classification and the classification into countable and uncountable nouns. The Semantic classification of nouns is based on their meaning, according to which they fall into different groups. A common noun is the general name of an object, a place, a person or an idea. a computer, a city, a boy, a student, love, life A proper noun is the name of a particular person or of a geographical place. Mrs. Honey, Brian, London, the Tiber, the Alps. A common noun may be concrete, abstract or collective. A concrete noun names an object that occupies space and can be seen and touched. a flower, a CD, a banana, a star, a fish Concrete nouns fall into class and material. A class noun refers an object to the same class of things. It can be counted: a book, a room, a ring, à man, a cat. A material noun denotes substance and is generally uncountable: bread, juice, glass, coal, chalk. An abstract noun names an idea, some quality or a characteristic. freedom, happiness, intelligence, competence, darkness, power 12 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс A collective noun names a group of people or things. a government, a family, a flotilla, people, police, clothes, furniture, news, money, information It can all be presented in the following table: The Noun Common Concrete Abstract Class Material Collective Proper Personal Geographic(al) Proper Nouns Proper nouns may become common if: a) the name of a painter, writer, inventor, designer or a firm is used to denote some work. This small museum has a Dali. A Longman will help you a lot with your English. I have a Sony, my brother has a Panasonic. He fell to the floor like a sack of King Edwards (a sort of potatoes). b) they denote characteristic qualities of the bearer of the name (but not the person himself!). He’s a poet, but not a Shelley. This man is a veritable Cicero. This fellow is really a Jack-of-all-trades (but master of none). Poor darling looks like a Cinderella. It doesn’t take an Einstein to work that out, does it? 13 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Some common nouns have become proper names: the City, Parliament, Congress, the Tube, the Tower, the Channel, the Globe, the Black Sea, the Red Sea, the Dead Sea, the White (Black) Sea, the Big Apple, the Oval Hall, Penguin (a publishing house). Collective Nouns Collective nouns denote: 1. Groups of people: crew, team, cast, family, company, committee, ministry, government, staff, crowd, class, council, company, gang, clan, etc. If you think of the group as a single body, it is singular and agrees with the verb in the singular. The staff is well-trained and efficient. My family is big. This team is well-trained. If you think of all the individuals who make up the group, it is plural. The staff are going to buy a leaving present for their boss. My family are all cat lovers. Compare also names of organizations: The British Government is starting its work next week. The British Government are demanding compensations. 2. Names of multitude: police, people, clergy, cattle, poultry, dice, vermin (âðåäèòåëè) etc. are singular in form, but plural in meaning and require the verb in the plural. The local people are very friendly. Are the police here? Police are coming soon. 14 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Dice are used in many board games. The cattle are in the fields. Vermin are small animals, such as rats and mice which carry disease and damage crops. Plankton are found in all oceans. 3. Nouns which occur only in the plural form and require the verb in the plural. There are about 50 of these. The commonest are: arms (= weapons), clothes, riches, goods, customs, earnings, savings, lodgings (also called digs), odds and ends, outskirts, surroundings, headquarters, premises, regards, stairs, eaves, memoirs, victuals, slops, preserves, dregs, slums, sweepings, peelings, belongings, remains. Here also belong names of objects which have two inseparable parts: binoculars, bifocals, glasses, spectacles, scales, scissors, pants, pyjamas, shorts, tights, trousers, jeans, braces, knickers, tongs, tweezers. Her clothes are very trendy. Your pyjamas are on the bed. These tights are of the finest quality. My jeans are denim blue. The word content can be used both in the plural and in the singular. a) The contents of something (a bottle, a bag, a room, a book) are everything that is contained in it. He swallowed the contents of his glass. We admired the house and its superb contents. I knew the contents of the letter by heart. What are the contents of the magazine? 15 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс b) The contents of a speech, a television programme, an essay is its subject matter and the ideas that are in it, in contrast to such things as its form or style. The editor had to change the contents of the newspaper column. His novels are all form and no content. Note the use of the word content in the computer language: Content exists on Web Sites around the world. A consumer selects and downloads from content menu. Satellites receive and transmit assembled content. The word content is also used to express an ingredient of something. No other food has so high an iron content. What’s the content of sugar in your blood? 4. Nouns which are always singular in form (except the word “news”) and take the verb in the singular. Here belong: a) abstract nouns: advice, news, money, information, weather, rubbish, work, knowledge, progress, traffic, accommodation. Money is the soul of business. Money makes money. It’s useful advice. It was breaking news. It is fine weather today. This equipment was made in Italy. His progress is very slow. Traffic is usually heavy in the centre of Moscow. b) material nouns: baggage, luggage, jewellery, furniture, equipment, (bed)linen, clutter, litter, garbage, rubbish, foli16 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс age, leafage, crockery, cutlery, pottery, hardware, software, houseware, kitchenware, toast. This jewellery is unique. Your luggage was too heavy. Our furniture is made of wood. The leafage is turning yellow. The best linen comes from Holland. My toast is burnt again. c) names of diseases: measles, mumps, diabetes, shingles, hepatitis. Diabetes is an illness in which someone has too much sugar in their blood. Measles is an infectious disease. Hepatitis is becoming a very common disease. Note the two uses of the names of some branches of study in -ics: athletics, ceramics, economics, ethics, linguistics, phonetics, physics, politics, acoustics, statistics, mathematics, but: arithmetic. Statistics is the study of probability (a science) There is a lie, there is a big lie, and there is statistics. Statistics are often misleading. (sets of figures) Mathematics is a difficult subject. Arithmetic is a part of mathematics. Compare also the following: Politics doesn’t interest him. His politics are radical. 17 3. The cattle are in the fields. 3. This team consists of eleven players. The team are wearing new shirts today. 4. The clergy are stationed in the Vatikan. The Media are the Press, the Radio, TV. 2. The police are here. The police have come. media cattle poultry 2. Our staff is well-trained. The staff are very young. people police clergy 1. The people here are very friendly. (но: the peoples of the world = народы) cast staff company gang clan are is/are 1. My family is small. (как единое целое) My family are good eaters. (члены семьи) family class group team crew The verb in the plural The verb either in the singular or in the plural 7. What good work it is! 6. It is fine weather today! 5. It is tasty toast. 4. His knowledge is deep. 3. His money comes from oil business. 6. These stairs are old. 5. My glasses were made in Italy. 4. The scissors have become blind. 3. These scales are not correct. 2. Where are the customs? pants tights trousers scales scissors stairs wages 2. The news has come. clothes contents customs glasses goods jeans pyjamas 1. These clothes cost a lot. knowledge toast success progress weather work are The verb in the plural 1. It is timely advice. advice information hair money news furniture linen is The verb in the singular Collective Nouns АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Another important classification of nouns into countable and uncountable is based on the possibility of nouns to be counted. Countables Uncountables a thing a child an apple a minute a penny news freedom happiness work tea milk Употребляются с: is/are has/have many, a lot of (a) few, several a/the some is has much, a lot of (a) little the some 1. If the noun is countable, it can agree with the verb in the singular and in the plural; it can also take the indefinite article. The indefinite pronouns (not) many or (a) few are used with it. This is a great book. — These are great books. I’ve got (not) many / (a) few French books at home. 2. If the noun is uncountable, it agrees with the verb only in the singular; it can’t take the indefinite article. (not) much / (a) little are used with it. It is hard work. (No article!) He does much work. I have (a) little work today. 19 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Number Countable nouns in English have two numbers — the singular and the plural which can be expressed in English by: 1. adding -s or -es to the singular form of a noun: a a a a wish — wishes kilo — kilos bus — buses hero — heroes a a a a day — days chief — chiefs story — stories life — lives Mind the spelling rules: a) -s -sh -ch -х -o -es b) -y -ies (после согласной) с) -f/-fe -ves a bus — buses a bush — bushes a watch — watches a fox — foxes a potato — potatoes a tomato — tomatoes a hero — heroes But: photos, pianos, discos, radios, zoos, videos, cuckoos a cry — cries a party — parties a story — stories a country — countries a dictionary — dictionaries But: -ay -ey -ys -oy boys, toys, days, plays, monkeys, joys, keys a shelf — shelves, a half — halves a life — lives, a knife — knives a wolf — wolves, a leaf — leaves But: roofs, chiefs, cuffs, cliffs, handkerchiefs, scarfs (scarves) an elf — elves, a calf — calves 2. the change of the root vowel: a man — men a woman — women 20 a goose — geese a louse — lice АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс a child — children a foot — feet an ox — oxen a mouse — mice a tooth — teeth 3. identical forms for the singular and for the plural: 1) a deer — two deer a sheep — ten sheep a swine — a lot of swine 2) a fish — (many) fish (also with some kinds of fish: a carp, a pike, a salmon, a trout, etc.) a carp — two carp a trout — five trout The form fishes denotes different kinds of fish and is seldom used in English. He studies the fishes of the Atlantic. 3) a bison — bison(s), a buffalo — buffalo(es) 4) a species — three species a series — three series a means — many means 5) a lazy-bones — lazy-bones (ëåíòÿè) a butter-fingers — butter-fingers (ðàñòÿïû) Names of nationalities ending in -ese, -ss also have identical forms for the singular and for the plural: a a a a a a a a Portuguese — ten Portuguese Burmese — the Burmese Japanese — two Japanese Vietnamese — a few Vietnamese Swiss — many Swiss Milanese — some Milanese Chinese — the Chinese Viennese — all Viennese 21 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 4. foreign plurals. A lot of words borrowed from Latin and Greek form their plural in Modern English in the regular way, i. e., by adding -(e)s. But a few have kept their original Latin or Greek plural endings. The most common of them form the plural according to the table below: 1 2 3 4 5 Singular ending Regular plural Latin (Greek) plural -us -uses -i a cactus a stimulus cactuses stimuluses cacti stimuli -a -as -ae an antenna a formula antennas formulas antennae formulae -um -ums -a a datum a curriculum a medium a millenium — curriculums mediums milleniums data* curricula media millenia -ex -exes -ices an index indexes indices -ix -ixes -ices an appendix appendixes appendices -is 6 7 * 22 -es a basis a crisis — — bases crises -on -ons -a a criterion a phenomenon criterions phenomenons criteria phenomena data — is used in both singular and plural АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 5. the plural of compound nouns. 1) Generally compounds form the plural by adding -(e)s to the second element. a grown-up — grown-ups a boyfriend — boyfriends an office-block — office-blocks a forget-me-not — forget-me-nots But: a passer-by — passers-by, a hanger-on — hangers-on. 2) Nouns ending in -in-law add the plural -s to the noun: a father-in-law — fathers-in-law, a mother-in-law — mothers-in-law, a daughter-in-law — daughters-in-law, a son-in-law — sons-in-law. But: his/her in-laws. 3) If the first element is man or woman, both elements are made plural: a woman-driver — women-drivers, a manservant — menservants. 6. As for uncountable nouns some of them are always singular and some are plural. Compare: English singular invariable nouns information advice money news progress furniture work yeast cream ink linen rubbish hair weather The verbs are always singular. English plural invariable nouns clothes contents sweepings odds, ends greens customs scales goods shorts trousers jeans scissors tights pants The verbs are always plural. 23 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Compare: It is hitting news. My jeans are denim blue. This is timely advice. These glasses were made in Germany. It’s fine weather today. Her clothes are very trendy. 7. The Emphatic Plural. Some uncountable nouns may be used in the emphatic plural for the sake of emphasis, mostly in literary style: the waters of the Pacific, the snows of Kilimanjaro, the southern skies, a thousand thanks, Good Heavens, the heats of the desert, the colds of the North. Case English is a highly possessive language. There are so many expressions in it built on the formula N’s + N, starting with A as in Adam’s apple and ending with Z as in Zeno’s paradoxes. This grammatical category shows the relation of the noun with other words in the sentence and is expressed by the form of the noun. English nouns have two cases: the Common case and the Possessive case. The Common case has no inflection and its meaning is very general. The Possessive case expresses possession, belonging and is generally used with animate nouns denoting people and animals. But in some cases the noun in the Possessive case has a purely descriptive character: a man’s club, children’s toys, a woman’s magazine. Nouns denoting inanimate objects are not generally used in the possessive case. The “of + noun” phrase is used with them: 24 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс the leg of a table, the foot of a mountain, the cap of a pen, the end of the story, the roof of a house, the cover of the book. Mind the difference in meaning in the phrases of the type: Old McDonald’s farm — McDonald’s old farm The new director’s speech — The director’s new speech Happy Teachers’ Day — Teachers’ Happy Day Silly Mark’s remark — Mark’s silly remark The main city’s museums — The city’s main museums 1. The Possessive Case is formed in the following ways: 1) by adding the inflection ’s or just’ (the apostrophe) to the stem of the noun in the singular not ending in s. the boy’s toy, a child’s game, student’s grammar Note: If a noun in the singular ends in s and has only one syllable it also forms the possessive case with apostrophe and -s. the bus’s tires, the boss’s order 2) by adding only an apostrophe (’) to the noun in the plural. The second s is not used. students’ life, workers’ wages, teenagers’ slang, parents’ meeting, weight-watchers’ club 3) by adding an apostrophe and -s if a proper name ends in -s, -x, -z. In this case the full inflection is pronounced. Max’s ['mæksɪz] doubts Keats’s ['kіːtsɪz] odes Little Liz’s ['lɪzɪz] dress Thomas’s ['tɒməsɪz] ideas I was trying to remember Pythagoras’(s) Theorem. Elvis’s voice never fails to move people. 25 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 4) By adding the inflection ’s to the last element of a compound noun: a brother-in-law’s virtues, brothers-in-law’s virtues Singular Plural -’s a boy’s toy a girl’s dress an actress’s life a woman’s magazine Burns’(s) poems -’ boys’ toys girls’ dresses actresses’ lives lawyers’ duties the Romanovs’ family tree -’s children’s shop men’s hobbies women’s magazines sheep’s wool deer’s horns 2. There is a growing tendency in Modern English to use the possessive case with inanimate nouns denoting: 1) time or distance: a moment’s silence, a two-miles’ drive, a good night’s sleep, a fortnight’s holiday; 2) seasons, years, months and days: a summer’s morning, July’s heat, today’s news, Tuesday’s programme, last year’s plan, this year’s events; 3) countries, cities and towns: England’s history, France’s gardens, London’s buses, Germany’s policy; 4) unique nouns (the world, the sun, the moon, the earth, names of planets): the sun’s rays, the world’s history, the moon’s light, the Earth’s diameter, Mars’s influence; 26 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 5) names of vessels: the ship’s crew, the yacht’s owner, the boat’s sail, the plane’s crash. 6) ordinary objects: the river’s bed, the ocean’s roar, the lake’s surface, my jeans’ pocket. 3. If two coordinate nouns (joined by and, but, or), express joint possession, the apostrophe is usually added to the last noun. The whole phrase is called “Group Possessive”. James’s father’s office, the Prime Minister of England’s speech, Jack and Jill’s father, Tom and Mary’s teacher, Ilf and Petrov’s novels, Kate and David’s wedding, The McDonald brothers’ first restaurant If the coordinate nouns express individual possessions, the apostrophe is used with both nouns: John’s and Mark’s skateboards, Nick’s and Ann’s parents, Mr Parker’s and Mr Marshall’s agencies 4. There are some cases of the so-called “Absolute Possessive”. It is called “absolute”, as it is used absolutely, without the noun, which is not repeated for the sake of style. My son would like to have a bike, like Steve’s. Her smile was sweet and innocent like a child’s. Here eyes were sharp and black as a bird’s. I heard a voice. It was my boss’s, but in my confusion I took it for someone else’s. He opened the envelope, his fingers shaking like a schoolboy’s. 27 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Absolute Possessive is used: 1) to express some locality (with local meaning: a house, a shop, a clinic, an auction, etc.) the baker’s, the barber’s, the hairdresser’s, the vet’s, the optician’s, the tailor’s, the dressmaker’s, the flourist’s, the newsagent’s, the greengrocer’s, the confectioner’s, the ironmonger’s, the doctor’s, my aunt’s, the butcher’s, the dentist’s, McDonald’s, Christie’s, Sotheby’s, but: Harrods. After work I dropped in at the greengrocer’s and the cleaner’s. We got all the information at the travelling agent’s. 2) with partitive meaning which equals to “one of” Bess is a friend of my mother’s. Is she a client of Ms Morgan’s? He married a classmate of Andy’s. I am a fan of Paul’s. 3) to express some strong emotions (mostly negative ones) How I dislike that new boyfriend of Susan’s! That dress of Margie’s was something! I’m trying to knock some sense into that very thick head of Peter’s before it’s too late. 5. The Possessive Case is used in some set expressions which are survivals of Old English Genitive Case which was freely used with all nouns in Old English: to one’s heart’s content (delight), at one’s wit’s end, at one’s fingers’ ends, in (out of) harm’s way, from a bird’s view, to a hair’s breadth, 28 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс for friendship’s (manners’, convenience’s) sake, at arm’s reach, at arm’s length, (at) a stone’s throw, at sword’s point, at the razor’s edge, at a moment’s notice, at death’s door, in the mind’s eye, a baker’s dozen, to be nobody’s fool, to know somebody for donkey’s years. Note: When dedication is implied the Possessive Case is not used. The State Tretyakov Gallery, The Pushkin Monument, The Nelson Column, the Kennedy Centre, The Templeton Fund, The Peter and Paul Fortress. Gender Gender does not find any grammatical expression in English. The distinction of male, female and neuter can be understood from 1. the lexical meaning of the noun: a man — a woman, a boy — a girl, a brother — a sister, a monk — a nun, a king — a queen, Mr. — Mrs. (Miss, Ms.). 2. the use of personal pronouns he, she, it: The principal entered the hall and everybody rose to greet her. There was a she-crab soup on the menu, my favourite. 3. the use of suffixes -ess, -ine, -ina, -er, -ette: a manager — a manageress, a poet — a poetess, a hero — a heroine, a waiter — a waitress, an author — an authoress, a baronet — a baroness, 29 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс a widow — widower, a tzar — a tsarina, a ballet dancer — a ballerina, a lad — a ladette, a bachelor — a bachelorette. 4. In many words you do not know whether the person referred to is male or female. The most common are: a a a a child, an agent, a cousin, a friend, a foreigner, guest, a visitor, a tourist, a neighbour, a parent, person, a stranger, a customer, a client, a witness, passer-by, a spectator. Also in names of professions such as an artist, a cook, a doctor, a lawyer, a director, a secretary, a journalist, a judge, a scientist, a student, a teacher, a professor, a tutor, a lecturer, a speaker, an editor. To make a distinction, you can use the words male or female, man, lady or woman. a male cousin, a female student, a lady doctor, a woman driver But nowadays phrases like a male nurse, or a male secretary are considered to be sexist and may sometimes sound offensive. It looks as if such usage ignores half the human race — or at least seems to assume that the other half is more important. You can bring the language up to date, and make it sound non-sexist and politically correct by: a) using plural forms: Lawyers must pass the bar exam before they begin to practise. b) using both pronouns: A lawyer must pass the bar exam before he or she can begin to practise. 30 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс c) eliminating the pronouns: A lawyer must pass the bar exam before beginning to practise. d) using non-sexist words like: a chairlady — a chairperson, a congressman — a member of Congress, a mailman — a mailcarrier, man, mankind — humans, human beings, humanity, the human race, a policeman (woman) — a police officer, a fireman — a firefighter e) compounding: a manservant, a maidservant, a bull-elephant, a cowelephant. 5. The use of female gender is traditional with the names of vessels (ships, boats, cruisers, etc.), vehicles (cars, coaches, planes), countries: The new yacht has started on her voyage. She is a terrific car! Ireland! She is our Motherland! Compare the use of gender with some animals: The eagle has left his rocky nest. The swallow was teaching her young to fly. The cat tried to guard her young and has upset her milk. 31 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс To be politically correct, mind the use of “they”, especially in tag-questions: Everyone tried to do their best. If someone wants to spend their money here, it isn’t up to me to stop them. Anyone would have done the same, wouldn’t they? And no one was injured, were they? The Article The Main Cases of the Use of the Indefinite and Definite Articles The Article is a word that serves as a noun determiner alongside with such determiners as demonstrative, possessive and indefinite pronouns. The article is one of the main means of expressing the category of definiteness and indefiniteness in English. The Indefinite Article 1. The Indefinite Article originated from the Old English numeral one: one > a (an). That’s why it can be used only with a countable noun in the singular. The main meanings of the indefinite article are classifying (general) and numerical. 1) In its classifying (general) meaning the article serves to refer an object to the class of objects of the same kind, just to classify it: I am a school teacher. It’s a teenager novel. The indefinite article implies that the object denoted by the noun is spoken of as a representative of the class. The arti32 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс cle in this meaning can be substituted by such words as “any”, “every”. It is often used in proverbs and sentences expressing a general truth: A teacher should be patient. A dog is a good friend. A burnt child dreads the fire. An Englishman makes a good husband. Mind the absence of the article in the plural: Dogs make good pets. Englishmen make good husbands. New times bring new habits. 2) In its numerical meaning the indefinite article retains its original meaning of the cardinal numeral “one” and expresses oneness. This meaning is evident with nouns denoting units of measure (time, distance, length, weight, etc.): An apple a day keeps wrinkles away. A penny saved is a penny gained. A pound is a unit of weight in Britain. An hour will be enough for me. 2. A countable noun in the singular takes the indefinite article if it is used: 1) in the function of the subject and just classifies it. A student should work hard. A teacher sows seeds of knowledge that will grow forever. Also in sentences with the construction “there is (comes, appears, etc.)”: There comes a bus. There is a fax for you on the desk. But: There are faxes on the desk. (no article in the plural) 33 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2) in the function of a predicative: He is an air traffic controller. That guy is a family friend. I am a teacher. She is a nurse. But: We are teachers. They are nurses. 3) in the function of a direct object: I wrote a letter. We got a Christmas card from London. We had a late dinner. We are going to have an early spring. We got a fax. But: We got faxes yesterday. 4) in some set-phrases expressing one-time (îäíîêðàòíûå) actions like: to be à success, to have a rest, to have a lovely time, to give a look, to give a lift, to give a hint, to do a favour, to make a will, to make a fuss, to make a mistake, to take a seat, to have a date, to keep an eye on. The play was a success. Did you have a great time at the party? Can you give me a lift to the station? Will you do us a favour? 5) after the exclamatory “what”, “such”: What an idea! What a surprise! What a shame! What a man! It’s such a waste! He is such a smart man! With plural nouns there is no article: What ideas! What surprises! What people! 34 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс If the noun is uncountable (abstract or material) no article is used: What fine weather! What interesting news! What tasty jam! What strong coffee! 6) with a descriptive attribute. Compare: It was night. — I was a cool night. It’s summer. — It’s a very hot summer. Note: nouns denoting seasons and parts of the day and modified by adjectives “late”, “early”, etc. in the function of a predicative take no article. It was early morning. It is late autumn. But: Let’s have an early supper. I am an early bird. We had a late visitor last night. The Definite Article The definite article originated from the Old English demonstrative pronoun that. The equivalents of the definite article are possessive and demonstrative pronouns this — these, that — those. The Definite article is used: 1) if the context or the situation makes the noun clear. Open the door. Go to the kitchen. Where is the key? The flowers were splendid. I liked the present a lot, thank you. 2) if the noun was already mentioned. Three little Kittens lost their mittens… The three little kittens they found the mittens. 35 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3) if the noun has a restrictive (limiting) attribute. It may be expressed by a clause, a prepositional phrase, by the words very, right, left, central, wrong, only, one, opposite, main, last, next (following), same, by ordinal numerals, by the superlative degree of adjectives. You are the man we are looking for. We got into the wrong train. He is the only person for the position. The second performance was a sensational success. The longest day comes to an end. Such words as all, whole, proper, previous, necessary, usual, upper, lower can be either descriptive or limiting to the noun which they modify. Compare: All children like toys. (descriptive, children in general) All the children are in the garden. (limiting, definite children) I spend the whole day at home. (definite day) She is a chocoholic. She can eat a whole box of chocolates at a time. (descriptive, one box) What is the proper word for it? (= the right word) Did you have a proper meal? (a good one) Will you read the previous sentence? (definite) He had two children from a previous marriage. (descriptive) He asked the usual questions. (definite) On a usual day I get up very early. 4) with unique objects or notions. They are the sun, the moon, the earth, the world, the universe, the horizon, the equator, the south, the north, the west, the east, the globe, the Milky Way, the cosmos, the hemisphere, the atmosphere. 36 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Take me to the Milky Way! The moon moves round the Earth. The Universe is endless! They thought they could change the world. Instead, the world changed them. The equator is an imaginary line drawn round the middle of the Earth at an equal distance from the North Pole and the South Pole. There are evident changes in the climate due to the pollution of the atmosphere. But if these nouns are preceded by descriptive attributes, the indefinite article is used. We all hope to see a better world. Imagine a world without lying, killing or stealing. The sun shone in an unclouded sky. I was guided by a full moon. The moon is a moon whether it shines or not. The house has got a friendly atmosphere. 5) with an adverbial modifier of place to identify the exact place. Jane is in the garden. The indefinite article is also possible. He was born in a village in the North of Ireland. The train stopped at a small station. 6) in a number of idioms like: to make the best of something, to be in the know, to read between the lines, in the light of something, to be on the safe side, if the worst comes to the worst, the long and the short of it, in the long run, to change for the better (for the worse), out of the blue, etc. 37 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Generic Use of the Definite Article 1. A singular countable noun with the definite article may represent a whole class of objects, thus becoming the symbol of that class, the image of it. We mainly find here names of animals, plants, professions and occupations, unique phenomena, inventions, collective nouns denoting social groups. Scientific terms are also often used generically. Nobody knows which appeared first: the hen or the egg. The cat is officially the most popular pet in the UK. The arrival of the computer has revolutionized industry. The article is a word specifying the noun. The mind is always fooled by the heart. The pen is mightier than the sword, and considerably lighter to hold. Shhh… the Muse is upon me. Sometimes it is possible to use the indefinite article to denote any representative of the class. A violet is a lovely flower. A dog is a good friend. But the indefinite article is not permissible when invention, genre or à phenomenon is meant. He believed in the American dream. The telephone was invented by Bell. The spirit, we thought, must take precedence over the flesh. The brain is a wonderful organ. The barometer rises and falls for rain and fine. The computer was first constructed in Pennsylvania in 1946. 38 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2. The nouns man, woman, child used in a generic sense, take no article. Now I know what man is capable of. Woman’s work is never done. Man needs something for the sake of which to live. Man, woman, child — these are eternal notions. My father and I talked man to man about it. God provides the wind, but man must raise the sails. Articles with the Names of Meals To this group of nouns belong: breakfast, brunch (elevenses), lunch, dinner, supper, tea. 1. When these nouns are used in their abstract meaning denoting a process of taking food, or are associated with time, they are used without any article, such as: to have (take, prepare, serve, cook) dinner, breakfast, lunch, supper; to go to dinner, to be at dinner (lunch); to return by (before, after) supper. Lunch is at two p. m. Dinner is ready (served, laid). We’ll discuss it after tea. I’ll have a meeting before lunch. 2. The indefinite article is used when names of meals are modified by descriptive attributes. You can get a hot supper here. We had a late breakfast. It’s not a very fancy lunch, I’m afraid. They had an early dinner. 39 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3. The definite article is found with names of meals if there is a situation, a context, a restrictive attribute, or if the food itself is meant: The dinner you cooked was marvellous. How much did you pay for the supper? I must go to the kitchen and have a look at the dinner. 4. Sometimes names of meals become countable nouns denoting: 1) a party (both articles may be used): We gave a dinner last night. Many celebrities came to the dinner. They met at an official lunch. Have you received the invitation to the dinner? 2) a portion (the indefinite article expresses oneness): I don’t have enough money to buy a supper. A set-dinner is rather cheap at this restaurant. The Use of Articles with Material Nouns 1. Material (uncountable) nouns used in a general sense take no article and have no plural form. Food is something we cannot do without. There is cold juice in the jug. Fruit is useful. We all had fish and chips for supper. 2. The definite article is used if the noun is clear from the situation or the context or if there is some limitation. The food she cooked was uneatable. The bread is on the table. Wasn’t the cake delicious? 40 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3. Some uncountable material nouns can become countable and express different sorts, kinds, portions. Here belong the following nouns: beer, cheese, coffee, detergent, food, jam, meat, medicine, perfume, soup, tea, whisky, wine, wood, wool, etc. — Which wines are produced in this region? — A dry red wine and a rose. My Granny makes a very fine jam. She makes four jams every year. Want a beer? Two teas, please. There are four soups on the menu today. Compare the following: I am fond of ice cream, a high-caloric food. Caviar is one of the few high-caloric foods which I am very fond of. Wool is a natural fibre that has many fine qualities. British wools come from select regions, like the Shetlands. The use of articles with the noun FISH 1 Singular Plural a fish two fish fish (продукт питания) a carp three carp Do you like fish? a trout four trout There is fish on the menu. a pike many pike Fish is useful. What a beautiful fish! There are many (a lot of) fish in this lake. I gave a fish to the cat. How many fish did you catch? Notes 41 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû Singular Plural Notes The form fishes (различные виды рыб) is rarely used! The fishes of the Atlantic. There are different fishes in the aquarium. The noun fish can have a collective meaning: Fish travel long distances in the sea. 2 Ecologically, fish are at risk now. The use of articles with the noun FRUIT Fruit Fruits The Singular (uncountable) Plural (situation, context, limitation) A kind of food, product (no plural): Fruit is good for health. It is rich in vitamins. There is fruit on the table. Do you like fruit? Is fruit expensive this year? Different kind of fruit: The fruit is on the table. Many different fruits are brought from Italy, Greece and Spain. Where is the fruit? I like citrus fruits best. How much did you pay for the fruit? What are the local fruits? In figurative meaning (the results of…): the fruits of nature the fruits of industry the fruits of our efforts 42 The fruit which you bought was very good. АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû Fruit Fruits The Singular (uncountable) Plural (situation, context, limitation) A botanic term: a fruit (плод) fruits («ягоды», «плоды») A strawberry is a beautiful fruit. This bush gives red fruits. The English nouns “fish” and “fruit” somehow turn out to be very difficult for learners of English. In fact, they are absolutely different as the noun “fish” is a common countable one, which has identical (the same) forms for the singular and for the plural (one fish — two fish) like the nouns “deer”, “sheep”, etc. The noun “fruit” is uncountable in English, it denotes food, and generally it agrees with the verb in the singular and can’t be used with the indefinite article. The Use of Articles with Uncountable Abstract Nouns 1. Uncountable abstract nouns used in a general sense take no article: Reason and love are sworn enemies. When in distress, people look for friendship. I’ve come to you for help. Love isn’t measured by words. My ancestors were all distinguished men. In war, in peace, in church, in science, and in education. 43 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2. Uncountable nouns may become countable if they denote kinds or special aspects of the notion which they denote. A dull anger rose in his chest. A strange fear overcame me. Your fears are ungrounded. 3. No article is used if abstract nouns are modified by such attributes as modern, English, French, real, authentic, symbolic, proletarian, medieval, ancient, contemporary. French poetry, modern art, contemporary science, authentic literature The definite article is used if there is a limiting attribute. The French poetry of the 19th century. The Russian art of that period. 4. Some uncountable nouns are never used with the indefinite article. They are mostly nouns of verbal character denoting actions, activity, processes, such as: information, news, advice, progress, work, weather, money, assistance, permission. They don’t take the indefinite article and agree with the verb only in the singular. It’s good advice, I’ll follow it. Your news is good. It’s excellent weather today. Time is money. He got permission to leave the country. There is big money in oil business. If it is necessary to express oneness, use phrases like: a piece of, an item of, a word of, an article of, a sum of, a breath of, a spell of, etc. There is an item of news that may interest you. We need a breath of fresh air. That’s a pretty sum of money. 44 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс There is always a spell of sunny weather in October. I’m writing chiefly to tell you an unbelievable piece of news — I have passed my driving test! Compare also the following: This watch is a fine work. We are offering a full list of polygraphy works: forms, business cards, calendars, stickers, leaflets, etc. 5. In the set-phrase “in all weathers” the noun weather is in the plural. She works in her garden in all weathers. Mind that in Modern English the plural form monies is widely used in the meaning of «ñðåäñòâà ôèíàíñèðîâàíèÿ», «ðàçëè÷íûå âèäû âàëþò». What monies circulate in this country? The project received community monies. Many people wonder where public monies go. The Use of Articles with the Names of Diseases 1. Names of diseases are uncountable nouns and generally don’t take any article. They are: AIDS, appendicitis, cholera, diabetes, hepatitis, herpes, influenza, foot-and-mouth disease, malaria, measles, mumps, pneumonia, smallpox, tuberculosis, typhoid The child has the first symptoms of measles. Foot-and-mouth disease cases rose again in England. 45 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2. The definite article is possible with the names of such diseases as mumps, chickenpox, flu (but not influenza). She had a mild attach of flu. I’m coming down with the flu (influenza). Nouns, denoting physical states of people function like any countable nouns. Have you caught a cold again? Take an aspirin against the cold. Feed a cold and starve a fever. There was an epidemic of colds in the school in late October. 3. Words ending in -ache in British English have either the indefinite article or no article at all. I’ve got earache. He’s got an earache. The word headache is countable: a headache — headaches. In American English all the words with -ache are countable and the sentence “I’ve got earache” is not the norm. The word heartache is not used with the indefinite article as it expresses some emotional pain, sadness or suffering. To express some physical pain use the words attack, problem, trouble. His first love caused him unbearable heartache. She had a heart attack two years ago. 46 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Use of Articles with Nouns Denoting Parts of the Day and Seasons This group includes the nouns: day, night, morning, evening, noon, afternoon, midnight, dawn, dusk, twilight, sunrise, sunset, daytime, nightfall, winter, spring, summer and autumn. 1. These nouns are very often treated as abstract nouns. No article is used with reference to parts of the day or of the year, light or darkness, as in: As morning broke, the light wind died away. Evening came. Night fell. Winter set in. If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? Winter eats what summer provides. 2. When these nouns have a descriptive attribute the indefinite article is used: We were having tea in my room on a cold January afternoon. But no article is used if these nouns are modified by such adjectives as early, late, real, broad, high. It was high noon. It was broad day. It was early spring (late autumn, etc.). 3. The definite article may occur with such words if they are clear from the situation, or context, or if there is some limitation. We watched the sunrise from the balcony. The evening was calm. The winter is severe this year. It happened on the morning of April 12th. 47 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 4. In some prepositional phrases either the definite article or no article may be found. 1) the definite article is used in the following phrases: in the morning, in the evening, in the daytime, in the afternoon, in the night, in the winter, in the summertime. 2) no article is used with these nouns after the prepositions at, by, about, past, before, after, towards, till (until): at night, at dawn, by day, by night, by noon, by midnight, past noon, after sunset, till morning. I had a class till noon. It became colder after sunset. 3) there is no article in the following phrases: all day (long), all night (through); day after day; day in, day out; from morning till night; (to work) day and night; in the dead of night; in the dead of winter. He worked demonically from dawn till late at night. Danny practised keyboard exercises day and night. But we say: all through the night; all through the day. The Use of Articles with Geographic(al) Names 1. Names of continents, countries, regions, cities, towns and villages are as a rule used without any article. Australia, Europe, Russia, France, California, Siberia, Moscow, Rome, Beijing, Yalta, Sosnovka, Sofrino. But: 48 the Hague. АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс No article is used either when these nouns have such attributes as north(ern), south(ern), ancient, old, central. North America, Southern France, Central America, South-East Asia, Old England, Ancient Rome Names of states including such common nouns as union, kingdom, states, dominion, federation, republic, lands, are used with the definite article. the Soviet Union, the Union of South Africa, the United Kingdom, the Russian Federation, the Irish Republic, the Netherlands The definite article is also used in abbreviations. the USSR, the USA, the UK 2. Names of some regions are traditionally used with the definite article. the Antarctic, the Crimea, the Caucasus, the Far East, the Middle East, the Midlands, the Lake District, the Ruhr, the Transvaal, the Riviera, the Tyrol, the Punjab, etc. The following countries named after the corresponding regions, take no article: the the the the the Sudan (region) — Sudan (country) Yemen — Yemen Argentine — Argentina Cameroon — Cameroon Ivory Coast — Ivory Coast The variant without the article is more widely used. 49 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3. Names of streets, parts of the city, squares, parks are generally used without any article. Tverskaya Street, Regent Street, Oxford Street, Broadway, Charing Cross Road, Park Lane, Pennsylvania Avenue, Manezh Square, North London, Trafalgar Square, Sokolniki Park, Hyde Park, St. James’s Park Names of streets modified by ordinal numerals take no article: 42nd Street, Fifty Eighth Street, Fifth Avenue, 15th Park Lane, etc. But: the Strand, the Mall, (the) Wall Street, the Latin Quarter, the West End, the East End. 4. Names of oceans, seas, channels, canals, falls, rivers and lakes usually take the definite article. the Pacific (ocean), the Adriatic (sea), the English Channel, the Panama Canal, (the) Niagara Falls, the Volga, the Baikal, the Ontario, the Moskva-River, the River Thames When names of lakes are preceded by the noun lake (which is often the case), no article is used. Lake Baikal, Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake Balaton 5. Names of mountain chains and groups of islands are used with the definite article. the Rocky Mountains (the Rockies), the Himalayas, the Alps, the Urals, the British Isles, the Philippines, the Canaries, the Kuriles, the Bahamas, the Maldives 50 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Names of separate mountain peaks and separate islands are used without any article. But: Etna, Vesuvius, Elbrus, Everest, Cuba, Cyprus, Haiti, Fair Isle, Madagascar, Barbados, Bermuda (but: the Bermuda Triangle) the Isle of Man. 6. Names of bays and peninsulas take no article. Hudson Bay, Mexican Bay, Kamchatka, Scandinavia, Taimir The definite article is used if the word “peninsula” itself is used. the Balkan Peninsula, the Kola Peninsula, the Scandinavian Peninsula 7. Names of deserts generally take the definite article. the Sahara Desert, the Gobi, the Kara-Kum, the Kalahari 8. No article is used with the names of stations, airports and bridges. Victoria Station, Gatwick, Vnukovo Airport, Tower Bridge, London Bridge, Krimsky Bridge But: the Brooklyn Bridge, the Bridge of Sighs. 9. Geographic names that generally don’t take any article may be used: 1) with the definite article when there is a limiting attribute: The Russia of the 21st century will be very different from the Russia of the 20th century. In “Ivanhoe” Walter Scott described the England of the Middle Ages. 51 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The definite article is necessary, if a geographic name is in the plural. The two Americas have a great variety of climatic zones. Why have the winds of all the Russias blown into Jasper’s club? The definite article is used in the combinations of the type: the City of New York, the Cape of Good Hope, the Lake of Geneva, the Village of Dubrovo. 2) with the indefinite article when there is a descriptive attribute, or if it is implied: It was a new Russia that he found on his return. There will always be an England for me. They found themselves in a steel and concrete London. The Use of Articles with Proper Names 1. There is no article with names of universities, colleges and schools. Moscow University, Oxford University, Trinity College, King’s College, Heaton Manor School, Salisbury Grammar School 2. Names of theatres, museums, picture galleries, concert halls, cinemas, clubs and hotels are used with the definite article. the Bolshoi Theatre, the Opera House, the British Museum, the National Gallery, the Forum, the Continental or (the) Continental Hotel 52 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3. Names of famous trains, ships, yachts and boats are used with the definite article. the Orient Express, (the) Titanic, the Sedov, the Beauty of the West, “the Magnolia”, “the Beautiful Dreamer” 4. Names of English and American newspapers are generally used with the definite article. the Daily Telegraph, the Independent, the Times, the Observer, the Financial Times, the Sun, the Star Names of foreign newspapers take no article: Le Monde, Moskovski Komsomolets, Arguments and Facts Names of magazines as a rule take no article (though it is possible). Times, House Beautiful, Punch, the Spectator, Cosmopolitan, Newsweek, Vogue, Forum, Computer Weekly, Hello!, Goal! But: The Yellow Pages, The Spectator, The New Yorker. 5. Names of months and days of the week are usually used without any article. January, February, Monday, Tuesday Compare: We met on Friday. (Ìû âñòðåòèëèñü â ïÿòíèöó (ïðîøëóþ). We met on a Friday. (Ìû âñòðåòèëèñü â îäíó èç ïÿòíèö). Last year my birthday fell on a Monday. 53 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 6. Names of most organizations and political parties are used with the definite article. the the the the the the But: Kremlin, the Senate, the Capitol, the Government, United Nations, the State Duma, the Pentagon, Navy, the Army, the Liberal Party, London City Council, the FBI, the EC, BBC, the World Bank, the Stock Exchange, International Monetary Fund Parliament, Congress, Whitehall, Downing Street. 7. Names of languages are used without any article unless the noun “language” is mentioned. English, French, Japanese But: the English (French, Japanese) language. 8. Names of sport events take the definite article. the Olympic Games, the World Cup, the World Championship No article is used if a geographic name is used to indicate some sport competition. Wimbledon (tennis), Luzhniki (football), Ascot and Epsom (horse races), Henley (rowing) 9. Names of musical groups are used with the definite article if the noun is in the plural. the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, the Eurythmics, the Supremes, the Cardigans In other cases no article is used. Queen, ABBA, Gorky Park, Genesis, A-Ha 54 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 10. Names of highways (motorways) and roads generally take the definite article. the Al, the M3, the New Seattle Highway 11. Names of internationally known prizes take the definite article. the Nobel Prize, the Booker Prize, the Pulitzer Prize My cousin Tom received the Nobel Prize for Literature. Mother Teresa of Calcutta got the Templeton Prize in 1973. The Use of Articles with Names of Persons 1. Generally no article is used with names of persons as they point out individuals. Tom, Mary, Mrs. Wilson, Mr. Robinson, Ms. Loveday No article is used either if names of persons are modified by such descriptive attributes as little, old, dear, poor, honest, with which they form close units. Lucky Jim, Old Jolyon, Poor Smith, Dear Old Emily 2. The indefinite article is used to indicate one member of a family or a certain person having the name in question. She was a true Dobson. A Mr. Parker to see you, sir. 3. The definite article is used with a name in the plural to indicate the whole family, also if the noun has a limiting attribute. the Forsytes, the Dobsons, the Peacocks, the Romanovs 55 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс — We met Michael Swan in London University. — Do you mean the Michael Swan who wrote the book “How English works”? — Exactly. And just look at me now. I’m a completely different person from the old Becky. 4. We find no article with the names of members of a family (Mother, Father, Aunt, Uncle, Baby, Cook, Nurse, Grandmother) when they are treated as proper names by the members of the family. In this case such nouns are usually written with a capital letter. Mother is still resting. Is Nurse back? There is also no article with nouns in direct address: — How is my wife, doctor? — Don’t worry, sir, she’s fine. Well, young man, how are things? 5. Sometimes names of persons change their meaning and become common countable nouns if: 1) the name of a scientist, painter, inventor or manufacturer is used to denote his work, a prize, or an award. a Webster, a Goya, a Ford, a Faberge, an Oscar, a Emmy 2) the characteristic qualities of the bearer of the name (but not the person himself) are meant. He is a typical Kazanova. You are a true Tarzan. This fellow’s really a Jack-of-all trades. Mozart was called the Raphael of music. He had a talent to become a Dickens, a Henry James, a Flaubert. 56 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 6. If a personal name has a descriptive attribute, it takes an indefinite article to describe a temporary state or a new image of the person. A scared Michelle opened the door. A new Adrian Mole is emerging from the ashes. The definite article is used with a personal name (having a descriptive attribute) to describe a permanent state, or traits of character. Now she was playing the practical, sensible Cora, the woman who always got things done. Articles with Nouns in Apposition 1. As a rule, a countable noun in the singular in the function of an apposition takes the indefinite article (its classifying meaning is strongly felt in this case). My friend, a student, joined the club. “I’m sure you know Mr. Hard, a professor at McGill,” she reminded. Boris, a professional skateboarder, explained the rules. 2. The definite article is used with a noun in apposition when: 1) it refers to a well-known person: Pushkin, the great Russian poet, was very fond of autumn. 2) it has a limiting attribute or is clear from the situation: He left his coat on the table, the cashmere coat, which he had bought in London. It’s Mr. Hooks, the newspaper editor, he wants to see you. 57 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3. If the apposition precedes the proper name, it takes the definite article. the painter Turner, the composer Britten, the student Ognev 4. Nouns in apposition are generally used without any article if they denote a position, rank, state, post or occupation, which is, as a rule, unique, and can be occupied by only one person at a time. Here belong such nouns as: king, queen, president, prime-minister, head, rector, director, dean, manager, chief, principal, etc. The noun in this case usually has an “of-phrase” attribute. His father was now President of the second largest electronic corporation in the world. Mr. Jackson, superintendant of the school, was an old man. Mr. Dodson, director of the theatre, was an actor as well. But we use the article to denote a person himself: The Queen of the Netherlands visited Russia last year. The Prime-Minister made an announcement yesterday. The Dean has come. The President is in Japan now. Compare the following: Listen, Nigel. As long as Bruce is head of this company, he will handle all our top customers. He’s still chairman. You see, as the managing director of the firm, he has the last word. 5. When nouns denoting titles, military ranks or posts are followed by a proper name no article is used. Doctor Watson, Professor Jones, Colonel Pickering, Queen Elisabeth, King John, Princess Fiona, Sir William, Admiral Nelson, Academician Vinogradov 58 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Articles with the Nouns bed, school, town, college, hospital, jail, prison, market, table 1. There are a number of countable nouns in English which are often used without any article, as they change their meanings and become uncountable and denote process rather than a concrete thing: But: to go to school — to study, to be in full-time education to be in hospital — to be ill, to be a patient to send someone to prison — to imprison a person for doing something wrong to go to bed — to go to sleep to go to church — to go to pray to be at table — to have some meal to be at the table — to study, to write or to read something. 2. When these nouns denote concrete objects (buildings) they can take either article. Compare: He was sent to prison for five years (= he was a prisoner). She went to the prison to visit John (= the building is meant). Compare also: The shabby-looking man said he had just got out of prison. Though it was quite a normal prison, he said that still prison is prison. A new church was built nearby. 59 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс He sat up on the side of the bed. Library books are not to be taken outside the school. Life in a provincial town was unbearable for him. There is a new hospital in (the) town, not far from the church. Let’s put the coffee table opposite the bed. There is a church in Suzdal, which I especially like. My friend works at a paediatrics hospital. The noun “town” used in prepositional phrases, doesn’t take any article when it denotes the nearest big centre of population as opposed to “the country”. (Also when the town we live in is meant). I’ll be out of town next week. We had lunch in town. In winter we prefer to live in town, not in the country. The Use of Articles in With-, Like-, In-phrases 1. A countable noun in the singular generally takes the indefinite article in adverbial and attributive phrases, introduced by the conjunctions: 1) In: But: in a hurry, in a whisper, in a loud (low) voice in loud voices 2) With: with a look (nod, smile, yawn) 3) Like: She swims like a fish. She sings like a bird. He works like a demon. He sleeps like a log. It seems like a dream. They are like a cat with a mouse. He lives like a rolling stone. But: They behave like children. 60 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 4) As: She was as happy as a lark. She was as pretty as a calendar picture. He was as busy as a bee. It was as light as a feather. That was as easy as falling off a log. A change is as good as a rest. He felt as nervous as a kitten. 2. No article is used in the phrases if the noun is uncountable. in (with) surprise, in (with) anger, in fury It was as black as night. She was as white as snow. It was as green as grass. It was as soft as butter. The Use of Articles in and with Of-phrases Depending on the context or situation the of-phrase may be either descriptive or limiting to the head-noun. 1. The definite article is used with the head noun if this head noun denotes part of the whole, expressed by the of-phrase. the the the the the top of a/the hill, the bottom of a/the lake, end/beginning of a/the story, figure (profile, shadow, face) of a/the man, roof of a/the house, middle (depth, width) of a/the river 2. If the noun in the of-phrase is used in a general sense (in the plural mostly) it takes no article. The head noun may take either article. The definite article is used according to the situation, the indefinite one expresses oneness. a/the set of stories a/the box of matches a/the party of people a/the box of sweets a/the flock of birds a/the team of players 61 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3. If the noun in the of-phrase is a material or an abstract one, no article is used with it, and the head noun may be used either with the indefinite or with the definite article. a/the a/the a/the a/the a/the stick of chalk block of ice article of furniture heap of rubbish sense of humour a/the a/the a/the a/the a/the bar of chocolate item of news strip of land word of advice breath of air The Use of Articles with Some Set-Phrases and Free Combinations 1. No article is used in set-phrases with the prepositions from… to, in which we find two different nouns: from head to foot, from top to toe, from start to finish, from top to bottom, from beginning to end. 2. We find no article in set-phrases with the same noun connected by different prepositions: hand in hand, arm in arm, shoulder to shoulder, word for word, side by side, face to face, step by step, line by line, day after day, night after night, year after year. 3. The article is not used in free combinations in which the same noun is repeated after the prepositions from… to: from tree to tree, from street to street, from term to term, from word to word, from day to day. The number of nouns thus used is practically unlimited. 62 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 4. There is generally no article with homogeneous parts of a sentence going in pairs: Horse and rider; Husband and wife; Lock and key; Mother and child. 5. A considerable number of nouns have no article when they are used in adverbial prepositional phrases: by by by on on tube, by train, by plane, by boat, by bus, air (sea), by post, by accident, by chance, mistake, at hand, at home, off hand, in person, deck, on foot, on tiptoes, at sea, on hand, on leave, business, on holiday. The Adjective 1. The adjective is a part of speech which modifies the noun. Adjectives can express qualities (large, modern, quiet), physical and emotional states (cold, busy, friendly, happy), origin (American, Asian), opinions (excellent, fantastic, cool), frequency (weekly, daily, regular). According to their morphological composition adjectives can be simple (young, new, fresh), derived (careful, woody, rainy), compound (well-known, much-praised, man-made). All adjectives fall into two groups — qualitative and relative. Qualitative adjectives denote properties of a substance directly (great, calm, gold, beautiful). Relative adjectives describe properties of a substance through relation to some material (woollen, wooden, golden, cotton, glass, plastic, metal), to place (Italian, European), to time (ancient, contemporary). 63 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Compare: Sun eclipses are rare. Sunny weather makes me happy. This gold watch is a piece of art. Everybody admires her golden hair. This is the golden age of communications. When two or more adjectives come before a noun, the usual word order is: Opinion-Value-Size-Age-Shape-Colour-Origin-Material-Temperature a pretty little wooden house (value + size + material) a beautiful old red London bus (value + age + colour + origin) This word order is not compulsory. Sometimes a short adjective comes before a long one: a soft, comfortable chair; a happy, peaceful home; a tall, handsome man; a bright, cheerful smile. The adjective big generally comes before value adjectives: a big bad wolf, a big tall building, a big handsome man, a big fat woman. 2. Adjectives are used in the sentence in the functions of an attribute or of a predicative: He always drinks cold milk. He was cold and miserable. Adjectives denoting temporary states are used only predicatively: ill, well, unwell; as well as adjectives with the prefix -a: afraid, alike, alive, alone, asleep, awake, aware (of), ashamed. She doesn’t look very well today. — I feel faint. — Are you ill? We are aware that he is ashamed. 64 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс In the figurative meaning the adjective ill can be used attributively. A March wind is an ill wind, my mother used to say. It happened by ill luck that she was out. Did you get any ill effects after the operation? 3. Adjectives have degrees of comparison: the comparative and the superlative degrees. The adjective expressing some quality without comparison is said to be in the positive degree. An equal or an unequal degree is expressed with the help of the conjunctions: as … as, not as (so) … as, twice as … as, three times as … as, etc. There’s nothing harder than to apologize. “Sorry” is the hardest word. She is as old as I am. He is not as clever as he seems to be. This dictionary is twice as expensive as that one. The atmosphere at home is as thick as treacle. The comparative and the superlative degrees of comparison are formed in the synthetic, analytic and suppletive ways. The synthetic degrees of comparison are formed by adding the inflections -er, -est (fine — finer — finest) to the adjectives having one or two syllables. Will it be warmer or colder tomorrow? The grass is greener, the sky is bluer, the birds are tweetier after my recovery. It was the greatest day in his life. Kids always say the funniest things. 65 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The analytic degrees are formed by means of “more” and “most” (difficult — more difficult — most difficult). It’s a difficult question, the second one is more difficult, but the third one is the most difficult. Some adjectives can form their degrees of comparison in both ways. Here belong: angry, clever, common, cruel, friendly, gently, handsome, narrow, pleasant, polite, quiet, simple. It can be presented in the following table: Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives The form Positive Comparative Superlative Synthetic nice nicer nicest (one/two syllables) hot hotter hottest long longer longest happy happier happiest -er -est Analytical interesting more interesting most interesting (three or more syllables) beautiful more beautiful most beautiful comfortable more comfortable most comfortable serious more serious most serious more most Some adjectives can have either form. Compare: angry, clever, common, cruel, friendly, gentle, handsome, narrow, pleasant, polite, quiet, simple. simple handsome 66 simpler simplest more simple most simple handsomer handsomest more handsome most handsome АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Several adjectives form their degrees of comparison irregularly, in the suppletive way when some other words are used to build up the forms. good — better — best bad — worse — worst little — less — least many — more — most I’m sure it’s a better way out. You’re the best of the very best. We all start off with the best intentions in life. This furniture takes less space. He is the least sociable person at the office. Suppletive Adjectives (formed from different words) Positive Comparative Superlative good better best bad worse worst little less least many more most It’s a good day today. The weather is better today. It’s the best day in the whole summer. He made little progress in his studies. He spends less time on his studies this year. He has made the least progress in the group. She said goodbye to her many friends. She had more friends than we expected her to have. Most shops will be open at this time. 67 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Double Degrees of Comparison later (более поздний) late (поздний) the latter (the former) («последний из двух перечисленных» the latest (последний, самый новый) last («прошлый» во времени) the last («последний» по порядку) Let’s go by a later train. I usually watch the latest news. I met Max and Henry in the street. The former («первый») said “Hello”, but the latter («последний») didn’t recognize me. Last year we went to the Crimea. Read the last sentence, please. near («близкий») nearer («более близкий») nearest («ближайший» в значении «расстояния» в прямом и переносном смысле) next («следующий» по времени) (the) next («следующий» по порядку) Let’s sit nearer to the stage. We can have a snack in the nearest cafe. What are your nearest plans? I’ll see Ann next week. The next stop is yours. Обе формы обозначают расстояние: far («дальний», «далекий») farther («более дальний») farthest («самый дальний») further («дальнейший», «последующий») furthest («самый дальний») He went farther (further) into the wood. They sat at the farthest (furthest) table. We are waiting for further instructions. There was no further comment. 68 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû old («старый») older («старше по возрасту» oldest («самый старший» по возрасту) elder («старший» — родственные отношения) eldest («самый старший» по положению) Mary is three years older than Peter. He is the oldest of the five children. Boris is my elder brother. Andrew is very young, but he is the eldest at our office. Compare the following: This country is no further (or farther) by sea than by land. I have nothing further to say. No further comment. Note 1. When you compare one thing or person to other members of the group, you should use the words other or else with the comparative degree. Thus you can’t say, “You are smarter than any person in this room”. You must say, “You are smarter than any other person (or anyone else) in this class.” Remember, that when you compare two things, you must use the comparative degree, when you compare three or more things, you should use the superlative degree. Both examples are good, but I think that the first one is better (two examples are compared). All the examples are good, but I think that the first one is the best (you compare several examples). Compare also: Of Orwell’s two satires, I think “Animal Farm” is the better. “Animal Farm” is the best of Orwell’s works. 69 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Note 2. Some adjectives called absolute adjectives, describe qualities which mean 100 percent of the quality involved. Thus they can’t be used in the comparative or in the superlative degree: middle, dead, immaculate, pregnant, supreme, left, empty, perfect, square, round, wooden, medical, full, perpendicular, unique. For example, a glass of water can not be fuller or fullest or most full. We can show the difference in degrees by using such words as almost or nearly. The flowers are nearly dead from the cold. Those over there are almost dead. Note 3. Compound adjectives form their degrees in the following ways: well-off — better-off — best-off well-read — better-read — best-read well-known — better-known — best-known good-natured — better-natured — best-natured fine-looking — finer-looking — finest-looking light-minded — lighter-minded — lightest-minded strong-willed — stronger-willed — strongest-willed You can also say: or: He is more well-read than I am. More so than I am. Note 4. Remember the adjectives ending in “-ly”: daily practice friendly people a lively child a homely dog an early bird a lovely time What started as a weekly ritual soon became almost a daily one. 70 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс A diary is a book in which people may keep a dailyweekly-monthly record of important events in their lives. Intensification of the Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives 1) The Positive degree can be intensified with the help of such words as ever so, this, that, dead, pretty, most to express a high or a very high degree of quality, but not the highest. The film is ever so interesting. “I didn’t expect your blood pressure to be this high,” said the doctor. It wasn’t going to be that simple. Listen, I am dead serious about it. My salary is pretty laughable, but I like the job. It’s a most puzzling crossword. Mind, it’s most urgent. 2) The Comparative degree can be made more emphatic with the help of repetition, also by the use of the words no, far, much, a great deal, a lot, etc. The sooner the better. The less said, the better. The more I think about it, the less it makes sense. The less money we have, the less we spend. The more original a discovery, the more obvious it seems afterwards. Life would be far better if everyone could simply do their jobs properly. Fred had hardly disappeared when someone far less welcome turned up. I find it a lot easier to travel when you know languages. Your offer is much (a great deal, far) better than Alex’s. 71 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3) The Superlative degree of adjectives can sometimes be intensified by very, by far, also by means of adjectives like possible, desirable, available, imaginable. These are my very best impressions. She is by far the best teacher we have. This is the fastest car available. It’s the best way out possible. Problem Adjectives There are some adjectives which present considerable difficulties for English language learners. To the most confusing ones belong: historic great, important events, changes, decisions 1 historical connected with history, part of it The discovery of penicillin was a historic event. They played their part in the historical process. It was a historic change for the country. It is documented in the historical archives. Man’s flight into the cosmos was a historic event. These are manuscripts of historical interest. Historical (or historic) books, pictures, etc., describe people, things, or situations that existed in the past: historical novels, a historical representation of the war, actors in historical costumes, the play now has historic rather than aesthetic merit, historical methods. 72 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû 2 classic classical something of a very high quality, or standard, a very good example of a style, a book, a movement, a piece of art, etc. something traditional in style, form, or content London is the classic example of a scattered city. Classical music is music that is considered to be serious and of lasting value. This statement was a classic illustration of British politeness. Ancient Greek and Roman classical plays are never off the stage. I prefer the classic style in architecture. She is studying classical languages (Arabic). economic economical connected with economics using little of money, time, effort, language, etc. It was a period of economic crisis. 3 We offer tuition in classical ballet. The country is facing great economic difficulties. What has gone wrong with the economic system of the country? She’s a very economical housewife. This car is very economical. It needs little petrol. She spoke in short, economical sentences. For the use of the adjectives of the kind: synthetic(al), analytic(al), electric(al), music(al) consult a reliable dictionary. Substantivized Adjectives Adjectives can often become substantivized (become nouns). In such cases they are either wholly (fully), or partially substantivized. I. Wholly substantivized adjectives (converted into nouns) acquire all the features of nouns: number, case, articles. They denote: 73 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 1) Class nouns: a relative, a native, a savage, a criminal, a white, a black, a romantic, a cynic, a hopeful, a liberal, a conservative, a radical, a weekly, a daily, a monthly, a classic, a comic, etc. a native — natives — the natives’ huts a relative — relatives — the relative’s visit I’m a romantic by nature. “Swan Lake” has become a universal classic, though its first performance in 1877 was a flop. At school we read mostly “Enjoyable classics”. Almost a hundred hopefuls stood in a queue outside the theatre. You’re an incurable romantic, that’s what you are. 2) Names of some nationalities: a Russian, an American, a German, an Italian, a Greek. a Greek — Greeks — the Greek’s cooking Here also belong names of languages: English, Russian, German, French, etc. Russian is a much more difficult language than English. There are so many Englishes in the world. But: the English language, the Russian language. 3) Names of colours. Black suits you best. I like bottle green. The girl was dressed in red. Substantivized adjectives are often used to denote shades (tints) of colour. The picture was in greens and blues and the most glorious of yellows. 74 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Her hair was a glossy black. The green of the leaves looked fresh. The sky was a pale blue, the sea was a steel grey. II. Partially substantivized adjectives and Participles II take only one feature of the noun, mostly the definite article. They denote: 1) All the persons possessing some common quality or feature as a group, but not as separate individuals. the old, the young, the dead, the dumb, the rich, the poor, the civilized, the cultured, the privileged, the chosen, the wealthy, the homeless, the needy, the desperate, the hungry, the wounded, the unemployed, etc. Robin Hood took the money from the rich and gave it to the needy. The cheerful live longest in years. The strongest survive. He honoured the wise, the witty, and the wealthy. I, Adrian Mole, have read most of the Russian Greats and am about to embark on “War and Peace”. If you want to denote an individual, use the nouns man, woman, person or people: an old man, deaf and dumb people, a wealthy person, etc. Note: two partially substantivized short adjectives connected by “and” generally have no article. Old and young came to the celebration. But articles cannot be omitted in titles of books, films, etc. Last year I saw a few serials: “The Rich and the Famous”, “The Bold and the Beautiful”, “The Cool”, “The Charmed”. 75 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс I have in my library such books as “The Insulted and Humiliated”, “The Possessed” by F. Dostoevsky, “The Miserable” by V. Hugo, “The Red and the Black” by Stendhal. 2) Names of nations ending in -sh, -ch, -ss which require the definite article to denote the whole nation: the French, the Irish, the Spanish, the Swiss, etc. The English are proud of their police. The Dutch are famous for their tulips. If separate members of the nation are meant, the nouns man and woman or people are used: an Englishman, a Frenchwoman, English people. 3) Abstract notions: the beautiful, the unbelievable, the mystic, the mysterious, the supernatural, the impossible, the cool, the cold, the dark, the good, the bad, the immediate, the unknown, etc. She dreamed of the impossible. We got lost in the dark. The unexpected is always frightening. If only the impossible became the possible. Hemingway wrote: “I can tell the bad from the good.” 4) Adjectives are substantivized in the following prepositional set-phrases: in the negative (positive, affirmative), to the quick, in the open, on the whole, in the main, in short, in general, to get the better of something, a change for the better (for the worse), for the best of, not in the least, all of a sudden, out of the blue, to leave for good, for smb’s own good, to be in the dark, to do smth for the good of…, to the full, etc. 76 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Numeral I. The numeral is a part of speech denoting number or order. Numerals may be used in the sentence in the function of: 1. an attribute Ten people are wanted for the job. The second song was a great hit. 2. a predicative My son is twenty and my daughter is twenty-two. 3. the subject, an object or an adverbial modifier when substantivized. Seven is a lucky number. The two left the office early. We often invited them to make a four at tennis. I am teaching the child to count by tens. II. Numerals fall into cardinals and ordinals. 1. Cardinal numerals are used in counting and answer the question “How many?” She has three questions to ask. He caught four fish yesterday. There are ten students in my class. John has two cars. All cardinal numerals may become substantivized and turn into nouns. Take this actress. At sixty seven she’s still a size eight. The four played a game of cards. Hundreds went to the show. Hundreds of millions of pounds were lost. 77 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Mind that if the numerals hundred, thousand, million are modified by another numeral, they take no plural ending. Compare: five hundreds of people – five hundred people three thousands of children – three thousand children two millions of citizens – two million citizens An average Hollywood film costs $27 million to make. We count: by tens, by hundreds, by thousands, also by the hundred, by the thousand. The child learned to count by tens. Cops were walking in twos and threes. Remember the following idioms with numerals: to be dressed to the nines, to be on cloud nine (with joy, happiness), to be in seventh heaven, to be at sixes and sevens…, on all fours. The children crawled up the steps on all fours. She was dressed to the nines, yes, she was dressed to kill. I am at sixes and sevens with the world. The room is at sixes and sevens. 2. Ordinal numerals denote order or position and answer the question “Which?” Most of them are formed from cardinal numerals by means of the suffix -th (sixth, seventh, etc.), except first, second, and third. Ordinal numerals which modify nouns are usually preceded by the definite article: The distance is nothing; it is only the first step that is difficult. 78 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс She answered on the first ring. Character consists of what you do on the third and fourth tries. Compare the following: text one page two note three test four the the the the first text second page third note fourth test The indefinite article may also be used with the ordinal numeral. In such cases the meaning will be “an additional one”, “one more”. He opened a second beer. She accepted the offer without a second thought. Soon I’ll start learning a second foreign language. You are like a second family to me. This report offers a third way out of the crisis. She is learning to dress like a first lady. As he says, he is a fourth-generation cop. Remember some set phrases of the kind: a first night, a first love, a first-class college, a second-rate stamp, a first step, etc. The young people met at a first night of “Hamlet”. A first love is never forgotten. She had a curious sixth sense about men. Mine is a third-generation computer. III. Fractional numbers. In fractional numbers the numerator is a cardinal numeral and the denominator is an ordinal (used as a noun): two-thirds, three-sixths. Decimal fractions: 1.62 = one, point six, two. 79 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс IV. The spoken forms of 0 are: 1. nought ([nɔːt]) 2. zero (['zɪərəʊ]) 3. Î ([əʊ]) 4. nil or nothing used in mathematics — 0.7 = nought point seven .07 = point nought seven used in science, for example, in temperatures — –15 C = minus fifteen degrees or fifteen degrees below zero used in telephone numbers — 01–500–3026 = î one — five double î — three î two six used in scores in such games as football — 2 : 0 = the score was two nothing or two nil V. 1. Books use various numbering systems, including Roman numerals: I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, etc. for 1–10. 2. M = 1000, D = 500, C = 100, L = 50, X = 10, V = 5, I = 1. 3. Dates on monuments are also sometimes written in Roman, e. g. 1985 would be MCMLXXXV, where M = 1000 (CM = 1000 – 100 = 900), L = 50, XXX = 30 (i. e. 3*10), and V = 5. Note: a) In writing, spell out cardinal and ordinal numerals that can be written in one or two words. Always spell out numerals that open the sentence. There were twenty pages in the essay. (not 20) Five hundred and seventy people attended the conference. (not 570 …) b) Remember the punctuation marks when writing a sum of money: $2, 123.56. 80 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Fractional Numbers and Percentages половина 1 /2 a half* треть 1 /3 a third четверть 1 /4 a quarter одна пятая 1 /5 one fifth три четверти 3 /4 three quarters две трети 2 /3 two thirds полтора (полторы) 1 1/2 one and a half один и три четверти 1 3/4 one and three quarters ноль целых (и) пять десятых 0.5 nought point five одна целая семьдесят пять сотых 1.75 one point seven five двадцать шесть процентов 26% twenty-six per cent *Ho: half an hour, half an apple The Pronoun The Pronoun is a part of speech which points out things and qualities of things without naming them directly like nouns and adjectives do. Pronouns have a very general, relative character. Everyone can use the pronoun I and it will denote different people; the pronoun you denotes a person spoken to; the pronouns he, she, it denote people or objects being discussed. Due to their general and relative character pronouns are widely used in different languages as stand-ins (substitutes) for nouns. In the English language pronouns function either as nouns or as adjectives and can be classified into noun-pronouns and 81 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс adjective-pronouns. Noun-pronouns can have the function of the subject, object, and of the predicative in the sentence. I am a student. (subject) It’s me. (predicative) Explain it to me. (object) Tom should do it. (object) Adjective-pronouns can’t function independently, they modify the nouns they are used with. My life is hard, but still this is my life. I like some pop-music. I don’t like any rock music. Some pronouns have gender, case and number. Gender: he — masculine she — feminine it — neuter they — refers to all of them in the plural Case: only personal pronouns have cases — the Nominative Case and the Objective Case. I — me, he — him, she — her, they — them Number in the system of pronouns can be expressed in different ways: I — we; he, she, it — they; this — these; that — those; one — ones; other — others; yourself — yourselves. Some pronouns are always singular in meaning (each, every, (a) little, much, everything, something, nothing). Others are only plural (many, (a) few, both, several). Many pronouns 82 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс have one form for the singular and for the plural meaning (any, some, who, which). All is well. But: Everybody is here. Who is this boy? Who are those girls? Pronouns are very numerous. According to their meaning all pronouns fall into the following groups: 1. Personal: I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they 2. Possessive: me, your, his, her, its, our, your, their mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs 3. Demonstrative: it, this, these, that, those, same, such 4. Interrogative: who (whom), whose, which, what (in questions) 5. Relative: who (whom), whose, which, that (in attributive clauses) 6. Conjunctive: who (whom), whose, which, what (in different subordinate clauses) 7. Self-pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves 8. Reciprocal: each other, one another 9. Negative: no, nobody (no one), none, nothing (in negative sentences) 10. Indefinite: some, any, no (and their compounds), all, both, each, every (and its compounds), other, another, one, much, many, (a) little, (a) few 83 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Personal Pronouns Personal Pronouns have two cases — the Nominative Case and the Objective Case. Nominative Case Objective Case I he she it we you me him her it us you they them He sang only to her and only for her. When a personal pronoun is a subject, or a predicative of the sentence, it is used in the Nominative Case in official, formal style. The chairman and I were the speakers that day. It was they who founded the society. In informal, colloquial style the use of the objective case of the personal pronoun has become standard in Modern English. That’s her. It was them. Hello, is that me you are looking for? The Objective Case of the personal pronoun is used after such prepositions as between, up, but (in the meaning of except), except, without. The secret was between Bob and me. It’s up to them, not to us. He said he would never marry any other woman but her. But for him, we would not know what to do. 84 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс If the pronoun follows than or as we can use me, him, etc. (informal style) or I, he, etc. with a verb (more formal). Also in short answers. Compare: Informal More Formal “I’m scared.” “Me too.” “I’m scared.” “I am too/So am I.” “Who’s calling?” “Him.” “Who is calling?” “He is.” She’s as intelligent as him. She is as intelligent as he is. He is a quicker learner than me. He is a quicker learner than I am. We get more money than them. We get more money than they do. Possessive Pronouns The Possessive Pronouns have two forms — the Conjoint Form and the Absolute Form. Possessive Pronouns Personal Pronouns the Conjoint Form (pronoun + noun) the Absolute Form (pronoun — no noun) I you he she it we they my your his her its our their mine yours his hers — ours theirs I have a disk. It’s my disk. The disk is mine. They build a house. — Is it their house? — No, theirs is new. She has a friend. Tim is her friend. Tim is a friend of hers. It is an old city. Moscow is proud of its history. He wrote a test. His mark was good. It’s my paper, not his. 85 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The conjoint form of the pronoun is always followed by a noun. Your idea is interesting. His hair is black and shiny. My mother used to say that in every story there is always her side, his side, and the truth. The absolute form is used absolutely, without any noun and may have different functions in the sentence. He is a big fan of hers. I like that idea of yours. The car is not his, it’s theirs. You know that what’s mine is yours. You scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours. Ñâîäíàÿ òàáëèöà ëè÷íûõ è ïðèòÿæàòåëüíûõ ìåñòîèìåíèé Personal Possessive the Nominative Case the Objective Case the Conjoint Form the Absolute Form I you he she it we you they me you him her its us you them my your his her its our your their mine yours his hers — ours yours theirs Demonstrative Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns have number — the singular and the plural. this — these, that — those 86 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The general demonstrative meaning of these pronouns is near and distant reference in time and space. This/these identify something near to the speaker, they are associated with “here”. That/those identify something farther from the speaker; they are associated with “there”. this room — that house; this year — that day these rooms — those houses; these years — those days Singular Plural Remember: this (этот, эта, это) that (тот, та, то) this week, this year, that week, that year, this file, this method that file, that method these (эти) those (те) these weeks, these years, those weeks, those years, these files, these methods those files, those methods — I’m sorry to trouble you. — That’s all right. — Are you Mr. Grant? — Yes, that’s right. — Hello, this is Olga. Is that Julia? (в телефонных разговорах) Indefinite Pronouns all any another both each either every nothing no none other/s one plenty several some many much (a) little (a) few a lot of 87 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Some, Any, No and their Compounds The pronouns some and any (when used both as noun-pronouns and as adjective-pronouns) indicate indefinite qualities and quantities. Both can be used with all classes of nouns in the singular and in the plural. Some (something, somebody, someone) any (anything, anybody, anyone) no (nothing, nobody, no-one) some, something, somebody (= someone) any, anything, anybody (= anyone) no, nothing, nobody (= no-one) несколько, некоторое количество, что-то, кто-то Affirmative sentences There are some good dictionaries in the shop. Interrogative and Negative sentences Are there any good dictionaries in the shop? There aren’t any good dictionaries in the shop. He brought some news. Did he bring any news? Negative sentences There are no good dictionaries in the shop. (более категорично) He brought no news. He didn’t bring any news. There is something new for me in this article. Is there anything new for you in this article? There is nothing new for me in this article. There isn’t anything new for me in this article. Someone knows his address. 88 Does anyone know his address? Nobody knows his address. АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû Affirmative sentences Interrogative and Negative sentences Negative sentences Remember: Any in these cases means «любой», «кто-либо», «все, что угодно». Some is used when you offer or ask for something. Any child likes toys. Would you like some juice? We are interested in any information. I can give you anything you need. If anyone calls, tell me about it. If she wants anything, she’ll get it. — Is anything the matter? — Nothing is the matter. No news is good news. Will you have some more salad? Can I have some tea, please? Could you lend me some money? 1) Some usually expresses an indefinite number or amount or indefinite quality. I picked some apples from our tree. Now we shall order some nice food. You must think of some plan. It happened some ten years ago. As a rule, some is used in affirmative sentences. In interrogative and negative sentences the pronouns any or no are used. However, some remains in interrogative and negative sentences when the question or negation does not concern the part of the sentence containing “some”. 89 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Can I offer you some tea? Shall we invite some of your friends too? I could not find some of my books. Not all your answers are correct. Some are, some aren’t. 2) Any is used in interrogative and negative sentences instead of “some”. Any may be used as an adverbial modifier of degree in the sentence. Is there any way out? There can’t be any. He isn’t any better today. Any in affirmative sentences means “it does not matter who, what or which” and corresponds to the Russian «ëþáîé, âñÿêèé, êàêîé óãîäíî». Come any day you like. Any child knows it. “What book shall I give you?” — “Any will do.” The Pronoun One The pronoun one is used only with countable nouns and has the plural form — ones and the possessive case — one’s. The pronoun one is used: a) to stand for people: One should be careful in such matters. One can do well in college if one budgets time carefully. b) to express some vague time: One day I’ll tell you my secret. I dream that one day trains will run on time. 90 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс c) to avoid the repetition of the same noun (as a word-substitute): My house is the first one on the left. He had perfect white teeth like the ones in a toothpaste advertisement. — How are your little ones? — They are very fine. d) with the meaning of “only” or “single”: Your father is the one man to help me. This is the one way to do it. The Pronouns A Lot Of, Much and Many Much means “a large amount” and modifies only uncountable nouns. I haven’t much time to spare. You needn’t bring much luggage. Many means “a large number” and modifies only countable nouns in the plural. He has many friends here. You haven’t made many mistakes this time. Much and many are used mainly in interrogative and negative sentences and in object clauses introduced by “if” or “whether”. Did you have much rain on your holiday? She hasn’t very much advice to give him. I wonder if many people will come to the party. In present-day English a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a great deal of, a large number of, a good many, a great many replace much and many in affirmative sentences. 91 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс A lot of is used with both countable and uncountable nouns, but only in affirmative sentences. I have a lot of work to do this week. I have a lot of things to do today. There is a lot of snow in the forest. There are a lot of icicles on the roofs. I know lots of girls who go out dancing every Saturday. A great many mistakes have been made by nearly everybody. Much and many can be used in affirmative sentences: a) when they are used as subjects or modify the subject of the sentence: Much depends on what he will say. Many think things will improve. Many people think the same. b) when much is used alone as a noun-pronoun in the function of an object. My father meant so much to me. I would give much to know what the matter is. c) when much and many are modified by such adverbs of degree, as so, too, as and how. We’ve got too many things to do today. Sorry, I’ve given you so much trouble. The pronouns much and many have degrees of comparison: much many 92 } more — most АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The task is more or less clear to me. Karl asked me many more questions about school. She has much more time this year than she had last year. Eventually you’ll get more and more computer wise. The Pronouns (A) Few, (A) Little The pronouns (a) little and (a) few are used as noun-pronouns and as adjective-pronouns. Much was said but little was done. (noun-pronoun) We have little time this week. (adjective-pronoun) Few will deny such an evident fact. (noun-pronoun) I have very few regrets about it. (adjective-pronoun) Little means “a small amount” and is used with uncountable nouns. Few means “a small number” and is used with countable nouns in the plural. I know little of his life. Few people can face it. Both little and few have a negative implication — they mean “not enough”. Few people would agree to that. We have little water. A little and a few have a positive meaning. They mean “some, though not much/many”. He earns a little money and can live quite comfortably on it. You should have a few things with you. 93 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Compare: I know little about painting (= almost nothing). I know a little about painting (= something). There is little change in her. (= almost no change) There is a little change in her. (= some change) He has few friends here. (= almost none) He has a few friends here. (=some friends) (A) Few, (A) Little Countable Nouns Uncountable Nouns a few (= some, several) «несколько» a little (= some) «немного» He made a few mistakes in his speech. Let’s discuss them. I’ve got a little free time now. I can speak to you. Tell us a few words about your trip. There is a little snow in the forest. We can go skiing. few (not many) «мало» little (not much) «мало» He made few mistakes in his paper and got a good mark. I’ve got little free time now. I can’t speak to you. Few people know about it. There is little snow in the forest. We can’t go skiing. Remember: (a) few, (a) little are not used in negative sentences, not many, not much are used instead He didn’t make many mistakes in his paper. I don’t have much free time now. There isn’t much snow in the forest. Not many people know about it. Little and few have degrees of comparison: little — less — least few — fewer — fewest 94 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The procedure took less time than we expected. Please make less noise. This child gives us the least trouble. He is the last but not the least important student here. There were fewer people at the library today. I do believe that if you use your brains, you will make fewer stupid mistake. Who has made the fewest mistakes? The Negative Pronoun No and the Negative Particle Not The pronoun no is used as an attribute with all classes of nouns both in the singular and in the plural and it’s the only modifier of the noun, which does not require either an article or an indefinite pronoun after it. Compare: No drum was heard. — Not a sound came. No trees could be seen. — Not a leaf stirred. I will give you no trouble. — Not a soul in sight. The pronoun no means “not… a”, when modifying a countable noun in the singular. I’ve no pen with me. = I haven’t a pen with me. It means “not… any” when modifying a countable noun in the plural or some uncountable nouns. I saw no children in the park. = I didn’t see any children in the park. We had no sugar. = We didn’t have any sugar. No is usually preferable before the subject: There was no table in the room. No stars could be seen. There are no comments. 95 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Every, Each These pronouns refer to the individual members of a group and combine only with singular countable nouns. Each stresses the separate individual, every the individual as a member of the group. Every rose has a thorn. I enjoyed every minute of every day in my life. The book is divided into three parts. Each part consists of five chapters. Each of us faces a choice sooner or later. Compare the examples in which every points out characteristics common for all the members of the group, while each describes them individually. Every teacher should approach each student as an individual. Every girl wants to get married; each has her own ideal. Every child got a present. Each got what he had wanted. 1) Every occurs in the following combinations: COUNTABLE NOUN in the singular Every + ONE (pronoun) Every functions as an attribute and must always be followed by a noun or the pronoun one. I’ve read every book in this library. Every cloud has a silver lining. “Have you checked all the invoices?” “Yes, I’ve checked every one.” She is always late for everything except her every meal. 96 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Every is widely used in frequency expressions. Every day brings new changes. We go shopping every Friday. My children go to the pictures every other Saturday. Granny visits us every third Sunday. 2) Each is used in the following combinations: COUNTABLE NOUN in the singular Each + ONE Mother gave each child a candy. The apples cost 15 pence each. He picked up the letters and examined each one carefully. The children each received something different. Each week one of us would host a party to raise money, and to raise our spirits. So each week we could forget wrongs done to us. Either, Neither Alternatives or distribution between two things or persons can be expressed by using the word either or its negative form neither (= not either). They both express a singular idea, i. e. (not) this one or (not) that one. When they are used as attributes to nouns in the pattern neither + Singular noun, the following verb is in the singular form: Either extreme is possible. Neither man knows the code. If you run after two hares, you will catch neither. 97 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс When they occur as pronouns, i. e. alone or in the patterns (n)either of + Plural noun (pronoun), there is a tendency to put the rest of the sentence into the plural: Either of these roads take(s) you downtown. Neither of these dresses really suit(s) you. Neither of you ever want to listen to me. Have either of you seen my keys? Either, neither can be used as adverbs: — It’s not my fault. — It’s not mine either. — Nobody likes the man. — We don’t like him either. I’m not old and neither is Michael. These pronouns can as well be used as part of the correlated coordinators to express alternatives or choices: She was neither shocked nor surprised. We can either stay in or go to the pictures. I neither smoke nor drink. The word either can also express a kind of condition: Either you go or I’ll report you. = If you don’t go, I will report you. No and None No is an attribute to a noun (i. e. no + noun). None is a pronoun (i. e. it is used on its own). Attribute There is no butter left. I have no problems. 98 Pronoun There is none. I have none. АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс No-negation is very frequent indeed with the verbs have and be. The most common collocations with them are: no chance, no evidence, no reason, no doubt, no need, no point, no sign, no way, no idea, no problem, no effect, no secret. In theory, none expresses a singular idea (i. e., not one). In practice the choice of the verb (is/are, was/were) is influenced by the noun which is replaced: Give me some honey. There is none (= no honey). Give me some oranges. There are none (= no oranges). When we use none of with a plural noun the verb can be either singular or plural, although the singular form is usually more formal: None of the faxes has/have arrived yet. All, Both, Half All and half can be followed by uncountable nouns as well as countable nouns in the plural. Give up all hopes of escape! All students have to take exams. Half the cake is eaten. Half the tourists are in the museum. Half an hour is enough for him to write the test. All, both, half, are often used with of + pronoun: all of you, all of us, all of them (similarly, both of you, both of us, both of them, half of you, half of us, half of them, half of it). All of them are my friends. Half of you are invited. 99 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс All is used in time expressions: all day, all afternoon, all evening, all night, all week, all year, etc. But: all the time, all the year round, all round the clock, all through the night. Mind the difference in the use of the article: All children like toys (children in general). All the children are already in bed (definite children). Both is followed only by countable nouns in the plural: Paul liked Mozart so much that he went to both concerts (or both the concerts). Both of my children are teenagers. Mind the place of pronouns: We all (both) know it (before a simple verbal predicate). We are all (both) here. The have all (both) come. (In compound predicates pronouns come after the first auxiliary verb). All or A/The Whole Prefer to use the whole with countable nouns in the singular. I read the whole book in one day. The whole is also more emphatic than all. I’ve spent the whole day washing and cleaning and shopping! 100 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 1) a whole + noun The cat looked thin, and I gave it a whole tin of cat food. Things are quiet at the office and I’m going to take a whole hour for lunch. Lily has a sweet tooth. She can eat a whole box of chocolates at a time. My father once bought a whole island without telling my mother. And then I thought: I have a whole future ahead of me. 2) the whole + (of) (the) + noun The whole of the city was lit up for the occasion. This actor knows the whole of “Hamlet” by heart. It was the old adage “Smile and the whole world smiles with you.” Other — the other; Others — the others 1. The word other is used as an attribute to nouns (e. g. other plans, other countries, in other words, some other people). The other is used when the choice is out of two persons or objects. One hand washes the other. The grass is always greener on the other side of the road. I have two friends. One is a doctor, the other (of the two) is a teacher. She has strange eyes. One is black, the other is grey. “You are a pair,” I smiled. “Each as stubborn as the other.” 101 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2. Others is used instead of a noun (it is a noun-pronoun) and has a very general character. Some people like coffee, others prefer tea. You shouldn’t tell such things to others. Some pilot projects are completed, others are underway. Some books are worth reading, others are just a waste of time. The others is used to refer to the rest of the group or things. He sat far away from the others. She felt superior to the others. We shall wait until the others come back. Only three students are present. Where are the others? Self-Pronouns (Reflexives) Personal Pronouns Self-Pronouns (Reflexives) I you he she it we you they myself yourself himself herself itself ourselves yourselves themselves Self-pronouns are either reflexive or emphatic. 102 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 1. A reflexive pronoun can be used in the sentence as an object, attribute, predicative, an adverbial modifier. He thinks too much of himself. She is beside herself with anger. She didn’t like that photograph of herself. I’m like a cat that walks by itself. He doesn’t have too many friends. He keeps himself to himself. 2. The Russian reflexive meaning («-ñÿ») can be expressed in English by: 1) the construction “verb + oneself”. The audience laughed itself stupid. His way of expressing himself is rather strange. Make yourself comfortable and help yourself to the cakes. He settled himself on the nearest stool. 2) the verb in the active voice. They met but soon parted. She washed, dressed and came downstairs. 3) the verb in the passive voice. The house is being built in the country. The text was being translated. 4) phrasal verbs and phraseological units like: to ask for something, to take the trouble of doing something, to back down, to be back, can’t help doing, it goes without saying, etc. You are asking for trouble, my boy. He didn’t even take the trouble of phoning us. 103 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3. An emphatic self-pronoun should be placed after the word it emphasizes or at the end of the sentence. He himself told me about it. I have thought of it myself. Life itself proves it. They themselves phoned us. Interrogative (Question) Pronouns Interrogative pronouns who? what? which? whose? are used, unsurprisingly, to ask questions. Who ate my cake? What does he do? Which cat is yours? Whose idea was it? The pronoun who can be subject or object: Who teaches you? Who does she teach? The objective form of the interrogative pronoun whom? is now rarely used except in formal style, especially in the pattern preposition + whom. Compare: To whom should I apply? Who should I apply to? For whom would I be working? Who can I trust? Although the interrogative who is much more common than the objective form whom, still whom should be used in the cases like: There was a man whom nobody knew. They had one child whom they idolized. He couldn’t forget the girl whom he had met on the train. 104 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Relative and Conjunctive Pronouns Pronouns who(m), which, whose, that are used to join ideas, usually on the following pattern: NOUN + INFORMATION ABOUT THE NOUN Napoleon Bonaparte was He was a political and military a man. genius. Napoleon Bonaparte was a man who was a political and military genius. Marion is a businesswoman. Her work takes all her time. Marion is a businesswoman whose work takes all her time. Physics is a subject. I find it difficult. Physics is a subject which (that) I find difficult. When the pronoun is the object of the verb, as in the last sentence, the pronoun is usually omitted. Physics is a subject I find difficult. He is someone I have known for a long time. That or who are used for people; that or which for things; whose for both things and people. I don’t like girls who (that) are too choosy. This is the car that (which) won the race. They bought a house whose past was rather mysterious. Never argue with people whose opinions differ from yours. 105 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Reciprocal Pronouns The reciprocal pronouns each other and one another express a mutual relationship between the entities: X and Y like each other means that X likes Y and Y likes X. Each other is strongly preferred when the reference is made to two people. One another is used when there are more than two people. Actually, I think the two of them suit each other. I don’t think you like each other very much. The crowd became restless, and people were asking one another what had happened. It is only by teaching respect for one another that different races can live peacefully together. Reciprocal pronouns are less common in conversation than in the written registers. The Adverb The Adverb is the part of speech which determines the character of the action. Semantically adverbs fall into some groups. Place here, there, away, far Time and frequency now, then, again, always, still, today, once, twice, never, ago, ever, just, yesterday, already, sometimes, yet, later, often, usually Manner together, well, fast, hard, quietly Degree very, really, too, quite, exactly, right, pretty, more, relatively, slightly, almost, thoroughly, completely, basically Stance (your attitude towards what is said) absolutely, of course, probably, really, actually, mainly, (un)fortunately, curiously, frankly, honestly, seriously, personally, surely, worryingly, interestingly, etc. 106 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The most frequently used adverbs are here, there, now, then, just, really, so, though, however, for example. Adverbs are sometimes characterized as words ending in -ly. But the class is far more diverse in form. There are four major formal categories of adverbs. 1. Simple adverbs are single words that are not formed from compounds. Here belong well, too, rather, quite, soon, and here. Some simple adverbs are clearly related to other word classes: fast and long can be adjectives; down and round can be used as prepositions; today and tomorrow can be used as nouns. Some simple adverbs originated as compounds, but the independent meaning of the two parts is no longer transparent (e. g. already, indeed). 2. Compound adverbs are formed by combining two or more elements into a single word. Here belong such adverbs as anyway (any + way), nowhere (no + where), and heretofore (here + to + fore). 3. Adverbs derived by suffixation are formed by adding the suffix -ly to the base form of an adjective: clear — clearly, happy — happily, exact — exactly, lucky — luckily, glad — gladly, real — really. He was fundamentally stupid. English spelling is notoriously difficult. Henry is in love with Bianca. Hopelessly, helplessly, mindlessly, gloriously, magnificently. He turns round smiling cheesily. Two other common suffixes are -wise and -wards (added to some nouns and prepositions). homewards, seawards, onwards, afterwards, likewise, clockwise 107 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 4. Fixed phrases such as of course, kind of, at last. Some words ending in -ly are adjectives, not adverbs: lovely, lonely, lively, friendly, manly, womanly, daily, monthly. Compare the following: They are friendly (adj.) people. They greeted us in a friendly (adv. mod.) way. The adverbs hard, high, fast, early, late, long, far, little, much, straight, near, wrong, coincide with the corresponding adjectives. Compare: It’s hard (adj.) work. — They work hard (adv.). These are fast (adj.) cars. — They drive fast (adv.). We took an early (adj.) train. — The train arrived early. (adv.) Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs Formation The Positive Degree The Comparative Degree The Superlative Degree Adjectives I. II. 108 One syllable -er, -est old hard older harder oldest hardest wise fast wiser faster wisest fastest Two syllables more, most famous pleasant more famous most famous more pleasant most pleasant -er, -est busy busier busiest yi pretty prettier prettiest АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû Formation The Positive Degree The Comparative Degree The Superlative Degree Adjectives III. IV. More than two syllables more, most important beautiful more important most important more beautiful most beautiful Suppletive good better best bad worse worst cleverer cleverest more clever most clever gentler gentlest more gentle most gentle friendlier friendliest more friendly most friendly Remember: double degrees are posible. -er, -est or more, most angry, gentle, handsome, narrow, pleasant, polite, simple, quiet clever gentle friendly Adverbs more, most carefully more carefully most carefully slowly more slowly most slowly one syllable -er, -est fast faster fastest hard harder hardest suppletive well better best badly worse worst far farther/further farthest/furthest Mind the difference in the meaning of the words hard («ìíîãî», «òÿæåëî», «óïîðíî») and hardly («åëå-åëå», «åäâà ëè»). Compare: Bill studies hard (a lot). 109 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс He hardly knows anyone here (practically nobody). He trained hard (very much). He is sick, he can hardly move (can’t do it at all). Adverbs have degrees of comparison: the positive degree, the comparative degree, and the superlative degree. Adverbs ending in -ly form their degrees analytically, by adding the words more (less) or most (least) to the base form of the adverb. Simple adverbs form their degrees with the help of the inflections -er, -est. Superlative forms are very rarely used with adverbs, while comparative forms are occasionally used. I just kept working harder and harder. Now he went oftener to visit his friends. You really ought to go out more often. In some cases an adverb can be made comparative in both ways: oftener — more often All the registers tend to use more often when the adverb is followed by than: She went to the theater more often now than she used to. The following adverbs have irregular degrees of comparison: — farther — farthest — further — furthest well — better — best badly — worse — worst little — less — least much — more — most far 110 { АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Verb The word “verb” comes from Latin “verbum”, which simply means “word”. Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech. This is due to the central role which it performs in the expression of the predicative functions of the sentence, the functions, which establish the connection between the situation named in the utterance and reality. I. The complexity of the verb is not only in the complex structure of its grammatical categories, but also in its various subclass divisions, as well as in its falling into two sets of forms different from each other: the finite set and the nonfinite set of forms. The verb in its finite form possesses the morphological categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. Its syntactical function is that of the predicate of the sentence. The non-finite forms (also called Verbals) are the Infinitive, the Gerund, Participle I and Participle II. Verbals do not function as true verbs. Their syntactical functions in the sentence may be different because verbals can be used as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. They can’t function as the predicate of the sentence, only as part of it. II. According to their meanings and functions in the sentence English verbs are classified into notional and structural. Notional verbs always have a lexical meaning of their own and can have an independent function in the sentence. We live in Moscow and love our city. 111 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Structural verbs cannot have an independent syntactic function in the sentence — they are always closely connected with some other words, forming a compound predicate (verbal or nominal). Modal verbs, link verbs and auxiliary verbs belong to structural verbs. The Semantic Classification Notional Semi-notional Auxiliary (to do, to come, to dance, to play, to study, to have) (can, may, must, have to, should, used to, begin, start, stop, go on) (be, do, have, shall, will, should, would) are used as predicates are used as part of the predicates build up analytical (complex forms) She did her work well. We have a new house. He studies hard. They play golf every Sunday. She could do her work well. She has done her work well. We have to build a new house. We have built a new house. You must study much. They will study hard. They started playing golf. They said they would play golf. A modal verb is always followed by an infinitive — together they form a modal predicate. You must join us. I can do it. You should know better. A link verb is followed by a predicative thus forming a nominal predicate. He was a fine mechanic. She became famous. She seemed quite happy. The leaves turned yellow. An auxiliary verb is devoid of any lexical meaning. These verbs are: to do, to be, to have, shall, will, should, would. 112 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Combined with a notional verb they serve to build up analytical forms. We had seen the play before. Do you enjoy dancing? Don’t worry. I’ll be home before evening. Polysemantic verbs have, do, be may be notional as well as structural words. They are the most overused verbs in the English language. Compare: He has three children. (a notional verb used in the meaning “to possess”). I had to give up smoking. (a structural word: a modal verb denoting obligation, part of a modal predicate) I have come for your advice. (a structural word: an auxiliary verb which serves to build up an analytical form). III. Owing to the historical development of the verb system all English verbs fall into two groups: regular and irregular verbs. The regular verbs constitute the largest group. The Past Simple and Participle II of these verbs are formed by means of the suffix -ed added to the stem of the verb. live — lived — lived; play — played — played; try — tried — tried; study —studied — studied The irregular verbs (there are about 280 in number) form the Past Simple and Participle II according to some fixed traditional patterns. wear — wore — worn; leave — left — left; send — sent — sent, drive — drove — driven; go — went — gone; be — was/were — been 113 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The most common lexical verbs in Modern English and the frequency of their usage (in the LSWE Corpus — over 1000 per million words) 1 IV. There are four basic verb-forms in English. They are: the Infinitive — work, rise; do, come; the Past Simple — worked, rose; did, came; Participle II — worked, risen; done, come; Participle I — working, rising; doing, coming. 1 114 Longman Grammar of Written and Spoken English. АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Four Basic Forms of Regular and Irregular Verbs Infinitive Past Simple Participle II Participle I I II III IV to dance danced danced dancing to work worked worked working to play played played playing to cry cried cried crying Irregular to do did done doing a) The change of the root vowel (2nd and 3rd forms) -ing (4th form) to feel felt felt feeling to teach taught taught teaching to tell told told telling to find found found finding to stand stood stood standing to write wrote written writing to know knew known knowing to cost cost cost costing to cut cut cut cutting to hit hit hit hitting to hurt hurt hurt hurting to let let let letting to put put put putting to shut shut shut shutting The Verb Regular -ed (2nd and 3rd forms) -ing (4th form) b) Identical forms for the 2nd and 3rd forms Among the various forms of the verb the infinitive occupies a unique position. Its status is that of the principal representative of the verb-lexeme as a whole, the most general name to it. It serves as the actual derivative base for all the other regular forms of the verb. 115 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс V. The forms of the verb may be of two different kinds — synthetic and analytical. Synthetic forms are built up by a change in the word itself: I find, I found. I came, saw and won. Analytical forms consist of two or more components. He has done his duty. The case is being investigated. You are being difficult today. We shall be opening soon. The first component is an auxiliary verb which has no lexical meaning — it expresses only the grammatical meaning (the third person singular, the indicative mood, the active voice, a fulfilled action). The second component is a notional verb which is the bearer of the lexical meaning. Thus an analytical form consists of two or more words — a structural word and a notional word — which form a very close, inseparable unit. VI. Verbs are extremely flexible and can change their form to mark person, number, tense, voice, mood. The general categorial meaning of the verb is possess, state, forms of existence, types of attitude, evaluations, etc. In the sentence the finite verb performs the function of the verb-predicate, expressing the categorial features of predication, such as tense, aspect, voice, and mood. Tense is the form of the verb which indicates the time of the action. The category of tense in English is made up by a set of forms opposed to each other in referring the events, or states to the present, past or future. Aspect is the form of the verb which serves to express the manner in which the action is performed. It is presented in English by the opposition of the continuous and non-continuous forms. 116 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Common Aspect Continuous Aspect speaks is speaking spoke was speaking will speak will be speaking has spoken has been speaking Compare: He seems to read a lot. She seems to be reading and can’t hear you. She pretends to study hard, but, actually, she doesn’t work at all. She pretends to have been studying since morning. Voice is the form of the verb which shows the relation between the action and its subject. There are two voices in English: the active voice and the passive voice. The verb in the active voice shows that the subject is the doer of the action; the verb in the passive voice shows that the subject is acted upon. The category of voice has a much broader representation in the system of the English verb than in the system of the Russian verb, since in English not only transitive, but also intransitive verbs can be used in the passive. Mood is the form of the verb which shows in what relation to reality is the action expressed by the speaker. In present-day English the category of mood is made up by a set of forms presenting the events as real facts, problematic actions or as something absolutely unreal. Accordingly there are direct and indirect moods in English. The Direct Moods are the Indicative Mood and the Imperative Mood. The Indicative Mood represents actions as real facts. It’s a “Fact Mood”. We are students of the English department. 117 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Imperative Mood expresses commands and requests. It’s a “Will Mood”. Come over there. Relax! Cool down! The Indirect Moods (the Subjunctive Mood and the Conditional Mood) represent actions as problematic, desirable or unreal. He looks as if he had come through a crisis. I wish this summer were not so hot! If we had been here then, we would have prevented it. The Present Tenses The Present Simple of the Verb to be («áûòü», «íàõîäèòüñÿ») The Affirmative form The Interrogative form The Negative form The Singular I am (I’m) Am I ? I am not (I’m not) he she it is (he’s) (she’s) (it’s) Is he she it ? ? ? he she it is not (he isn’t) (she isn’t) (it isn’t) are not (we aren’t) (you aren’t) (they aren’t) The Plural We You They are (we’re) (you’re) (they’re) I am (I’m) lucky. He is (He’s) right. We are (We’re) on time. They are (They’re) here. 118 Are we you they Am I lucky? Is he right? Are we on time? Are they here? ? ? ? We You They I am not (I’m not) lucky. He is not (He isn’t) right. We are not (We aren’t) on time. They are not (They aren’t) here. АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Present Simple of the Verb to have/have got The Interrogative form The Affirmative form I (I’ve got) we have (we’ve got) you have got (you’ve got) they (they’ve got) he she it (he’s got) has has got (she’s got) (it’s got) The Negative form Do you have…? (Br, Am) или Have you got…? (Br) I don’t have… (Br, Am) или I haven’t got… (Br) Does she have…? (Br, Am) или Has she got…? (Br) She doesn’t have… (Br, Am) или She hasn’t got… (Br) The Present Simple I. The Present Simple is formed with the help of the infinitive without the particle “to”. In the third person singular it has the suffix -s/-es. The interrogative and the negative forms are built up analytically, by means of the auxiliary verb do in the Present Simple and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle “to”. The Affirmative form The Interrogative form I I we we you speak Do they he she it speaks Does The Negative form I speak…? we you you they they he he she it speak…? she it do not (don’t) speak… does not (doesn’t) speak… 119 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû The Affirmative form The Interrogative form You speak three languages. Do you speak three languages? I do not (don’t) speak three languages. He drives his car well. Does he drive his car well? He does not (doesn’t) drive his car well. It rains a lot in summer. Does it rain much in summer? It does not (doesn’t) rain much in summer. The Negative form II. The Present Simple is used: 1) to express facts, statements, habitual actions in the present: I live in Tula, but every weekend I go to Moscow. On Sundays we usually stay at home, sometimes we go to the country. 2) to state laws of nature, universal truths, common knowledge, also in proverbs and sayings: It snows in winter and it rains in summer in this country. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Still waters run deep. Old love doesn’t rust. 3) to denote a succession of actions going on at the moment of speaking: She comes in, takes off her coat, flings it on the chair and walks over to the answerphone. 4) In subordinate clauses of time, condition and concession instead of the Future Simple after the conjunctions 120 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс when, till, until, as soon as, before, after, if, unless, in case, on condition that, provided, even if: If he gets a good rest, he’ll be his usual self tomorrow. I’ll see them before I go to London. Do it as soon as you are through with your duties. Even if he hates me, I shall never do him any harm. Note: in object clauses introduced by the conjunctions when and if the Future Simple is used to denote future actions. I don’t know when she will come. I’m not sure if she will come at all. 5) to express future reference (in timetables): The show begins at 7.30 next Saturday evening. The plane takes off at exactly five. 6) to express an action going on at the moment of speaking with non-progressive verbs like believe, know, intend, belong, understand, need, realize, exist, like, hate, love, remember, prefer, own, possess: I believe I understand her. It sounds great. Yes, I remember her well. Who owns this land? 7) with the verbs to forget, to hear, to be told, to denote past actions: I forget your telephone number. Will you say it again, please? I hear you are leaving for England. We are told she returned from Italy last week. 121 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The following adverbs of indefinite time are the signals of this tense: always generally regularly as a rule never seldom ever occasionally sometimes often usually every day (week…) now and then rarely from time to time The Present Progressive I. The Present Progressive is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Present Simple and Participle I of the notional verb. I am thinking of you! He is working. We are resting. I am so tired that I’m falling apart. The same auxiliary verb is used in the interrogative and the negative forms. Are you working? Is he still working? We are not working. He is not working. (See the table on page 123.) II. The Present Progressive is used to express: 1) an action going on at the moment of speaking: I’m just going for a quick cappuccino. Want to join me? I can’t hear you. Where are you calling from? Why, oh why am I doing this? He is keying the information into his computer. — What are you doing? — I am cleaning my shoes. Hey, what’s eating you? You can tell me. Now, clear off, I’m reading. Why are you still lying in bed like a dying swan? 122 Are they talking? They are talking. reading? reading? reading? Is he sleeping? they you we it she he I He is sleeping. Are Is Am Are you reading a book? reading reading reading The Interrogative form I’m reading a book. (they’re) (you’re) you they (we’re) we are (it’s) it (she’s) is she (I’m) (he’s) am he I The Affirmative form are not (aren’t) reading is not (isn’t) reading am not (I’m not) reading They aren’t talking. He isn’t sleeping. I’m not reading a book. they you we it she he I The Negative form to be (in Present Simple) + V-ing (the 4th form of the verb) АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Note: Stative non-progressive verbs denoting physical perceptions, emotions, mental abilities (be, see, hear, know, understand, like, dislike, love, have, etc.) are not usually used in the Present Progressive. The Present Simple is used instead: I understand you. I know this man. Do you see that boy? Do you recognize me? With the verbs to feel, to look the use of the Present Progressive has become the norm in Modern English. Thank you, Doctor, I’m feeling stronger now. You are looking smart today, Margie. This suit is looking rather worn. I must buy a new one. a) some stative verbs can be used in the progressive form when they change their meaning. For example, the verb to be in the Present Continuous expresses a certain state or quality peculiar for the person at the given moment, but not in general. Such usage can be found only in highly emotional contexts. I think the critics are being a bit snobbish. You are being rude to this girl. Aren’t you forgetting your manners? Look where you go. You’re being careless! This Government is continuing the policies of the previous Government. b) the verbs of sense and mental perception (see, hear, understand) are used to express surprise, doubt, disbelief (especially in questions). What am I hearing here? I can’t believe what I am seeing! Am I understanding you correctly? 124 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2) changing, developing situations: The story is getting more and more interesting. Family life is changing rapidly. Distance learning is getting more and more popular. More businesses are closing around us. 3) an action going on at the present period of time: My baby sister Rosie is teething. Are you writing a new book? No cakes for me. I’m slimming. She’s spending a good deal on dresses of late. I am walking around like a smiling robot. But my soul is weeping, weeping, weeping. What else do you want? He is already eating out of your hand. Let’s visit some schools to see how this method is working. 4) actions generally characterizing the person denoted by the subject, bringing out the person’s typical traits. Such sentences are emotionally coloured, expressing irritation, disapproval, praise, etc. In such sentences the adverbials always or constantly are obligatory: You’re always showing off! I’m always forgetting people’s names. He’s constantly complaining that she has so much to do. She’s always saying stupid things because she doesn’t think before she says them. “My petal,” says Luke. “You’re constantly causing traffic jams.” 125 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 5) actions which will take place in the near future due to one’s previous decision. The action is regarded as something definitely settled (mostly verbs of motion such as to move, to come, to go, to leave, to return, to start are used): She is attending a conference next week. He’s returning on Monday. The boat is sailing next week. Note: The Present Progressive of the verb to go + infinitive is commonly used to denote future fulfillment of the present situation: I’m going to study Italian. It is going to snow. She’s going to have a baby. It's going to be a hard day. 6) an action in progress which is simultaneous with some other action or state denoted by the verb in the Present Simple. It is used in adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when, while, as long as, if, in case, unless: I never talk when I am working. My father doesn’t talk when he’s driving. You must always watch the traffic lights when you’re crossing the street. Try not to make much noise when you are stirring your tea. Note: When the verbs lie, stand, flow, lead, run are used with inanimate objects, they should be in the Present Simple or Past Simple, not in the Progressive Forms, as they express facts, statements, and not processes. The path runs (= is) along the bank of the river. My future lies (= is) in your hands. The farm lay among the hills. The river flowed rapidly. 126 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The church stood on a hill. The road led to a small cottage. The following adverbs are used with this tense: now, at the moment, right now, at present, still, always, constantly. The Present Perfect The Present Perfect is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Simple Present and Participle II of the notional verb. I have worked. He has worked. We have met at last. The same auxiliary verb is used to form the interrogative and the negative forms. Have you worked? He has not worked. have (has) + Participle II The Affirmative form I we you The Interrogative form arrived have (‘ve) been gone Have they she it I arrived? I we been? we you gone? you they he arrived has (‘s) been gone he Has The Negative form arrived have not (haven’t) been gone they arrived? he she been? she it gone? it arrived has not (hasn’t) been gone We’ve just arrived at the station. Have you just arrived at the station? We haven’t arrived at the station. They’ve been here for a month. Have you been here for a month? They haven’t been here for a month. He’s done the task. Has he done the task? He hasn’t done the task. 127 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Present Perfect is used in present time contexts, i. e. conversations, newspaper and radio reports, lectures and letters. It is not found in narration where reference is usually made to past events. The Present Perfect may be resultative (exclusive) and durative (inclusive). I. The Present Perfect Resultative (Exclusive) is used to denote a completed action connected with the present through its result: I’ve bought a good dictionary. Look at it. You can’t see her, she has gone home. During my seventy-four years I have made a lot of mistakes. I’ve been patient for so long but my patience has come to an end. The Present Perfect may be found with certain adverbs of indefinite time and frequency such as ever, just, already, before, never, not… yet, lately, of late, so far, always. Have you heard of him lately? I haven’t even had coffee yet. We haven’t done much so far. We have always been very close friends and still are. Note 1: The Present Perfect is possible with adverbial modifiers of time that denote a period of time which is not over yet, e. g. today, this morning, this week, this month, this year. But if the period is over, the Past Simple is used. — Did you read the article in “The Times” this morning? (it is no longer morning) — No, I haven’t had time to look at the paper today. (today is not over yet) 128 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Note 2: In special questions introduced by where, how, who, what, why, what… for both the Present Perfect and the Past Simple are possible. The choice of tense in such cases is situational. Compare: Why have you done this to me? (I’m upset.) Why did you do this? (at a certain past moment) In “when”-questions only the Past Simple is used. When did you go there? When did it happen? Note 3: The Present Perfect is used in adverbial clauses of time introduced by the conjunctions when, once, before, as soon as, till and until to stress the completion of the action of the subordinate clause before the action of the principal one. We’ll see about it as soon as you’ve had your tea. I’ll tell you whether the machine is good when I have tried it. We’ll never rest until we’ve learned the truth. Once you’ve learned to swim, you’ll never forget how to do it. II. The Present Perfect Durative (Inclusive). 1) It expresses an action which began before the moment of speaking and continues into it. This grammatical meaning is mainly expressed by the Present Perfect Progressive. However the Present Perfect Durative is found with verbs that cannot be used in the progressive form. The whole period of the duration of the action may be 129 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс marked by prepositional phrases with for. The starting point of the action is indicated by the adverb since. I have been a vegetarian for nine years. We haven’t had any fun in a long while. I’ve been here ever since I came to Paris. We’ve had this house for years. This car has been mine for years. The Present Perfect Durative is preferred to Present Perfect Progressive in negative sentences when it is the action itself that is completely negated (the Inclusive Present Perfect Tense). I haven’t driven for a long time. I haven’t worn evening dresses for ages! For the past four days, I have been unable to write a word. 2) It may also express an action that began in the past, continued for some time and has just stopped (the Present Perfect Resultative). I have been so anxious to meet you. We haven’t seen each other for years! 3) The Present Perfect Durative can be used in the principle and in the subordinate clauses of a complex sentence if their actions are parallel. I’ve been ever so worried while you’ve been away. We must say, you’ve made our life easier since you’ve been in town. I’ve watched you very carefully during the week I’ve been here. 130 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс They have been friends for many years and they have always shared the same interests. As long as I’ve known you, which is a good ten years now, you’ve always been a workaholic. Just think how you have improved in the short time I have known you! 4) Care should be taken to distinguish between the use of the Present Perfect and the Past Simple when the period of duration is expressed by a prepositional phrase with for. If the period of duration belongs to the past, the Past Simple should be used. It the period of duration comes close to the moment of speaking or includes it, the Present Perfect is used. “I have lived like this for two years,” he said, “and I can’t stand it any more.” I teach history at a secondary school. I went to University here for four years and got a degree. Yesterday he waited for her for two hours but she didn’t turn up. The Present Perfect Progressive I. The Present Perfect Progressive is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Present Perfect and the ing-form of the notional verb (Participle I). I have been working. She has been reading. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. Have you been working? Has she been reading? 131 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb. We have not been reading. They have not been working. In spoken English the contracted forms are used: I’ve, he’s, she’s, it’s, we’ve, you’ve, they’ve, hasn’t, and haven’t. have (has) + been + V-ing (Participle I) The Affirmative form The Interrogative form I we you I have (’ve) been living Have they it you I been living? they he she we been living Has she we you have not (haven’t) been living has not been living they he has (’s) The Negative form he been living? it she it (hasn’t) I’ve been living in Moscow for twenty years. Have you been living in Moscow for twenty years? I haven’t been living in Moscow for twenty years. He has been working since nine o’clock. Has he been working since nine o’clock? He hasn’t been working since nine o’clock. II. This tense is found in present time contexts, i. e. conversations, newspapers and radio reports, lectures and letters. It has two uses — the Present Perfect Continuous Durative (Inclusive) and the Present Perfect Continuous Resultative (Exclusive). 132 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс l) The Present Perfect Progressive (Inclusive) serves to express an action in progress which began before the moment of speaking and continues into it. In this case either the starting point of the action or the period of time during which it has been in progress is usually indicated. It has been raining ever since midnight, and it’s still drizzling. I’ve been sitting at my computer for quite a while now. We’ve been following your career with enormous admiration. I’ve been keeping diaries all my life. All these forms are translated into Russian by the Present Tense, imperfective («äîæäü èäåò», «ÿ ïèøó»). 2) The Present Perfect Progressive (Exclusive) serves to express an action which was in progress quite recently and which in one way or another affects the present situation, explains the state of things at the present moment. In this case, as a rule, there is no indication of time. Don’t tell your mother what I’ve been saying. I’ve been talking to your boyfriend and I like him. Come in! I’ve been looking for you. Now I understand that it’s all the joys of life that I’ve been missing. You can say it’s going to be a bad day if your dog chews the presentation which you’ve been working on all weekend. The Present Perfect Progressive can be used with some verbs which are normally not used in the progressive forms so as to express great intensity of feelings in highly emotional contexts. I’ve been loving you ever since I first saw you! 133 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Really, I’ve been wanting to come, I’ve been dreaming about it! Just lately I’ve been feeling emotionally deprived. — I can’t fall asleep at night. — I think you’ve been seeing too many gangster movies. The Present Tenses The Present Simple (Indefinite) + ? – 134 The Present Progressive (Continuous) The Present Perfect The Present Perfect Progressive (Continuous) I walk every day. I am walking now. I have walked ten miles. I have been walking since morning. He teaches children. He is teaching at the moment. He has taught a lot of children. He has been teaching for ten years already. Do you walk every day? Are you walking now? Have you walked ten miles? Have you been walking since morning? Does he teach children? Is he teaching at the moment? Has he taught many children? Has he been teaching for ten years? I don’t walk every day. I am not walking now. I haven’t walked ten miles. I haven’t been walking since morning. He doesn’t teach children. He isn’t teaching at the moment. He hasn’t taught a lot of children. He hasn’t been teaching for ten years. АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Past Tenses The Past Simple The Past Simple of the Verb to be The Affirmative form Number The Interrogative form I I …? I he …? he she …? she it it …? it we we …? we you …? you they …? they he Singular she Plural The Negative form you was were Was Were they was not (wasn’t) were not (weren’t) I was lucky. Was I lucky? I was not (wasn’t) lucky. She was right. Was he right? He was not (wasn’t) right. You were on time. Were you on time? You were not (weren’t) on time. They were here. Were they here? They were not (weren’t) here. I. The Past Simple is a synthetic form, built up by a change in the word itself. I worked. He sang. They won. They split up. The interrogative and the negative forms are built up analytically, by means of the auxiliary verb do in the Past Simple and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to. 135 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс V + -ed (Regular Verbs) (the 2nd form of the verb) The Affirmative form The Interrogative form The Negative form I started I start? I start we finished we finish? we finish you enjoyed you enjoy? you they had he Did enjoy did not (didn’t) they have? they did he do? he do she went she go? she go it rained it rain? it rain have I started the lecture an hour ago. Did you start the lecture an hour ago? I didn’t start the lecture an hour ago. They enjoyed the film yesterday. Did they enjoy the film yesterday? They didn’t enjoy the film yesterday. It rained a lot last summer. Did it rain a lot last summer? It didn’t rain a lot last summer. We had a lovely time at the party. Did you have a lovely time at the party? We didn’t have a lovely time at the party. II. The Past Simple is used to express: 1) a single action completed in the past and in no way connected with the present. The time of the action is mostly given or may be implied in the situation. He left yesterday. They married in 1980. We met in Germany. It happened in the 19th century. I said “No” just now. Note: The Past Simple, never the Present Perfect, is used in questions beginning with when, because when implies a certain moment in the past. The answer can be either in the Past Simple or in the Present Perfect, depending on the situation: 136 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс — When did you see him? — I saw him two days ago. Or: I have just seen him. (just now) When did you actually arrive? 2) a succession of actions in narration to describe the development of events. I went up the stairs. I bathed. I changed. Then I went downstairs and cooked and served dinner for three. Then I entertained Mr. Stent. Then I wished him a very good night. Sometimes you can come across the cases of the so called “historic present,” when in past-time contexts present tenses are used to make the narration more vivid. Just imagine what happened to me yesterday! I came into the kitchen and what do you think I see? My cat is sitting on the table and eating the fish. And she looks so innocent that I have no heart to say anything. 3) an action which occupied a whole period of time which is now over. The period of time is usually indicated in the sentence by means of adverbial phrases with the preposition for or during. He worked hard for ten years until he was lucky. He fell asleep during the lecture. I walked in the park for twenty minutes yesterday. We stayed in the garden for a long time. She stewed meat for two hours. 4) habitual, recurrent actions in the past. She lived alone in London, and saw no one except me. Every day we got up at seven and went to bed at eleven. 137 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 5) In English there are special means of expressing permanent recurrent actions in the past. They are: used to + infinitive and would + infinitive. Used to is more common in informal English. Would is typical of literary style. It is mainly a written form that is used in stories. It is really a way of providing variety in a narrative. I liked reading in the garden. I used to take out a deckchair, sit under one of the apple-trees and read. We used to play in the garden and Mother would make the cheese cakes for lunch. Used to is used when we talk about past states that no longer exist. This building used to be a cinema. My father used to be a heavy smoker. Would is stylistically marked. It implies that the speaker experiences nostalgic feelings about past actions (which no longer happen). Would is used to talk about past habits and repeated actions but not about past states. When we use would, a specific time or a set of actions should be mentioned. Every Saturday evening, Father would take out his old accordion and start to play old songs. Mother would look at us severely if we laughed or made a noise. Sometimes Father would go on for hours. Used to and would aren’t used when a date or some particular period of time is given. I studied German for some years. They met regularly last year. 138 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Mind how we make the interrogative and negative forms of used to in spoken English: Did you use to collect coins? I didn’t use to collect anything. I never used to collect anything. Note: Be careful not to confuse used to with be/get used to + noun/gerund which means “be/become accustomed to something” as you have been doing it for some time. I’m used to getting up early. Many people can’t get used to this hectic life. Have you got used to working late hours? The Past Simple is used with such adverbials of time as ago, last week (month, etc.), the other day («íà äíÿõ»), yesterday, the day before yesterday, just now. The Past Progressive I. The Past Progressive is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Past Simple and Participle I of the notional verb. I was working. They were reading. It was raining. was/were + V-ing (the 4th form of the verb) The Affirmative form The Interrogative form I he she it I was reading Was he she it The Negative form I reading? he she was not (wasn’t) reading it 139 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû The Affirmative form The Interrogative form we you you were reading Were we we reading? they they The Negative form you were not (weren’t) reading they I was reading a new magazine. Were you reading a new magazine? I wasn’t reading a new magazine. He was sleeping. Was he sleeping? He wasn’t sleeping. They were talking about sport. What were they talking about? They weren’t talking about sport. The same auxiliary is used in the interrogative and negative forms. Were you working? Was he reading? We were not working. He was not reading. II. The Past Progressive is used in the following cases: 1) to express an action which was going on at a given moment in the past. As a rule, there is no indication of a given past moment. It is implied in the situation. Sometimes it is indicated with the help of another action in the Past Simple or by an adverbial of time. May came, the finals were approaching. You were sleeping when I left. At that very moment she was phoning the police. When I came, he was listening to Dvorak’s Symphony No 9. 2) to express an action going on at a given period of time in the past. The indication of the past period of time is understood from the context or is given in the sentence. 140 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс — What were you doing in Paris? — I was trying to find a publisher for my new book. The house was old and the paint was peeling off it. Disraeli once told an English bigot, “Listen, when my ancestors were reading the Bible, yours were still swinging from trees”. 3) to express an action generally characterizing the person denoted by the subject, bringing out his (her) typical traits. Often, always, constantly are found in such cases in the sentence. Such sentences are emotionally coloured. The child was always getting coughs and colds! She was constantly suffering from a cut or a burn. 4) with verbs which are not usually used in the progressive form when they change their meaning and are used to characterize the person’s unusual behaviour at the given past moment. He was being kind to us and she was only being nice. He was happy now that his wife was feeling better. I was feeling a bit under the weather last night. She looked as if she was not seeing or hearing anything that went on around her. He was seeing Paris through the eyes of a film-maker. 5) in the subordinate clause of a complex sentence introduced by the conjunction while. (The Past Simple can be used in these clauses as well). The Past Simple is normally used in the principal clause. She sat still while he was playing the sonata. While he stood there she was phoning her parents. 141 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Past Perfect I. The Past Perfect is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb have in the Past Simple and Participle II of the notional verb. I had worked. We had met. She had done it. The same auxiliary verb is used in the interrogative and the negative forms. Had you worked? They hadn’t come. had + Participle II The Affirmative form I we you they had he she it arrived examined passed done gone written cost The Interrogative form I we you Had they he she it arrived? examined? passed? done? gone? written? cost? The Negative form I we you they he she it arrived examined passed had not done (hadn’t) gone written cost The police had arrived before the robber escaped. Had the police arrived before the robber escaped? The police hadn’t arrived before the robber escaped. I had done the work by nine o’clock. Had you done the work by nine o’clock? I hadn’t done the work by nine o’clock. II. The Past Perfect is mainly found in narration and in pasttime contexts. 1) The Past Perfect is used to express an action completed before a given past moment, which may be indicated by a phrase or by another past action. They weren’t in the room, as he had supposed. 142 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс She was no fool. She had read much in several languages, and she could talk of the books she had read with good sense. 2) The Past Perfect serves to express an action which began before a given past moment and continues into it or up to it. This grammatical meaning is mainly expressed by the Past Perfect Progressive. The Past Perfect is found with the verbs not widely used in the progressive tense forms (be, have, see, hear, know, understand, realize, like, hate, love, believe, own, possess). This use is associated with certain time indications: either a whole period of duration of the action is indicated (for), or its starting point (since). Oliver was his assistant and had been with him for nearly fifteen years. He examined the lock. In all the years he had lived in New York he had never been robbed, had never thought about locks. He told me he had been badly ill since he returned from abroad. He mentioned that he had not played tennis for three years. Note: In clauses of time introduced by since and when the Past Simple is commonly used, though the Past Perfect is quite possible. He tried to remember how long it had been since he had last seen her. Many things had changed in the two-and-a-half-year since he had left Harvard. 3) The Past Perfect is often used in combination with the Past Progressive when both actions are viewed from the same past moment. One action is completed before that past implied moment while the other is still in progress. 143 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The sky had cleared and the moon was shining on the snow. She had done the work and was watching television. Once the term had started, they were skimming through books again. 4) The Past Perfect is found in the principal clause of a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunctions scarcely… when, hardly… when, nearly… when, no sooner… than, barely… when. The action of the subordinate clause takes place when the action of the principal clause is hardly completed yet. Such sentences are emphatic in meaning and the word order in them is inverted. Hardly had I gone a hundred yards, when I noticed a car behind me. No sooner had she opened the door, than she saw a stranger. They had barely turned round the corner, when they heard the sirens. A bad storm was coming. This thought had no sooner entered his mind, than heavy raindrops began to splash against the window. The Past Perfect Progressive I. The Past Perfect Progressive is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Past Perfect and Participle I of the notional verb. I had been working. He had been reading. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. Had you been working? Had he been reading? 144 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary. We had not been working. They had not been reading. had been + V-ing (Participle I) The Affirmative form I we you they he she it had (’d) been doing The Interrogative form Had I we you they he she it been doing? The Negative form I we you they he she it had not (hadn’t) been doing I had been doing this work for a long time when I decided to have a break. Had you been doing this work for a long time when you decided to have a break? I hadn’t been doing this work for a long time when I decided to have a break. At last he found the keys he had been looking for since morning. How long had he been looking for his keys before he found them? He hadn’t been looking for his keys for a very long time before he found them. II. The Past Perfect Progressive serves to express: 1) an action which began before a given past moment and continued into it or up to it (the inclusive or the durative type). He had been saving money for the plane fare and intended to be present at the concert in Boston. Allan asked the one urgent question that had been burning on his brain during the entire flight to Cleveland. She suddenly realized that it was now completely dark and that she had been walking for a long time. 145 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2) an action that was in progress just before a given past moment and affects the past situation in some way. She could tell he had been watching too many American cop films again. At last, a policeman appeared on the scene. It was just what Danny had been hoping for. He rose from the chair on which he had been sitting. It was the letter she had been expecting. I dropped the pastry I had been eating and ran out of the room. 3) parallel actions in the principal and in the subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunctions while and since and such words as as long as, all time, during the time. Our friendship had been growing all the time we had been working on the project. The Future Tenses The Future Simple I. The Future Simple is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verbs shall and will and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to. I shall see him tomorrow. He will visit them soon. In present-day English there is a tendency to use will for all the persons. The difference in the use of shall and will disappears altogether in spoken English where the contracted form ’ll is used with all the persons. I’ll see him tomorrow. They’ll see him soon. 146 Will she help us? Will they discuss the question next week? They will discuss the question next week. phone you? She will help us. they it she Shall I visit you tomorrow? phone you Will be here? phone you? be here? I’ll visit you tomorrow. they it she will (‘ll) we I he be here Shall he phone you be here you shall/ will (‘ll) The Interrogative form you we I The Affirmative form will not (won’t) will not (won’t) shall not (shan’t) phone you be here phone you be here The Negative form They won’t discuss the question next week. She won’t help us. I shan’t (won’t) visit you tomorrow. they it she he you we I shall/will + the Infinitive (without the particle “to”) АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The auxiliary verbs shall and will are also used to build up the interrogative and the negative forms. Shall we see you tomorrow? Will they see him next week? I shall not be here. He will not phone her. II. The Future Simple is used only in present-time contexts to express: l) a single action that will be completed in the future, also recurrent actions in the future. It will be cold in the evening. I shall/will come along as often as possible. 2) an action occupying a whole period of time in the future: We hope you’ll live for many years happily. Hopefully the sun will shine tomorrow — but in England you can never be sure. There will be an early election this year. My sister promises to do it for me, but I suspect it won’t be this millennium. 3) recurrent actions in the future: We shall meet and talk and make plans from time to time. The Future Progressive I. The Future Progressive is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb be in the Future Simple and Participle I of the notional verb. I shall be seeing him often now. We shall be visiting them very soon. 148 Shall we be watching the news at nine o’clock tonight? Will the children be sleeping when you come? The children will be sleeping when you come. they they be watching? be watching? We’ll be watching the news at nine o’clock tonight. it Will it be watching she will (‘ll) she we he Shall he be watching I you shall (‘ll)/ will be The Interrogative form you we I The Affirmative form will not (won’t) will not (won’t) shall not (shan’t) be watching be watching The Negative form The children won’t be sleeping when you come. We shan’t be watching the news at nine o’clock tonight. they it she he you we I shall/will be + V-ing (Participle I) АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. Shall I be seeing him often now? Shall we be visiting them very soon? In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary. II. The Future Progressive is used in the following cases: 1) To express an action in progress at a definite future moment or a period of time. The given future moment at which the action takes place is usually indicated by an adverbial modifier or is clear from the context or situation. It will be too late. He will be sleeping. In an hour I’ll be flying over the sea. Without you I’ll be feeling blue the rest of my life. 2) To express an anticipated (a matter-of-course) action which is supposed to take place in the future in the normal, natural course of events. I’ll call you back and let you know when I’ll be arriving. I feel I shall be asking you the same question tomorrow. She feels she’ll be suffering all her life. Well, with some luck — I’ll be graduating next June. Note: Even stative verbs can be used in this meaning. She says she’ll be seeing you tomorrow. Don’t worry! I’ll be knowing all about it very soon. The Future Perfect I. The Future Perfect is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Future Simple and Participle II of the notional verb. I shall have read the book by that time. He will have done it by that time. 150 Will they have got my fax by morning? written? They’ll have got my fax by morning. have Will he have written the programme by the time the meeting begins? they it she done? written? done? He’ll have written the programme by the time the meeting begins. written Will have Shall I have read the magazine by two o’clock? have we I I’ll have read the magazine by two o’clock tomorrow. they it she will (‘ll) Shall he done written done he have you shall (‘ll)/ will The Interrogative form you we I The Affirmative form (won’t) will not (won’t) will not (shan’t) shall not have have The Negative form written done written done They won’t have got my fax by morning. He won’t have written the programme by the time the meeting begins. I shan’t (won’t) have read the magazine by two o’clock. they it she he you we I shall/will have + done (Participle II) АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. Will she have read the book by that time? In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary. She will not have read the book by that time. (See the table on page 151.) II. The Future Perfect is used to express an action completed before a given future moment which is usually indicated by an adverbial modifier of time. You will have got my telegram before this letter reaches you. I wonder how many specimens he will have collected by the beginning of the tests. Next year I will have lived for a quarter of a century and as yet I have made no mark on the world. It is used with such adverbs of time as: by that time, by then, by now, by the end of the year, etc. The Future Perfect Progressive All the forms of the Future Perfect Progressive are formed with the Future Perfect of the auxiliary verb be and Participle I of the notional verb. I shall have been speaking for two hours before you come. The interrogative and negative forms are built up in the usual way. The tense is hardly ever used, situations which require it very seldom arise. It denotes actions which began before a certain moment of time in the future and go on up to that moment or into it. I shall have been living here for five years next February. 152 We shall (will) have been living in Moscow for ten years next September. have been living? have been living? Shall we have been living in Moscow for ten years next September? they they she it Will it she will (‘ll) we I he have been living Shall he have been living you shall/ will (‘ll) The Interrogative form you we I The Affirmative form will not (won’t) will not (won’t) shall not (shan’t) have been living have been living We shan’t (won’t) have been living in Moscow for ten years next September. they it she he you we I The Negative form shall/will have been + V-ing (Participle I) АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Other Means of Expressing Future Actions in English English is rich in means of expressing an action in the future actions owing to various modal meanings such as intention, willingness, readiness, obligation, assurance, expectation and the like. I. The Present Progressive is used to express an action in the near future as definitely settled due to one’s previous decision. You know, I’m leaving tonight. She is coming to lunch on Thursday. II. To be + infinitive (with to). In this combination to be to is a modal verb. It serves to indicate previous arrangement and obligation resulting from the previous arrangement. I’ve had a letter from home. I am to go back at once. Sometimes the meaning of obligation is so strong that this combination expresses an order or an instruction. You are not to talk like that in front of the child! III. To be going to + infinitive. This form is in frequent use in Modern English. It expresses a premeditated intention. I am going to tell him what I think of him. They are going to explain that tomorrow. She’s going to have a baby. 154 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Reported Speech Type of the sentence Affirmative Imperative General question Special question Direct Speech Indirect (Reported) Speech Ann says, “I am happy.” Ann says (that) she is happy. He says to us, “I like tennis.” He tells us (that) he likes tennis. She says, “I don’t know this rule.” She says (that) she doesn’t know this rule. They say, “Close the door, please.” They ask me to close the door. Mary says to Tom, “Don’t close the window.” Mary tells Tom not to close the window. The officer orders the soldiers, “Don’t talk.” The officer orders the soldiers not to talk. The tourist asks me, “Do you live in Moscow?” The tourist asks me if I live in Moscow. He asks, “Is it raining now?” He asks if (whether) it is raining now. The manager asks, “Are there any people at the office?” The manager asks if (whether) there are any people at the office. I ask them, “Where does Ben live?” I ask them where Ben lives. They ask, “What’s the matter?” They ask what the matter is. We ask them, “When shall we meet?” We ask them when we shall meet. My friend asks, “Who called you last night?” My friend asks who called me last night. 155 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс *Verbs introducing reported speech: add advise allow describe explain complain continue inform insist note observe order recommend refuse suggest think warn wonder offer promise protest remark reply remind The Sequence of Tenses I. If the verb in the principal clause is in one of the present or future tenses the verb in the subordinate clause may be in any tense form required by the situation. They will wonder where I am now was last night will be soon have been II. The Sequence of Tenses is used when someone’s words are reported. The rules of the Sequence of Tenses are mainly observed in subordinate object, subject, predicative, appositive and adverbial clauses. After the past tense forms in the principal clause we find a shift of tenses in the subordinate into the past. There are two possible cases: 1. The rules of the sequence of tenses are compulsory; 2. The rules of the sequence of tenses are optional. 1) The rules of the sequence of tenses are compulsory when the action of the subordinate clause is viewed from the past. 156 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс a) If the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause, the Past Simple or the Past Progressive is used in the object clause no matter which past tense form is found in the principal clause. She didn’t know where she was. He said that he lived in Rome. They noticed that I was not listening. They took the key when I was not looking. b) If the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause, the Past Perfect or the Past Perfect Progressive is used in the subordinate clause no matter which past tense is found in the principal clause. She had a feeling that she had been deceived. I knew you had left the city. I knew well enough what she had been doing all that time. c) If the action of the subordinate clause refers to the future, the Future-in-the Past (Simple or Progressive) or one of the other means of expressing a future action is used. We hoped she would soon be better. He was sure she would be thinking about him. She said she was going to have a nap. They explained that they were leaving the next day. Ted believed in the American dream. That if you wanted something badly enough and devoted your heart and soul to it, you would ultimately succeed. 157 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2) The rules of the sequence of tenses are optional (i. e. may be observed or not) when reference is made to the actual present time or the actual future time. This use is found in dialogues, newspapers and radio reports. He said he doesn’t ever want to see you. I said I’m making a salad for supper. I wanted to know what day I’ll be leaving. III. The rules of the Sequence of Tenses are not observed in some quite logical cases: 1) when the verb of the subordinate clause expresses a universal truth or facts that still hold true. My mother once told me that the East is where things begin, where the sun rises, where the wind comes from. My Granny used to tell me there are three things you just can’t do in life. You can’t beat the phone company, you can’t make a waiter see you until he is ready to see you and you can’t go back to your childhood. At school in France the boys told me you can’t live with forty-four degrees. And I’ve got a hundred and two. Our Geography teacher told us at the last lesson that there aren’t any unknown islands left on the earth. 2) with the modal verbs must, should, ought to, the rules of the Sequence of Tenses are not observed either. I wrote that I must see him. He said she should be less choosy. Two people advised me that I ought to see a doctor. 3) if we are reporting an immediate future event, we can leave the verbs shall, will in the present tense: Don’t leave. She said she will make some coffee. He promised yesterday that he will decide the question today. 158 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 4) in reporting a narration the past tense does not change. Also, if there is a concrete past date. He said that he was born in Kiev and then the family moved to Minsk. She said she graduated from University in 2005. 5) the Past Simple in subordinate clauses of time introduced by the conjunctions when and since is not generally changed according to the rules of the Sequence of Tenses into the Past Perfect Tense, though it is possible. She said: “When I left school, he was already studying at University.” She said that when she left school, he was already studying at University. Mary said: “I haven’t met my boyfriend since we parted.” Mary said that she hadn’t met her boyfriend since they (had) parted. 6) the Past Progressive doesn’t undergo any changes, it stays as it is: He remarked: “When I came in, she was singing.” He remarked that when he came in, she was singing. 7) in clauses with Subjunctive Mood, as the use of tenses in them is relative. All depends on whether the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the main clause. He said, “If I were young again, I would be happy.” He said that if he were young again, he would be happy. She remarked, “Sally looks as if she were ill.” She remarked that Sally looked as if she were ill. 159 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 8) the expression used to does not undergo any changes. Stuart said, “I used to play a lot of sport when I was young.” Stuart said that he used to play a lot of sport when he was young. Mind the changes in the adverbial modifiers of place, time, etc.: yesterday the day before, the previous day today tomorrow the day before yesterday the day after tomorrow last week now next week this these ago here that day, the same day the day after, the following day two days before in two days time the week before, the previous week then, immediately, at once the week after, the following week that those before there Voice I. Voice is the form of the verb which shows whether the subject of the sentence is the doer of the action, expressed by the verb, or whether it was acted upon. There are two voices in English — the Active Voice and the Passive Voice. The Active Voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject of the sentence is the agent (the doer) of the action expressed by the predicate verb. 160 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс It is common knowledge that the Passive Voice is more extensively used in English than in Russian. As a general rule, the passive construction is used when there is no need to mention the agent of the action because it is either easily understood from the situation or context, or because it is not important. Her flat is full of antique things that are never ever used. Photography is not allowed at museums. Her two brothers were wounded in the war. The telegram was delivered on time. II. The Passive Voice is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required form and Participle II of the notional verb. The Passive Voice to be (in the required form) + Past Participle Tense Present Simple Past Simple Active Voice The news surprises me. I am surprised by the news. The news surprises Nick. Nick is surprised by the news. The news surprises us. We are surprised by the news. The news surprised me. I was surprised by the news. The news surprised us. We were surprised by the news. She Present Perfect Passive Voice has posted The letter the letter. She has posted The letters the letters. He will post the letter. He is going to post the letter. The letter has been posted by her. have been posted by her. will be posted by him. is going to be posted by him. Future The letter 161 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Passive Voice in Progressive Tenses Tense Active Voice Passive Voice The doctor is examining me (him, us) now. I am being examined by the doctor now. He is being examined now. We are being examined now. When we moved to Moscow, they were building a new metro station (new metro stations) in the city. When we moved to Moscow, a new metro station was being built (new metro stations were being built) in the city. Present Progressive am is + being + Past Participle are Past Progressive was were + being + Past Participle The Passive Voice after Modal Verbs V + be + Past Participle Active Voice I He You She He Tom They You can do should do ought to do must do has to do is to do may do might do Passive Voice it. it. it. it. it. it. it. it. It It It It It It It It can be done should be done ought to be done must be done has to be done is to be done may be done might be done by me. by him. by you. by her. by him. by Tom. by them. by you. Remember: 1. Only one passive construction is possible with the verbs explain, read, dictate, describe, point out, announce, mention, repeat. The rule was explained to us. The book was read to me. The place was described to them. 162 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2. The verbs sell, wash, wear, bake, read are used in the Active Voice though the meaning is passive. Compare: Detective stories sell well. This cloth washes and wears well. The pie is still baking. Äåòåêòèâíûå ðàññêàçû õîðîøî ïðîäàþòñÿ. Ýòà òêàíü õîðîøî ñòèðàåòñÿ è íîñèòñÿ. Ïèðîã âñå åùå ïå÷åòñÿ. The interrogative form is built up by placing the (first) auxiliary verb before the subject of the sentence. When was it done? Has the work been done? When will the fax be sent? Where is the school being built? The negative form is built up by placing the particle not after the (first) auxiliary. The work was not done yesterday. The fax hasn’t been sent yet. No school is being built here. (See the table on page 164.) III. The Passive Voice in English is found with different types of verbs (mostly transitive). 1) There are a number of verbs in English which take two objects — a direct and an indirect object. These verbs may have two passive constructions. The most frequently used verbs of this kind are: to tell, to give, to offer, to show, to pay, to live, to promise, to send, to teach, to allow, to ask, to answer, to forgive, to invite, to advise and a few others. A very good job was offered to me. I was offered a good job. English is taught to us. We are taught English. 163 The doctor The patient is being helped has been helped was helped was being helped had been helped is going to be helped will be helped can be helped should be helped ought to be helped must be helped has to be helped may be helped might be helped is helping has helped helped was helping had helped is going to help will help can help should help ought to help must help has to help may help might help the patient. is helped Passive Voice helps Active Voice The Passive Voice in All the Tense Forms by the doctor. АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2) There are a great number of verbs in English that require a prepositional object. These verbs may also be used in the Passive. The preposition retains its place after the verb. This construction may be called the Prepositional Passive. He is well spoken of as a man of science. The doctor was sent for half an hour ago. He was looked upon as their leader. You’re being made a fool of. 3) Only one Passive construction is possible with verbs which take two objects, direct and prepositional. Here belong such verbs as to explain (something to somebody), to point out, to announce, to dictate, to read, to describe, to mention, to repeat, to suggest, to propose. The difficulty was explained to her. The mistake was pointed out to us. A new plan was suggested to us. The verdict was read aloud. 4) The active forms of the verbs sell, wash, peel, crease, wear, bake, burn, read, cook, are used, though the meanings are passive: Her solo album sells well. This staff washes and wears well and doesn’t crease. Dry leaves burn well. This metal deforms under pressure. The pie is baking. Tiles wash easily. (Ñðàâíèòå â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå: «ïðîäàåòñÿ», «ïå÷åòñÿ», «ìíåòñÿ», «ñòèðàåòñÿ», «ìîåòñÿ» è ò. ä.) 165 * should (would) We should (would) I would shall (will) He will We shall (will) I He were We He was are We I is am He I Simple — ôîðìû îòñóòñòâóþò. Future in the Past Future Past Present Tense be asked be asked asked asked We He I We He I — — — — — — were was are is am being asked being asked Progressive We He I We He I We should (would) would should (would) shall (will) will shall (will) have has have I He have has have We He I Perfect The Verb “ask” in All the Passive Forms have been asked have been asked been asked been asked — — — — — — — — Perfect Progressive АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 5) There is a certain group of transitive verbs which are not used in the Passive Voice. They are: to seem, to lack, to become, to fit, to suit, to resemble. There are semantic reasons for this, as these verbs don’t denote actions or processes, but states. Mary seems to know everything. John resembles his father. He has become a real professional. Mood Modality is a linguistic category which shows the relation of the action or state expressed by the predicate verb to reality from the point of view of the speaker. Modality may be expressed in English: 1. By modal words and phrases: maybe, probably, perhaps, possibly, obviously, evidently, to be sure. 2. By modal verbs: can, may, must, have to, should, would, shall, will, ought to, be to, need, dare (to). 3. By mood-forms of the verb — the Direct and the Indirect (Oblique) Moods. Mood is the form of the verb which shows in what relation to reality is the action expressed by the predicate verb. All actions may be divided into real, unreal and problematic. Consequently there are in English: the direct moods — the Indicative and the Imperative; the indirect (oblique) moods — the Subjunctive and the Conditional. 167 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Direct Moods The Indicative Mood is the most widely used mood in Modern English and is called a “fact” mood because it presents actions as real facts. The verb in the indicative mood has the category of tense, aspect and voice. It’s fine weather today. Now I understand that he was a terrific teacher. The Imperative Mood is the mood of commands, requests, warnings or wishes. 1. The imperative mood has only one tense form and one number (the forms for the 2nd person singular and plural are identical). It is formed with the help of the infinitive without the particle “to”: Be happy! Take it easy! Bless you! Be picture perfect on that special day! Watch out! Hold your tongue! Stay cool! You (as the subject) is understood but generally not expressed in the imperative, unless it is emphatic: Freeze! Dismiss! Relax! Mind you! Don’t you be such a fault-finder! Don’t you swear at me! In the 1st and 3rd person the combination “let + infinitive” is used: Let me see what exactly this fax says. Let’s come back to the story! Let’s stick together! Let the punishment fit the crime. The negative forms are: Let us not argue, or Don’t let’s do anything silly! 168 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2. The emphatic imperative is formed by means of the auxiliary verb do, followed by the infinitive: Do sit down! Do be honest! Do trust me! 3. The auxiliary verb do is used to make negative imperatives: Don’t Don’t Don’t Don’t compromise yourself! be difficult! sign any papers without reading them! panic! Don’t worry! Don’t be cheesy! 4. “Will you” or “would you” are very common after an imperative. “Will you” is the only form possible after a negative imperative: Pay attention, will (would) you? Don’t be late, will you? Don’t answer back, will you? In such cases the order turns into a kind of request. The Indirect (Oblique) Moods They represent actions in the speaker’s mind as something desirable, supposed, doubtful, problematic or contrary to reality. The Subjunctive Mood The Subjunctive Mood represents actions as absolutely unreal: I wish I were a child. (but I am not) If he had followed his parents’ advice! (but he didn’t) The Subjunctive Mood is a synthetical mood and has two tenses: the present and the past. 169 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Historically the form of the Present Subjunctive coincides with the Past Indefinite Indicative (is homonymous with it). The verb “to be” generally has the form “were” for all persons though there is a tendency now to use the form “was”. The form of the Past Subjunctive coincides with the Past Perfect Indicative of all verbs: Present Subjunctive If I he, she, it we you they Past Subjunctive were had been knew had known had had had saw had seen If I were a student! — If I had been there then! If we saw you more often! — If you had seen the film! If she had more time! — If she had had time yesterday! The tenses of the Oblique Moods are relative tenses. They show whether the action of the verb in the oblique mood coincides in time with the action of the verb in the principal clause or is prior to it (precedes it). And the verb in the main clause may be in any tense form. The Present Subjunctive expresses simultaneousness (simultaneous actions). The Past Subjunctive indicates priority (prior actions). 1) Simultaneousness: You look You looked You’ll look 170 as if you were happy. АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2) Priority: You look You looked as if you had seen a ghost. You’ll look The Present and Past Subjunctive are used: 1. In simple sentences to express: a) an unreal wish: Oh, if it were so forever! If I had thought about it before! b) a possible, advisable, desirable action with modal verbs: They might learn the news. You had better leave now. They could have waited for us. 2. In a subordinate clause of: a) unreal condition: If I were you, I would do my best. The unreal condition can also be expressed by the phrase “But for…”: But for his help we wouldn’t have done the work. b) unreal concession introduced by the conjunctions “even though”, “even if”: Even if I saw it with my own eyes I would never believe it. 171 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс c) comparison or manner introduced by “as if”, “as though”: He jumped at the offer as if it were his last chance. There were times when I felt as if I were being spun around in a washing machine, to tell you the truth. d) in object clauses after expressions of wish: We wish it were true. I wish you did (had done) me a favour. We wished we might (could) help them. e) in predicative clauses: He feels as if he were going to die. It looks as if it had snowed heavily all night. f) in subject clauses after the expression “it is (high) time”: It is high time we went to bed. It’s time you did it. (Also: It is time for us to go to bed. It is time we should go to bed.) It’s time you thought about your future. Isn’t it time they were here? Unreal Actions and States after wish I wish… wish I wished ‘ll wish Compare: I Simultaneous actions Prior actions were (was) free now. had been free last week. knew it. saw the show. I had known it. had seen the show. Жаль, что я не свободен сейчас. Жаль, что я не был свободен на прошлой неделе. Я жалел, что не знал этого. Я жалел, что не знал этого раньше. 172 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс We use wish + would (could): a) to refer to general wishes for the future. I wish it would stop raining. We wish we could come to your party. b) to talk about other people’s irritating habits. When we speak about our annoying habits, could is used. I wish you would stop bossing people around. I wish I could stop eating so much chocolate. The Conditional Mood 1. The Conditional Mood is an analytical mood. It has two tenses — present and past. The Present Conditional refers the action to the present or future and is built up by means of the auxiliary verbs should or would and the indefinite infinitive of the notional verb. The Past Conditional refers the action to the past and is formed with the help of the auxiliary verbs should or would and the perfect infinitive. Present Conditional Past Conditional I would (should) do I would (should) have done 2. The Conditional Mood expresses an unreal consequence out of some unreal condition. It can be used: 1) in a simple sentence with implied condition. I would eat something delicious. He would have never done it, I’m sure. 173 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2) in the principal clause of a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of unreal condition or concession. We would be happy if you agreed. Even if she came, it wouldn’t change anything. 3) in compound sentences after “or”, “otherwise”. I hurry or I would stay. Nobody told us, otherwise we would have called. 4) when the implied condition is expressed by the phrase “but for…”. But for you, I would be a nobody. But for him. we would have never done it. But for bad weather, the children would go for a walk. Note: Modal verbs are used only in the form of the Present Subjunctive to express that something is desirable, advisable, possible. I could start my life anew if I had you! You might be more courteous to the girl, Eric! As modal verbs cannot have the Past Subjunctive, reference to the past is made by the use of the perfect infinitive: You might have given us a hint! She could have done it! He ought to have foreseen the results, I guess. The following set-phrases also have modal force in English: had best, had rather, would sooner, would rather, would have, had better. You’d better not interfere. I’d rather have tea. 174 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Mixed types of sentences Time-reference of the actions in the main and in the subordinate clauses in a complex sentence may be different. If the time of the action in the subordinate clause coincides with the time of the action in the main clause, their relations can be presented in the following way: Present Subjunctive Past Subjunctive Present Conditional Past Conditional Conditional Sentences Type of clause Subordinate clause Main clause I. A real condition If I have money, I’ll buy a computer. Если у меня будут деньги, я куплю компьютер. II. An unreal condition (present or future) If I had money, I would buy a computer. Если бы у меня были деньги, я бы купил компьютер. III. An unreal condition (past) If I had had money last year, I would have bought a computer. it would have been great. Если бы у меня были деньги в прошлом году, я бы купил компьютер. If you had done it, IV. A mixed type If you worked hard, (вообще) If you had worked hard last term, (в прошлом) Translation you wouldn’t have made so many mistakes in the last test. (в прошлом) you would know the answer now. (сейчас, в настоящий момент) 175 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The condition may refer to the present or to no particular time and the consequence to the past: If he were not such a careless driver, he wouldn’t have got into an accident. If she knew Spanish, she would have found the way. The unreal condition may refer to the past and the consequence to the present or future: If you had read the book, you would know the answer. If you had taken the medicine, you would be fine now. The relations of the main and subordinate clauses in such cases can be presented in the following way: Present Subjunctive Past Subjunctive Present Conditional Past Conditional The Old Subjunctive Mood It is a survival of the Old Subjunctive Mood. It denotes an action referring to the present or future. It’s falling into disuse and is very seldom used in Modern English. Though the form is archaic, it can still be found in English in high prose, poetry, official papers, some set-phrases (especially in the States). The form is the plain stem of the verb for all persons. Manners be hanged! Success attend you! So be it! Everybody join us! Far be it from me to tell you how to raise your child! Also in curses: Damn it! Confound it! 176 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Americans use it in subject clauses where the English use the modal verb should. I insist that you (should) be here. It is necessary that you (should) go there. Modal Verbs I. According to their syntactical functions English verbs fall into: a) notional, b) auxiliary, c) semi-auxiliary. a) The notional verb in its finite form serves as a simple verbal predicate in the sentence. Marina teaches Latin. These students are working diligently. I have always been admiring this ballerina. b) Auxiliary verbs are devoid of any lexical meaning and help to build up analytical forms of other verbs. We shall go there one day. They have done all they can. They will give her a chance, I’m sure. c) Semi-auxiliary verbs are used to form compound predicates (nominal or modal). Here belong link verbs and modal verbs. She is (looks, seems, feels, …) smart. It gets (becomes, grows, …) dark early in winter. 177 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс I can hear you well. You must keep it a secret. He ought to join us. II. The verbs can, may, must, have to, shall, should, will, would, need, ought to, dare are called modal as they express modality alongside with moods and modal words and phrases. Semantically modal verbs express neither actions nor states. They only show the speaker’s attitude to the probability, improbability, necessity, advisability, desirability of the action expressed by the main verb in the form of the infinitive (!), which follows the modal verb. Modal verbs are polysemantic. Each modal verb has more than one meaning and can express different shades of modality (depending on a particular context). For instance, the verb must can express duty, strong supposition, obligation, assurance, prohibition. He must be here at nine o’clock, not later. (order) He must be somewhere here, maybe in the lab. (supposition) He mustn’t talk like that to the child. (prohibition) The meanings of all modals are interrelated. III Functionally modal verbs greatly differ from all other English verbs. a) They are always followed by an infinitive of another verb, forming a compound modal (verbal) predicate. The infinitive following the modal verb is used without the particle “to” (except for the verbs ought to and be to). b) Another peculiarity of modal verbs (except the verbs have to, need to, be to) is that they lack some grammatical forms. They don’t have any analytical forms; neither do 178 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс they possess any participles, infinitives or gerunds; they have no inflection -s for the third person singular. Modal verbs have no imperative mood. They form the negative and interrogative constructions without the auxiliary do. Must we do it right now? Can (could) you help us? You shouldn’t go there at all. Although present and past forms can be identified, modal verbs are not time-specific. With the verb can, for instance, the present form can refer the action to the present or future time. I can speak Dutch. (present) You can go to the concert if you like. (future) The past form could may refer the action to the past, present or future. I could drive when I was sixteen. (a real past action) I could drive if you’re tired. (a present or future action) I could pick you up tomorrow. (a future action) c) Time reference is generally expressed through the form of the infinitive following the modal verb. The reference to the past is shown by the perfect form of the infinitive (in the active or passive voice). She must have left by now. It must have been done long ago. You should have written to your mother. All this doesn’t mean that modal verbs are inferior to all other verbs in the language. They belong to the main stock of words of the English language and make it more rich and colourful, expressing all the shades of our attitude towards reality. 179 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Can I. The forms of the verb: Can Could Could (Present Simple Indicative) (Past Simple Indicative) (Present Subjunctive) only indefinite infinitives follow She can play chess with me now. She could play chess when she was six. all forms of the infinitive follow She could play chess with me now. She could be playing chess now. She could have played chess with me yesterday! II. Can is used to express: 1. ability (physical, mental, learned skills). Look, I can touch my toes. (present action) I could touch my toes when I was younger. (past ability) (hypothetical I wish I could touch my toes. present or fuI could touch my toes if I lost weight. ture abilities) He can drive (play chess, speak Chinese, etc.). Love can move mountains. Don’t think you cannot. Think you can. Here’s a bit of advice from me. Take what you can while you can. That’s my motto. 2. objective, logical possibility (or absence of it), depending on circumstances (only with a simple infinitive). Anyone can learn to use a word processor. It can be true. It can’t be done. You can get this book in any bookshop. 180 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс A dog can be a very pleasant company on long country walks. 3. asking for, giving, refusing permission (a simple infinitive is used). Can (could) I borrow your pen? You can join us. No, you can’t watch television so late. (prohibition) 4. requests or refusing requests. Can you give Katy a lift? I can’t do that today. I’m afraid I can’t babysit tomorrow. 5. doubt, uncertainty or disbelief (only in interrogative and negative sentences!, corresponding to the Russian “íåóæåëè”, “íå ìîæåò áûòü”); all types of infinitives can follow. — Can they really be here? — They can’t be here. — Can they really be staying at this hotel? — It can’t be so. They can’t have been staying at this hotel for a month already! Note: two negations in the same sentence are usually avoided by using words of negative meaning: to fail, to misunderstand, to misinterpret, to be unaware, to be unconscious, nobody, never, no, etc. Can Can She Can he have failed to get there on time? they still be unaware of the danger? can’t have misunderstood you. they have told nobody about it? 6. reproach (though may is more common in this meaning). You could wait for us. They could have warned me. 181 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс May I. The forms of the verb: May Might Might (Present Simple Indicative) (Past Simple Indicative) (Present Subjunctive) only indefinite infinitives follow all types of infinitives He might help you. He may know it. He said that he might do it. He might be working. He might have done it. II. It is used to express: 1. an objective or logical possibility (where it is often replaced by can). Only an indefinite infinitive can follow. One may come across such things in everyday life. He realises that it may be correct. One day your dreams may all come true, one day the sun will shine on you. 2. asking for permission (an indefinite infinitive follows it). May I go now? May I use your telephone? May I came in. Note: Might in present-time contexts expresses a very polite, formal request. Might I trouble you for the sugar? 182 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3. supposition mixed with doubt («ìîæåò áûòü», «âîçìîæíî»). Different infinitives may follow it. She may be at work now. She may be working now. She may have done the work. She may have been doing the work for hours. It is never too late to be what you might have been. (George Eliot) Note: Might expresses greater doubt. We might catch the train. (there is almost no possibility to do it) 4. reproach, reprimand, mild recommendation (only might is used). You might give me a hand. You might have given me a hand! It’s too late now. You might as well wait for me. 5. Sometimes the verb may can weaken its lexical meaning of possibility to a great extent. Practically it’s not translated, but formally is used in certain cases: a) in simple sentences expressing wish. May success attend you! May you be happy in the life you’ve chosen! b) in subject clauses after the words: possible, likely, probable (only in affirmative constructions). It’s possible it may rain soon. It’s probable they may refuse. 183 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс c) in object clauses after expressions of hope, wish or fear when the fulfilment of the wish is unlikely and depends on the circumstances. I wish we might get a ticket for tomorrow. We fear she may be late. We fear that he might lose his way in the darkness. d) in clauses of purpose. Come nearer so that I may see you better. (present or future action) He shut the door so that she might not hear. (past action) e) in clauses of concession (with reference to the present or future). Whenever you may come, you are always welcome. Wherever he might travel, he was desperately homesick and lonely. Even though I may go, I’ll always remember the good old days in England. Can and May (Comparison) I. The forms: 184 Can — Present Simple May — Present Simple Could — Past Simple Might — Past Simple Could — Present Subjunctive Might — Present Subjunctive АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс II. Meanings: Can Common meanings May 1. ability (physical, mental) — — 2. objective, logical possibility 3. permission, polite request + “can” is more common. + synonyms (indefinite infinitives) objective, logical possibility permission, polite request, very formal 4. doubt or disbelief (negative and interrogative sentences) (different infinitives) — — 5. reproach + reproach, mild recommendation “might” is more common. (different infinitives) — — supposition (only in affirmative sentences) Compare the following: You just can’t count on September weather, can you? It’s hot and sunny at the moment, but it might well start snowing tomorrow. You see, I may be old, but no one can pull the wool over my eyes. No one at all. 185 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Must I. The forms. must have to (Present) (Past and Future) She says she must leave. She said she had to leave. She says she’ll have to leave. Must is also used to express a very near future action. I must stay in tonight and finish my essay. (rather than will have to) Must is not used with reference to the distant future. probably unlikely are used instead. evidently certainly most probably They will probably come next week. The weather is unlikely to change. II. Must is used to express: 1. Duty, necessity, obligation (only an indefinite infinitive follows). I must go and make a phone call. You must do it and that’s it. You must be honest with her, you really must. 186 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2. Prohibition in negative sentences. You mustn’t talk that way! You mustn’t treat her like that. 3. Rules, laws, social and moral responsibility. Schools must teach children such things. You must drive on the left when you go to England. We must go and see Sally, she’s in hospital. 4. Advice (to someone or to yourself). You must see a doctor about your leg. I must lose weight. Things must change. You must see that film, it’s terrific. 5. Supposition mixed with assurance, only in affirmative sentences (not in interrogative and negative!). All types of infinitives can follow (corresponds to the Russian «äîëæíî áûòü», «î÷åâèäíî», «âåðîÿòíî»). They They They They must must must must be here. be waiting for us. have been here for a week. have been waiting for an hour. In interrogative and negative sentences the verb “can” is used. She must be here. (Îíà, äîëæíî áûòü, çäåñü.) Can she be here? (Íåóæåëè îíà çäåñü?) She can’t be here! (He ìîæåò áûòü, ÷òî îíà çäåñü!) Íå must have missed the bus. Can he have missed the bus? He can’t have missed the bus. 187 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Note: double negation is avoided with the help of some words of negative lexical meaning: to fail, to misunderstand, to misinterpret, to be unaware, to be unconscious, nobody, never, no, etc. They must have failed to find him. She must have had no chance to meet them. The boss must be unaware of the situation. You must have misunderstood me. Have To This modal phrase can be used in all the three tenses: present, past and future. have (has) to… Present Simple had to… Past Simple Present Subjunctive Mood will (shall) have to… Future Simple The interrogative and negative forms are made up with the help of the auxiliary verb do (did, shall, will). Do (did, will) you have to …? Like all the other modal verbs the verb have to is semiauxiliary. On the one hand it helps to form a compound modal predicate in the sentence, on the other hand it has got a lexical meaning of its own expressing necessity, duty, obligation, arising out of, or imposed by circumstances. We use must/have to to describe an obligation where you have no choice; to let you know what is allowed and what is forbidden, prohibited, against the law, against the rules. In England you must drive on the left. In England you have to drive on the left. 188 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс It corresponds to the Russian «âûíóæäåí», «ïðèõîäèòñÿ». I hate to say goodbye but I have to go home. (necessity) At least we don’t have to go to work tomorrow, thank goodness. (absence of necessity) The forms with got to (have got to) are very common spoken forms: Sorry, I can’t stay. I’ve got to go out again. — I don’t want to do this. — But the teacher says we’ve got to. Must and Have To (Comparison) In the present tense you have a choice between must and have to. The difference in meaning is not great but the knowledge of it can be useful. Choose must if you want to suggest that the obligation comes from you. Choose have to to suggest that the obligation comes from somewhere else. I must try to lose weight. (it’s my own idea) I have to try to lose weight. (the doctor has told me to lose weight) You must leave at once! (this is an order from me, I want you to leave) You have to leave at once! (I don’t mind if you stay, but I have just been given a telephone message for you) 189 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Be To This modal phrase has several meanings which are close to the expressions of obligation. The chief meaning is that of prearranged necessity or mutual arrangement. It’s used in the present and past, never in the future; have to is used in this case. Forms am/is/are to was/were to shall/will/have to Present Simple Past Simple Future Simple I am to meet the delegation. I was to meet the delegation. I’ll have to meet the delegation. He is to make a report. He was to make a report. He will have to make a report. They are to arrive tomorrow. They were to arrive yesterday. They will have to arrive next week. Meaning 1. Non-perfect and perfect infinitives are used after the past tense of the modal verb to be to. A perfect infinitive after it shows that certain plans and arrangements were made but the action was not carried out. Compare: She was to meet us. (Nothing shows that she didn’t do it.) She was to have met us. (The action had been planned but it wasn’t carried out.) 2. Be to can also express an objective possibility (only with the passive infinitive). The book is to be got (had) in any shop. (It doesn’t express any obligation, and corresponds to the Russian «ìîæíî äîñòàòü».) He is to be congratulated on his success. 190 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3. It can also express a command. In negative sentences it expresses strict prohibition. You are to report to the Dean. You are not to come here. At the beginning of the war every man under forty was to serve in the armed forces. 4. It also expresses something unavoidable, something which is doomed or predestined (in Russian — «ñóæäåíî áûëî»). It was to happen. They were never to meet again. 5. In questions it means that you ask for instructions. What am I to do? Who is to question him? Am I to go there? Compare: Shall I…? Will Will is either tense auxiliary or modal. It has two forms: will — would. As a modal verb will can express: 1. invitations, polite requests or offers referring to the present or future. Will you give me a hand? Will they go to the theatre with us? Will you have a cup of coffee? 2. volition, willingness, strong intention, determination. I will fight for the right to live in freedom. Bert rang me up at the office today. I will kill whoever gave him the number. I will work out, I promise. If you will help us, it’ll be great. (in subordinate clauses of condition) 191 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3. insistence on undesirable habits (present or future). He will keep losing his keys. Never mind, these things will happen. 4. resistance with inanimate objects when something is broken and isn’t working. The orange won’t peel. The wound won’t heal. The car won’t start. He’s trying to open the jar, but the lid won’t come off. I’ve explained the situation over and over again, but she just won’t listen. 5. inevitability. Whatever will be will be. Truth will come out. After every storm the sun will shine. 6. some assurance, prediction. — Someone has come. — That will be Jane. Friends will be friends. Boys will be boys. And sometimes girls will be boys. Would Would can be a tense auxiliary, a mood auxiliary or a modal verb. He said he would come soon. (a tense auxiliary) If I were you, I would do the same. (a mood auxiliary) She wouldn’t agree to retire, no matter how tired she was. (a modal verb) It would be fine if you would stop quarrelling. (a modal verb) 192 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс As a modal verb it can express: 1. present or future permission, invitations. Would you let me borrow the car? Would you come to the party with me? 2. asking for information (things). Would you carry this for me? What would you like to drink? 3. undesirable past habits (recurrent actions). He would lose his temper all the time. 4. recurrent, habitual actions (only in the past). He would come and stay with us every Sunday. 5. assumption. Someone is knocking. That would surely be Tom. 6. a wish, depending on somebody else. I wish you would stop crying. She would have left the house long ago if her father would allow it. But he would not allow it. Shall It can be either tense auxiliary or modal. It has two forms: shall — should. As a modal verb it can express: 1. promise (for the 2nd and 3rd person singular). He shall get the prize. Fragile objects shall not be accepted. 193 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2. compulsion, threat or warning (2nd and 3rd person singular). You shall be punished. She shall pay for it, she shall answer for her actions. 3. a suggestion, polite request, asking for instructions. What shall I do next? Shall we start? Shall we help you? Let’s stay here, shall we? Need I. The Forms. The verb need is regular in all tenses, and takes the construction TO NEED TO + VERB. need to needed to shall/will need to Present Simple Past Simple Future Simple I need to go there. I needed to go there. I shall/will need to go there. Do I need to go there? Did you need to go there? Shall I Need I go there? (только в наст. вр.) You needn’t go there. need to go there? Will you You didn’t need to go there. You won’t need to go there. He needs to do it now. I need to think it over. Does he need to do it now? He doesn’t need to do it now. In the present tense only, there is an alternative form which behaves like must or can, i. e., it doesn’t change, and it forms the negative need not and the question form need I? — Need I help you? — You needn’t do it. — Need they stay here? — They needn’t stay here. 194 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Use need to for all other tenses: I need to do it now. I did not need to do it. Do you need to do it now? We don’t need to do it now. You will need to do it. Would they need to do it? etc. The past forms: did not need to (go) and need not have (gone). Need not have (gone) has a particular meaning: it says that you did something which was not necessary (i. e. you wasted your time!). Did not need to (go) says that it was not necessary to do something, but it does not say whether in fact you did it or not. I needn’t have bought a French-English dictionary. (But you bought one.) I didn’t need to buy a French-English dictionary. (Either you had it or there was no need to do it.) Was it necessary? Did she buy one? needn’t have bought No Yes didn’t need to buy No No II. Need is used to express that something is necessary or useful to do. It is similar to must or have to. You need to work much harder. She needs to improve her handwriting. Do I need to get a visa? Do not need to or need not says that something is not necessary. It is similar to do not have to. You don’t need to wear glasses all the time. He can go now: he does not need to wait. 195 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The difference between you don’t need to and you needn’t is very slight and it is better to use the regular form (don’t need to, Do I need to…?). You will most often hear the irregular form in the following situations: 1. as a response to the question Must I…? or Do I have to…? Must I do it right away? — No, you needn’t do it now; leave it until tomorrow if you like. 2. to say that it is useless to try to do something. You needn’t imagine that I don’t know what you have been doing. 3. to say that something is not expected or not possible. You needn’t give me a lift on your scooter — I’m much too heavy anyway. Should Should may be either an auxiliary or a modal verb. I. When should is used as tense or mood auxiliary it is not translated since it has no lexical meaning of its own. She said we should go there next year. (tense auxiliary) If I had such a chance, I should take it. (mood auxiliary) II. As a modal verb should expresses duty, obligation often weakened to the meaning of advice, warning, reproach, rebuke. You should help him. (advice, recommendation) You should do your best. (obligation, duty) You should have given up this idea long ago. (reproach, rebuke) 196 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс You should nurse your dreams and protect them through tough times. (advice) You should look after your money, and your money will look after you. They say you should be careful what you wish for, because you might just get it. “There’s a school of thought,” I said, “that parents shouldn’t criticize children. They should encourage instead. You know, people rise to other people’s expectations. And when you criticize, it just means you’re expecting failure.” Note: In emotional speech should can express indignation, astonishment, regret after the words why, what, how, who(m), I’m sorry: Why should I go there? How should I know? (ñ êàêîé ñòàòè?) Different infinitives can follow. You should be friendly to people. (the reference is made to the present, future or to no particular time) You should be working now, not polishing your nails! (the reference is made to the present moment) Children should be learning, not earning. You should have done it. (the reference is made to the past) The positive construction with a perfect infinitive after should shows that the action was desirable but wasn’t carried out. You should have come. (but you didn’t) Now, you have become the person you should have always been. 197 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The negative construction with the perfect infinitive shows that the action which took place in the past was not desirable. You shouldn’t have come. (but you did) III. In certain cases the modal verb should weakens its lexical meaning to such a great extent that it’s practically lost; nevertheless it is used in the following cases traditionally called “The Suppositional Mood”: 1. in subject clauses introduced by the anticipatory it after the words: necessary, desirable, advisable, recommended, surprising. It is advisable you should make up with your parents. Note 1: After affirmative constructions like it is possible, it is likely, it is probable, may + infinitive is also used. It is likely that it may snow soon. The suppositional mood is used in negative and interrogative constructions. Is it possible that one should not know the results? Note 2: After the expression it is (high, about) time... It is (high, about) time we should have a snack. 2. in object clauses. a) after expressions of order, recommendation or suggestion (insist, suggest, propose, order, demand, arrange). She ordered that everybody should leave the room. b) after expressions of fear when the object clause is introduced by the conjunction lest («÷òîáû íå...») or so that («òàê ÷òîáû...»). We feared lest they should get lost. I’m so much afraid that I should be refused. 198 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3. in adverbial clauses of: a) purpose, introduced by lest («÷òîáû íå…»). Let’s talk it over lest there should be any misunderstanding. May (might) + an indefinite infinitive can also be used: Come nearer that I may hear you well. b) concession after the conjunctions though, whatever, whoever, whenever, etc. with reference to the future. However hard it should rain, we shall go. Whatever he should say, I will not change my mind. Whenever you should come, you are most welcome. c) condition. If you should see her, say a big hello to her. More emphatic: Should you see her, say a big hello to her. Inversion is possible with the verb should. Should you change your mind, no one will blame you. Ought to It comes originally from the verb owe, and still carries the idea that we owe some moral obligation to other people and to ourselves. I really ought to go and have my eyes tested. (I owe it to myself, I haven’t done my duty.) 199 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ben really ought to see his parents more often. (he rarely sees them) They ought to ban smoking in public places. (the obligation comes from outside) I. It has only one form for the present tense and unlike all other modals is always followed by the infinitive with the particle to. Time reference is expressed through the form of the infinitive. You ought to do it. (present tense) You ought to have done it. (past action which was desirable but wasn’t carried out) II. Like the modal verb should ought to expresses advice, social and moral responsibility. You You She You ought to oughtn’t ought to ought to see a doctor. to smoke so much. look after her children better. ask for your money back. III. Should and ought to are very close in meaning. Unlike must/have to which express obligation where you have no choice, should and ought to describe a sort of obligation where you have a choice: You shouldn’t carry a lot of money with you. People oughtn’t to leave their bags unattended. You should help old people. He ought to take up some sport. In the above illustrations, we are free to do or not to do what we are advised. Still there is some very slight difference between them. 200 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Should suggests an obligation more moral and binding than ought to and therefore offers stronger advice and conveys greater certainty in prediction. Ought to often suggests that the action is unlikely to be fulfilled. Compare: You should go. (this is absolute) You ought to go. (But I know that you don’t want to go, so it’s up to you to decide.) Dare (To) Like the verb need the verb dare is a regular verb which has the pattern dare (to) do something. However, in the present tense there is an alternative form in negative sentences. Compare: I daren’t do it instead of the regular I don’t dare to do it. Note: In negative sentences the particle to is usually not used after dare. She daren’t go there alone. Don’t you dare throw it away. Forms dare (to) dared (to) shall/will dare (to) Present Simple Past Simple Future Simple Nobody dares to tell the truth. Nobody dared (to) tell the truth. Who dares to look at it? Who dared (to) look at it? Nobody will dare (to) tell the truth. Who will dare to look at it? 201 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Positive Negative (no particle “to”) We dared to come. We didn’t dare do it. Note also the fixed expression I daresay … when you are saying that you believe that something could be true: I daresay you are feeling tired after your long journey. The Modal Phrases Had Better, Would Rather Had better has a similar meaning to should but stronger. We use it to offer advice. We mean, “If you don’t do this, there will be à bad consequence or result.” We often use it to give someone a warning. (Don’t use it when you are talking to a person in a position of authority. It can be insulting.) You’d better budget your time carefully. You’d better give it a second thought. You’d better stay in bed not to make your cold get worse. Would rather means “prefer”, it’s a way to compare two choices or more alternatives. In the negative would rather not is often a polite way to say, “I don’t want to do that”. Molly would rather live alone. What would you rather do? I’d rather (would rather) + Past Simple is used when we want to say what we want someone (or something) else to do in the present or future. I’d rather you didn’t behave in such a way. I’d rather the show started a little earlier. 202 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс I’d rather + Past Perfect is used when we want to say what we wanted to happen in the past. I’d rather you hadn’t gone there. I’d rather they had gone out more often. All the means of expressing modality can be presented in the following table. They are placed in order of “strength”. Someone is sitting in the garden. I wonder who that is? Perhaps it’s Pam. Certain It is Pam. It will be Pam. It must be Pam. It should be Pam. It may be Pam. It might be Pam. It could be Pam. It ought to be Pam. It couldn’t be Pam. It can’t be Pam. It won’t be Pam. Uncertain Certain I think it’s Pam. I don’t think it’s Pam. It is not Pam. The Verbals (The Non-Finite Forms of the Verb) I. The Verbals — the Infinitive, the Gerund and the Participle are also called the Non-Finite Forms of the Verb. Unlike the finite forms of the verb which always have a subject with which they agree in number and person, the verbals are not restricted in number and person by any grammatical subject. This is for you (her, us, them) to decide. 203 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс II. The verbals cannot express predication by themselves; they can be only part of predicate in combination with finite forms of the verb. They began talking loudly. I must ask you to leave. She seems to know everything. III. In common with the finite forms of the verb all the verbals have tense and voice distinctions. What is traditionally called “tenses of the finite forms” differs greatly from the tenses of the verbals. The tenses of the finite forms indicate the time of the action. The tenses of the verbals express relative time indication; they usually show whether the action expressed by the verbal: a) coincides with the action of the finite form of the verb (in the present, past or future) I am glad to see you again. (the actions are simultaneous) b) or is prior to the action of the finite form of the verb (in the present, past or future). I am glad to have seen you. (the perfect infinitive indicates priority) The Infinitive I. Due to its historical origin and development the Infinitive has noun and verb characteristics. The noun characteristics of the Infinitive are displayed in its syntactical functions in the sentence. It can function: 204 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 1. as the subject of the sentence. To travel means to enlarge your horizons. To make the world better has always been his aim in life. 2. as an object. Will you teach me to dance? Never forget to say “thank you”. I cannot afford to panic. It gives me great comfort to think of you. 3. as part of predicate (predicative). To forgive is to understand all. A witty limerick is very difficult to write. 4. as an attribute. There is a problem to solve. There are so many good books to read. II. The Infinitive has the following verb characteristics. 1. Aspect. 2. Tense. Common Continuous to write to have written to be writing to have been writing a) Indefinite b) Perfect to write to have written She seems to write only detective novels. He seems to be writing a new book. They seem to have done the work. They seem to have been doing it for so long. 205 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс a) The indefinite infinitive shows that the action expressed by the infinitive is simultaneous with the action of the finite form of the verb in the sentence. He helped us (to) do the work. After the verbs to expect, to hope, to intend, to warn, also after modal verbs (to have to, to be to), the indefinite infinitive may also refer to à future action: What am I to do now? She has to catch a train. b) The perfect infinitive shows that the action expressed by the infinitive precedes the action indicated by the finite form of the verb. I’m sorry to have been of so little help. After the modal verbs should, could, ought to, might, to be to, the perfect infinitive is used to show that the action considered desirable or planned was not carried out. You should have phoned me at once. I ought to have known it. After the past tense of the verbs hope, intend, expect, the perfect infinitive is used to indicate that the action was not carried out. Compare: I intended to finish the book soon. (maybe I did it) I intended to have finished the book soon. (but I didn’t) 3. Voice. 206 Active Passive to write to have written to be written to have been written АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Both forms can be used in some cases. Compare: They are not to blame (= to be blamed). There is a lot to discuss (= to be discussed). The house is to let (= to be let). This is a book to read (= to be read). The question has to be decided. The room ought to have been cleaned. The Forms of the Infinitive Active Passive Simple to write to be written Perfect to have written to have been written Progressive to be writing — Perfect Progressive to have been writing — III. In Modern English the infinitive is usually preceded by the particle “to”. The position of “to” may change the meaning of the utterance. Compare the following: “True”, she said. “But you could have tried.” He had tried. Not to ring her, but to not ring her. Sometimes it can be divided by different words of adverbial character. The so called “Split Infinitive” («ðàñùåïëåííûé èíôèíèòèâ») is used for the sake of emphasis. He came to fully realise the danger. It appeared to both excite and relax him. But then, nobody seems to really care. Then Dad yelled at everybody to just shut up. 207 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс IV. The infinitive is used without the particle “to”: 1. after the auxiliary verbs do, does, shall, will, should, would 2. after the modal verbs (exept ought to, be to, have to) and modal phrases — Do you speak French? — I don’t know it. — Shall I help them? — They will do it themselves. — What should I do? — We would call you if we could. My sister can play football. What must I do? You’d better leave now. We cannot but refuse him. 3. after the verbs of sense perception to hear, to see, to feel, to notice, to watch Somebody heard him say that. Nobody saw them leave. We noticed her turn pale. She watched the plane land. But: if the verbs are in the Passive Voice the infinitive is used with the particle “to”. He was heard to say that. They were seen to leave. She was made to do it. 4. after the verbs of compulsion let and make Let us discuss the problem. We let them decide the question. I’ll make you understand it. You can’t make me do such a thing. Remember: The Verb let isn’t used in the passive voice, use the verb allow instead. They were allowed to decide the question. 5. In questions starting with Why? («почему бы не..?») Why do it? Why risk it? Why not go to a pub? Why not tell us the whole story? 208 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Functions of the Infinitive in the Sentence The infinitive can be used in the sentence: 1. As subject. To get out of difficulty, go through it. To learn, to desire, to know, to feel, to think, to act — is what I want in Life. To be forewarned is to be forearmed. Just to be alive is a grand thing. (Agatha Christie) Also as subject in sentences with the anticipatory “it”. It was natural to invite her to the party. It gives me pleasure to think of you. 2. As predicative (part of a compound nominal predicate). The main problem is to get the money. What I want is to be healthy, wealthy and wise. The purpose of knowledge is to make you wiser and stronger. The best way to cheer yourself up is to cheer someone else up. Also as part of a predicative: The book is hard to read. This child is easy to teach. He isn’t easy to do business with. The situation is going to be tough to deal with. 3. As part of a compound verbal predicate: a) modal. You must speak out. You can trust us. They should think about it. 209 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс b) aspective with verbs denoting the beginning, the end or the duration of an action: to start, to begin, to continue, to cease, used to, would + infinitive, etc. She began to speak perfect English. Soon I came to know her too. We used to listen to lectures at the University. c) after the verbs of modal character seem, appear, happen, chance, turn out, prove. They seem to know everything. She happened to be passing the hotel. 4. As an object. a) to the following verbs: agree, arrange, ask, decide, expect, fail, forget, hope, intend, learn, like, love, manage, mean, offer, plan, pretend, promise, propose, refuse, regret, try, want, wish and some others. We decided to sleep on it. (Óòðî âå÷åðà ìóäðåíåå.) We managed to see him at last. She hoped to succeed in life. I promise to support you. They arranged to meet at the club. b) to an adjective (or a participle): (un)able, afraid, anxious, ashamed, astonished, careful, delighted, determined, free, fortunate, frightened, furious, glad, happy, helpless, lucky, pleased, ready, right, sorry, surprised, thankful, useless. We are anxious to see them. I’m lucky to know the news. I am sorry to have given you so much trouble. 210 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс c) after a number of transitive verbs in the Active Voice followed by an object expressed by a noun or a pronoun: to advise, to allow, to ask, to beg, to intend, to invite, to know, to like, to love, to persuade, to press, to realize, to recommend, to tell, to think, to trust, to understand, to want, to warn, to wish. I persuaded her to change the decision. He taught Mary to play chess. 5. As an attribute (to nouns, indefinite pronouns, etc.). The infinitive in the function of an attribute immediately follows its head-noun. It was a day to remember. Here are some instructions to follow. Who was the first to think of it? He is not a man to be easily frightened. She wants to choose someone to spend the rest of her days with. The will to live is the strongest force in the world. We never seem to have a moment to spare these days. She isn’t a person to throw everything she possessed to the wind. 6. As an adverbial modifier: a) of purpose. He went to England to improve his English. My sun sets to rise again. (Robert Browning) We stopped to consult the map. She is studying to be a teacher. I left the flat to get some fresh air. She used the remote control to switch on the television. Use the Internet to find the source of this information. 211 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс b) of degree or result (enough, too). She is clever enough to realize it. I’m too tired to argue with you. c) of unexpected consequence. I awoke one morning to find myself famous. He went out into the street to find himself alone. I opened the door of the pub to discover that the place was packed with people. She got back to Oxford to find a note from her boyfriend. 7. As parenthesis (parenthetically): to begin with, to be (quite) frank, to be sure, to put it mildly, to make things worse, to say the least, to tell the truth, to crown it all, to top it all, needless to say; to make a long story short, to be exact, strange to say, to say nothing of, to be honest. To be quite frank, I don’t like him at all. He was, strange to say, an ordinary chap. To tell the truth, there were times when I felt as if I were being spun around in a washing machine. The Complex Object The term comes from the classical “Accusativus cum Infinitivo” and is commonly known in grammar as “The Complex Object”. I. Some transitive verbs are followed by an object (expressed by a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case) with an infinitive following it. I want my friends (them) to stay with me. Doctors want us to just stop overeating. 212 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The two elements are closely connected and form syntactically a complex object. The relation between the noun (or pronoun) and the infinitive is that of the “secondary subject” and “secondary predicate” of the sentence. II. The “Accusative with the Infinitive” is used after: 1. verbs of liking or disliking, such as to want, to wish, to desire, to like, to hate, etc. I want you to get to the point. Do you wish me to interfere? We can’t bear you to speak about it. Mrs. Forester wants me to modernize her cottage. 2. verbs of mental perception such as to expect, to know, to believe, to consider. We knew her to be an expert on the matter. They expect Linda to succeed. The scientists consider the event to be a phenomenon. 3. verbs of sense perception to hear, to see, to feel, to notice, to observe, to watch. She did not hear Paula come in, so soft was her step. No one noticed him leave the room. I’ve never seen her look so beautiful. 4. verbs of compulsion make, let, have, get to. I’ll get you to do it. “Who made you agree to this?” She will let the children take a dog. Let me do it in my own way. Nobody will get me to do it. Television commercials try to make you buy without thinking. 213 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс When the verb make is in the Passive Voice, the infinitive is used with the particle “to”. Let has no Passive. Use allow or permit instead of it. Compare: They let us stay. We were allowed to stay. We are made to learn spelling rules by heart. The “Accusative with the Infinitive” is rendered in Russian by means of a subordinate object clause. I want you to do it. — ß õî÷ó, ÷òîáû òû ýòî ñäåëàë. 5. When the verbs to see, to hear have the meaning of “to know” — a subordinate clause should be used. I hear (know) that he is a good writer. We see (know) that you are right. The For-to-Infinitive Construction In a number of cases the preposition for introduces a construction in which a noun (in the common case) or a pronoun (in the objective case) is followed by an infinitive. It is necessary for us to be reasonable. The relation between the components of the construction is that of the secondary subject and secondary predicate. It’s better for me to leave. (= that I should leave). Compare the two sentences: We are sorry to leave you so soon. (the subject of the infinitive is the subject of the sentence) We are sorry for them to leave us so soon. (the subject of the infinitive is introduced by “for”) The For-to-infinitives can be used in the same functions in the sentence as simple infinitives. 214 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Gerund The gerund originates from the Old English verbal noun and the present participle; hence its double nature and its noun and verb characteristics. The noun features of the Gerund are realized in its ability to function as the subject, object (direct or prepositional), predicative of the sentence. The nominal character of the Gerund is evident when it is used as an attribute or an adverbial modifier; in these cases it is always preceded by a preposition, which is a formal mark of the noun. The Verb Characteristics of the Gerund I. The Gerund has tense forms — indefinite and perfect. doing — having done publishing — having published hearing — having heard The tenses of the Gerund denote relative time correlation. 1. The indefinite gerund shows that the action expressed by it is simultaneous with the action of the finite form of the verb in the sentence. Excuse me for giving you so much trouble. He was proud of winning so often. It may also refer the action to the future after the verbs to intend, to insist, to object, to suggest, also after the nouns hope, intention, plan, prospect, suggestion, etc. 215 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2. The perfect gerund shows that its action is prior to that of the finite verb. Excuse me for having given you so much trouble. He was proud of having won the game. In Modern English the perfect gerund is generally avoided after: a) the conjunctions on (upon), before, after. After graduating from University my brother started working. He produced his papers on being stopped by a policeman. b) the verbs to forget, to remember, to thank, to deny, to excuse, to regret. She forgot telling him about it. Excuse me for entering without knocking. I don’t remember ever seeing him. They regret letting you go there alone. II. The Gerund of transitive verbs can express voice. The Forms of the Gerund Active Passive Indefinite doing being done Perfect having done having been done As the passive voice is of later development, we still find in Modern English instances when the active form of the Gerund is passive in meaning. Such constructions are survivals of the time when one and the same form was used with both 216 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс active and passive meanings. The Gerund is always used in the active form (with passive meaning) after the verbs to want, to require, to need, to deserve, also after the adjective worth. The The The The grass needs cutting. camera wanted adjusting. child deserves praising. film is worth seeing. The Functions of the Gerund in the Sentence 1. The Subject. Dieting is very popular now. No progressing is regressing. Travelling broadens your mind (if you have the mind). Living there would slowly drive me crazy. Using a computer all the time can cause eyestrain. Finally meeting you, getting to know you, being with you all these months has been the best thing that’s ever happened to me. The subject expressed by a gerund may follow the predicate in the construction there is no, also after it’s no … There is no concealing the truth. It’s no use worrying about them. As usual, there’s no arguing with you, boss. There is no accounting for the tastes of the rich. 2. The Predicative (part of a compound nominal predicate). The biggest problem in life is choosing. His main occupation is playing the computer. Creating is inventing, experimenting, growing, taking risks, breaking rules, making mistakes, and having fun. 217 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3. Part of a compound aspective or modal predicate (after the verbs denoting the beginning, the duration or the end of the action such as to begin, to start, to burst out, to go on, to keep (on), to stop, to finish, to give up, also after the verbs which have modal meaning, such as to intend, to try, to attempt, can’t help). Stop spreading the news! Go on working! The child burst out crying. I can’t help admiring you! Oh, please, stop asking me for definitions. I feel like a walking dictionary. 4. An object (prepositional or non-prepositional). Avoid making rash promises. I enjoy socializing with friends. We’re looking forward to meeting you. Thanks for having me on such short notice. I am tired of listening to your “ifs” and “nots”. Are you fond of watching animals in the wild? His friends accused him of being disloyal. Also after the verbs: need, require, want, deserve. His suit needed cleaning and his brown moccasins needed throwing away. 5. An attribute (always with a preposition, mostly of) after quite a number of nouns. Water has a wonderful way of calming. Lately he had developed a nervous habit of pushing back his hair quickly. Who will take the trouble of telling me what’s up? What’s the most effective method of foreign language teaching? Patience is the art of hoping. Art is a way of learning things. 218 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 6. An adverbial modifier (preceded by different prepositions) of: a) time (after before, on, upon, at, in, since); After removing the checkbook from the drawer, she wrote out a check. Before entering the house, wipe your feet. b) cause, reason (after because of, owing to, for fear of, for); For fear of looking funny I kept silent. c) manner or attending circumstances (after by, without); Why do you speak to people without looking at them? She kept her body in trim by going to a gym class daily. They left the theatre without waiting for the end of the show. It was not like my mother to come without calling me first. d) concession (after in spite of); In spite of being busy, he accepted us. e) condition (after in case). In case of being late, let us know. Complexes with the Gerund (Comparison) I. Sometimes the Gerund is preceded by a possessive or an objective pronoun or a noun in the common or in the possessive case. It’s mostly found in fiction style. I appreciated his (him) meeting me at the station. She mentioned Mike’s (Mike) telephoning last night. 219 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс In such constructions the relation between the noun (or pronoun) and the Gerund is that of the secondary subject and secondary predicate. Such complexes may function in the sentence as a complex subject, a predicative, an object, an attribute or an adverbial modifier. However, such verbs as keep, have, get, leave, find, want, catch, and verbs of sense perception cannot take a following possessive noun phrase. I’m sorry to keep you waiting. We walked out and left him sitting there. I won’t have you spoiling your career. She saw him glancing at her. When both the objective and possessive forms are permitted, the possessive option focuses attention on the action described in the ing-clause. In contrast, the use of the objective form emphasizes the person doing the action: I appreciate your being there. You don’t mind my calling you, do you? She could hear me putting on my clothes in the dark. We couldn’t picture you walking so far. II. In Modern English in informal speech there is a tendency to use the noun in the common case and the personal pronouns in the objective case. I appreciated him meeting me at the station. I don’t see any point in me coming if it’s just you doing business. I might as well stay at home. She mentioned Mike telephoning last night. 220 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Infinitive and the Gerund (Comparison) I. The Gerund is of a more general, abstract character than the Infinitive. Caroline enjoys going to parties. (a general, permanent action) Linda wants to go to the party tonight. (a single action on a certain occasion) II. Some verbs (like, love, enjoy, hate, prefer, would like) can be followed by either the Gerund or the Infinitive with no difference (or a slight one) in meaning. — Do you watch TV much? — Well, I like watching/ to watch shows. (no difference) It’s started snowing/to snow. (no difference) After the continuous form of a verb, only the Infinitive is used. For example: It’s beginning to get dark. III. Some verbs can be followed by either the Gerund or the Infinitive, but with an important change in meaning. 1. to remember/to forget Gerund: past action or event I don’t remember ever seeing you. I’ll never forget flying over the Alps for the first time. Infinitive: present or future action or event Don’t forget to feed the cat, will you? Did you remember to post that letter while you were out? 221 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2. to regret Gerund: past action or event He regrets stealing the money. I’ll always regret not going to university. Infinitive: future (present) action or event I regret to say I lost my temper with him. We regret to inform you that you are not accepted. Mr. Pockney regrets to tell you that he can’t see you. 3. to stop Compare the two sentences: They stopped chattering at last. (the Gerund is part of a compound aspective predicate and the phrase means “to finish an action which was in process” — «îíè ïåðåñòàëè ðàçãîâàðèâàòü») They stopped to have a chat. (the infinitive is an adverbial modifier of purpose, it means “to interrupt one action to do something else” — «îíè îñòàíîâèëèñü, ÷òîáû ïîãîâîðèòü»). 4. to need Gerund: The windows need cleaning. (Passive meaning: need to be cleaned) Infinitive: I need to call at the post-office. (Active meaning) 5. to try Gerund: Try phoning Tracey — she might be at home. (It’s not a difficult thing to do — you just do it and wait to see what the result is.) 222 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Infinitive: Try to phone Tracey — she might be at home. (The action is difficult and you have to try hard.) 6. to go on Gerund: They went on working. (the Gerund is part of an aspective predicate) Infinitive: He went on to finish his speech. (the Infinitive is an adverbial modifier of purpose) Semantically they express different actions. The Verbal Noun and the Gerund Verbal nouns originate from verbs: to come — the coming, comings; to go — the going, goings, etc. Like nouns, verbal nouns have all the features of nouns: both numbers, articles, they can be modified by attributes. The Gerund doesn’t have any of those characteristics. Mrs. Lambros did most of the crying. Below, in a shadowy clearing, stood Snape. At the core of the Internet is a sharing of information. The detective watched suspiciously the comings and goings into the house late at night. Compare the following: The loud ticking of the clock woke me up. (verbal noun) The clock started ticking all of a sudden. (gerund, part of a predicate) 223 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Participle I I. There are two participles in English: Participle I (the Present Participle) and Participle II (the Past Participle). Participle I has tense distinctions. Indefinite (non-perfect) — doing, learning, walking, etc. Perfect — having done, having learned, having walked, etc. The tense forms of the participle like those of the infinitive and the gerund express relative time indication. The non-perfect form of Participle I shows that the action of Participle I is simultaneous with the action of the finite form of the verb (in the present, past or future). I see (saw, will see) some students hurrying to the University early in the morning. He heard the rain beating against the window. Mike spent the morning sorting out the mail. Participle I non-perfect can express an action of a general character in the present, past or future. Finally we found the path leading to the cottage. There is a veranda running round the house. Participle I non-perfect is rendered into Russian by «äåéñòâèòåëüíîå ïðè÷àñòèå íàñòîÿùåãî âðåìåíè» or by «äååïðè÷àñòèå íåñîâåðøåííîãî âèäà» («âåäóùàÿ», «îïîÿñûâàþùàÿ»). Participle I non-perfect of terminative verbs (ïðåäåëüíûå ãëàãîëû) such as to arrive, to enter, to close, to open, to pass, to cross, etc., used in the function of an adverbial modifier of time usually indicates that the action of Participle I is prior to the action of the predicate. But as the actions closely follow one another the perfect Participle I is not used. 224 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Arriving at the office and passing into the room, he saw visitors waiting for him. In such cases Participle I is rendered into Russian by «äååïðè÷àñòèå ñîâåðøåííîãî âèäà» («ïðèáûâ», «âîéäÿ»). Participle I non-perfect after the conjunctions when and while always expresses simultaneousness. While walking downtown, she examined the windowshops. II. The perfect form of Participle I shows that the action of the participle precedes (is prior to) the action of the finite form of the verb in the sentence. Having run into difficulties, I count on your help and understanding. Having received an urgent message, he booked a ticket for Madrid. Participle I perfect is rendered into Russian by «äååïðè÷àñòèå ñîâåðøåííîãî âèäà» («ïîïàâ», «ïîëó÷èâ»). III. The Participle of a transitive verb has voice: active and passive. Participle I Active Passive Transitive Verbs non-perfect doing being done perfect having done having been done Intransitive Verbs non-perfect coming — perfect having come — 225 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс IV. The Functions of Participle I in the Sentence. The First Participle can be used as: 1. an attribute (sometimes losing its verbal character and becoming a mere adjective) in the phrases like: the falling waters, the setting sun, the whispering leaves Participle I in this function can be either in pre- or postposition to the noun which it modifies. We got a paper announcing his will. The singing, dancing, laughing people were everywhere. The falling leaves lay thick under our feet. The leaves falling on the ground reminded us of the coming winter. Note: Participle I in the function of an attribute can’t express priority, a subordinate clause should be used. Compare: Students, studying (èçó÷àþùèå) a foreign language, have to work hard. (the actions are simultaneous) Students, who studied at our faculty, are working in different educational establishments now. (the actions are not simultaneous) Students, who had studied at our faculty, came to meet their teachers. (to express a prior action a subordinate clause is used in this case too) 2. an adverbial modifier of time, cause, reason, manner or attending (attendant) circumstances, of unreal comparison, concession. Coming home, I had a surprise. (time) Not knowing the language, I misunderstood the taxidriver. (cause) 226 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Being conservative, even old-fashioned, Henry did not trust computers. (reason) I stood looking around, breathing the air. (manner) He spoke as if trying to make me believe him. (unreal comparison) Ben came nearer, though still refusing to take part in the game. (concession) I spent the day babysitting. (manner) 3. Participle I non-perfect of verbs expressing motion (to run, to dance, to pour, etc.) combined with the verb to come in the past tense forms a special type of a compound verbal predicate. The lexical meaning of the verb to come is greatly weakened and it functions as an auxiliary verb. Participle I is the notional part of the predicate, denoting the action of the subject. Everything came rushing back to me. Little Lizzy came running down the stairs. The rain came pouring down. The wind came whirling from the mountains. 4. part of a complex object with verbs expressing physical or mental perception. I felt shame drenching me like hot water. He found her looking through old photographs. The cat watched the mouse eating cheese. With verbs of physical perception the passive form is possible as well: He was seen playing golf in the afternoon. The waves could be heard beating against the cliffs. 227 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Nominative Absolute Participle Construction Sometimes the participle has a subject of its own expressed by a noun in the common case or by a personal pronoun in the nominative case. Such constructions are called “The Nominative Absolute”. The children enjoyed the party in the garden, the weather being warm and sunny. The storm having damaged our cottage, we had to move to a new one. Although this construction is formally independent of the sentence, it is logically connected with it and can function as an adverbial modifier of time, cause, condition, manner or attending circumstances: The visit being over, they walked back home. (time) The house door being open, she went in. (cause, reason) Weather permitting, we shall start tomorrow. (condition) My eyes being tired, I put aside the book. (reason) She sat on a white terrace chair, her eyes immediately focusing on the pool. (attending circumstances) Very often the participle is omitted (especially of the verb to be). Dinner (being) over, we went for a stroll. The sea rough and choppy, I missed my usual swim that day. He sat down, relaxing in front of the fire, his mind at ease. This construction is usually synonymous to a subordinate clause. It’s rendered in Russian by means of a subordinate adverbial clause. It’s used mainly in literary style. 228 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Participle II I. It is used to build up analytical verb forms of: a) all the perfect tenses: We have never lost touch with them. It took him a second to realize what had happened. b) all the tenses of the passive voice. I am told it’s wrong. (was told, etc.) II. Participle II has only one form, which has a passive meaning. As a non-finite form of the verb, Participle II can function in the sentence as: 1. an attribute (in pre- or post-position to the noun which it modifies). a faded rose — a rose pinned on the dress a fallen tree — a tree fallen by the storm a grown-up man — a man grown-up in poverty Forgotten memories rushed back to her with force and clarity. 2. part of the complex object after the verb to have (to get). This construction means that: a) something is done or made by someone else for the benefit of the person denoted by the subject of the sentence. I’ve had my bathroom tiled. She must have her eyes tested. Get this prescription made at the chemist’s. 229 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс I had a computer connected to the Internet. As soon as I get the photos developed, I’ll send them to you. Now tell me, honestly, do you think I ought to have my face lifted? b) something is done against your will, quite unexpectedly. He had his car stolen. My neighbour had her window-pane broken yesterday. We had our dog killed in the accident. 3. different adverbial modifiers. Defeated, he did not look or feel discouraged. (reason, concession) The child sat huddled in the armchair. (manner) Changed into an evening frock, she looked gorgeous. (reason, time) Finished with his breakfast, he started looking through the newspapers. (time) She screamed as if badly hurt. (unreal comparison) Driven by the necessity, he took a loan from the bank. (cause, reason) 4. a predicative. My heart is broken. You look rested. In this function Participle II describes or gives information about the subject of the sentence like an adjective. Past participles are used as adjectives in many common, everyday expressions like: 230 27. be prepared (for) 28. be qualified (for) 29. be related (to) 30. be satisfied (with) 31. be scared (of, by) 34. be terrified (of, by) 35. be tired (of, from) 36. be worried (about) 15. be finished (with) 16. be frightened (of, by) 17. be gone (from) 18. be hurt 19. be interested (in) 20. be involved (in) 21. be located in 22. be lost 23. be made of (from) 24. be married (to) 3. be broken 4. be closed 5. be composed of 6. be crowded (with) 7. be devoted (to) 8. be disappointed (in, with) 9. be divorced (from) 10. be done (with) 11. be drunk (on) 12. be engaged (to) 33. be spoiled 32. be shut 26. be pleased (with) 14. be exhausted (from) 2. be bored (with, by) 25. be mistaken 13. be excited (about) 1. be acquainted (with) АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Appendix Table 1 The Functions of Verbals Functions Infinitive Gerund Participle I Participle II Subject + + only as part of it only as part of it Object + + only as part of a Complex Object only as part of a Complex Object Attribute + + only non–perfect — nominal + + — — — verbal aspective + + — — — verbal modal + — — — — of time — + + + — of cause — + + — — of purpose + + — — — of manner — + + — — of attendant circumstances — + + — — of condition — + only as part of it + — of concession — + + + — of comparison + — + + Part of a compound predicate: Adverbial modifiers: 232 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Table 2 The Verbals in Different Adverbial Functions Phrases Adverbial modifiers of in on upon at Gerund before time after while when when Participle I Participle II with for for fear of Gerund cause owing to without in Gerund manner by as with without for so as in order Participle II Gerund attendant circumstances Gerund purpose Infinitive 233 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû Phrases without unless if in spite of Adverbial modifiers of Gerund Participle I, II condition Participle II Gerund concession though Participle I, II as if Participle I, II comparison as though Infinitive so… as such … as Infinitive result Syntax The word “Syntax” comes from Old Greek, where it meant «âîåííûé ñòðîé». In Old Greek grammar schools the term was transferred to Grammar to stress the importance of word order in the sentence. The sentence is a unit of speech which expresses a complete thought, and has a correct grammatical form and intonation. Every sentence has modality, which shows the speaker’s attitude towards reality. Sentences are classified on two principles: according to the aim of communication and according to their structure. The Simple Sentence Types of Sentences According to the Aim of Communication According to the aim of communication sentences may be declarative, interrogative and imperative. I. Declarative sentences express statements, facts in the affirmative or in the negative form. The word order in declarative sentences is very strict. The subject usually precedes the predicate. If the verb is transitive, the direct object immediately follows the verb. If there are two objects — direct and indirect — the indirect object is placed before the direct. She gave her children love and care. 235 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс II. Interrogative sentences ask for some information. There are the following types of interrogative sentences in English: 1) A general question. It asks whether the statement is positive or negative and requires an affirmative or a negative answer. — Is it cold today? — Yes, it is. — Do you like cold weather? — No, I don’t. 2) A special question. It may refer to any word in the sentence and it begins with an interrogative word (who? what? which? when? where? why?) When and where do you meet? Why is she so angry with you? A special question to the subject (what? who? which?) doesn’t require any auxiliary verb, both in present and past tenses. What makes (made) you so sad? Who knows (knew) the answer? Which of them helps (helped) you? 3) An alternative question. It means choice. Is Dan in or out? Do you learn French or Spanish? 4) A disjunctive question (a question tag). It is a very short question which follows the statement and repeats its meaning. If the statement is affirmative, the question is negative; if the statement is negative, the question is affirmative. You are happy, aren’t you? You aren’t happy, are you? He never smokes, does he? She smokes, doesn’t she? 236 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Question tags are often used in conversations to invite agreement. I’m lucky, aren’t I? I am not lucky, am I? He is bright, isn’t he? He isn’t bright, is he? We use they to refer to nobody, somebody, everybody, no one. Nobody called, did they? Everybody knows it, don’t they? III. Imperative sentences express commands, requests and invitations. The imperative mood of the verb is formed with the help of the infinitive without the particle “to”. Calm down! Relax! Take charge of your health! The imperative mood for the first and for the third persons is formed with the help of the verb “let”. Let me (us, them) explain it. Let him (her) decide it. In negative sentences the auxiliary verb “do” is used. Don’t be so noisy! Let’s not do it. Or: Don’t let’s do it. Will you or would you are the most common ways to make question tags after an imperative sentence. Take care, will (would) you? Will you is the only possible form after a negative imperative. Don’t be late, will you? Don’t interfere, will you? Any of the three kinds of sentences mentioned above may become exclamatory. Exclamatory sentences express strong feelings such as surprise, joy, annoyance, grief. They begin with the exclamatory words what and how. 237 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Exclamatory Sentences What, Such, So Countable nouns Singular — A/AN Uncountable nouns Plural — no article No article, no plural What a brilliant idea (it is)! What brilliant ideas (they are)! What fantastic news (it is)! What a fine day! What fine days! What a great man (he is)! What great men (they are)! What fine weather it is (we are having today)! What useful advice! What a lazy child! What lazy children! What great progress! What a strange person! What strange people! What strong coffee! What cold water! This is such a good song! These are such good songs! This is such good music! It’s such a beautiful fish! They are such beautiful fish! It’s such good paper! It’s such a thick newspaper! They are such thick newspapers! It’s such tasty fish! Such — So Such + Noun So + Adjective It was such a nice morning! The morning was so nice! She is such a bossy woman. The woman is so bossy. We had such a lovely time at the party. The time we had at the party was so lovely. I have such good friends. My friends are so good. They’ve made such great progress. Their progress is so great. But: There were so few people on the streets. There are so many things to do in this life. There is so little time left and so much to do. 238 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Types of Sentences According to Their Structure According to their structure sentences may be divided into simple, compound and complex. A simple sentence can be extended or unextended. A sentence, which consists only of a subject and a predicate is called unextended. Life is wonderful. Time is short. They met. We had a talk. A sentence which has some secondary parts is called extended. Last night we went for a walk in the centre of Moscow. A compound sentence consists of two or more coordinated simple sentences. The night was warm, and we walked to the sea. It was late, and I was tired. A complex sentence consists of a principal (independent) clause and of one or more subordinate (dependent) clauses. Nobody knows when she’ll come back. How I wish it were true and I hadn’t imagined it all! Although it was hard work, I enjoyed the job. The Main Members of the Sentence A sentence may have the main and the secondary members. The main members of the sentence are: the Subject and the Predicate. 239 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Subject The Subject of the sentence is the topic which is being discussed. It may denote living-being (people and animals), objects, notions, different phenomena. 1) The Subject may be expressed by personal pronouns, nouns, indefinite pronouns, infinitives, gerunds, substantivized parts of speech. We all hope for the best. A doctor should be competent. Something is wrong. To know you is a privilege. Travelling broadens your mind. The unknown is always interesting. 2) Clauses with be, arise, come, seem, exist, used to be, etc. (verbs chiefly denoting existence, appearance, or motion) often have an anticipatory subject, the so-called existential there, in the subject position. The real subject comes later in the clause. Once upon a time there lived a king. There were people in the hall. There was a star in the sky. There is no news today. There came the bell. There arose a strong wind. Existential there has a unique syntactic role; there is no other word in English which behaves in the same way. It is often described as an anticipatory (or empty) subject. Syntactically, existential there behaves as a grammatical subject: it is placed before the verb in declarative clauses and can be 240 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс used in question tags; but the real subject comes later in the sentence. There is a piano in the hall, isn’t there? There are two ways of tackling it, aren’t there? There is some time left, isn’t there? 3) It is frequently used as a semantically empty (dummy) subject, particularly in speaking about the weather, about time, or about distance. It’s raining (snowing, freezing, windy, cloudy, hot, humid, etc.). It was not as cold as the weatherman had promised. It’s nine o’clock. It was ten miles to the nearest town. It’s June the fifth. It’s me, sir. It seems interesting. It is widely used in impersonal sentences where there is no obvious subject. It’s so nice to meet you. It’s interesting there are so many people on the streets. It won’t be fair! It was a shame we missed the bus. 4) They, you, we, one can also be used as impersonal subjects. They is used to refer to unknown people who have power, information, authority which we do not have. They are the people who rule our lives but who do not understand us. I hear they’re going to raise taxes again. Even if you earn a bit of money, they always find a way to take it off you. 241 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс This use of they gave rise to the expression them and us to describe those who have the power (them) and the ordinary people (us) who suffer. One and you are frequently used when the speaker is not thinking of anyone in particular. One cannot put back the clock. One is never too old to learn. You can never tell what will happen next. How to make a cake. First you beat two eggs in a bowl, then you add some salt and sugar. We is used to mean all of us — the speaker, and the audience. We’re going to have some stormy rains. We’ve got to fight for our rights. Compare: They can tell us what to do but they can’t tell us what to think. The Predicate The Predicate of the sentence is what is said about the subject. According to its meaning the predicate may be either verbal or nominal. Predicate Verbal (We study) 242 Nominal (We are students) АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 1) The Verbal Predicate denotes an action and is expressed by a finite verb in a simple or a compound tense form. Verbal Predicate Simple Compound He works (is working, has been working) Modal She can (may, should, must…) work hard. Aspective He began (started, finished, etc.) to work. Simple verbal predicates can be expressed by such phraseological units as: to have a look, to make a mistake, to have a good time, to play a trick, to give a lift, to make a date, etc. Can you give me a lift to the hospital? I’d like to have a look at the menu. He made a long speech in Parliament. 2) The Nominal Predicate expresses facts, states, qualities, characteristics (it cannot denote an action). Nominal Predicate a link verb the nominal part (a predicative) The Nominal Predicate consists of a link verb and a nominal part (a predicative), thus it is always compound in structure. My program is very tight. We are students. It is cold today. She became a student. They seemed happy. He feels lonely. Now you appear a different person. 243 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The main link verbs are: 1. link verbs of being: be, look, feel, taste, smell, sound; 2. link verbs of becoming: get, grow, become, turn, prove; 3. link verbs of remaining: remain, keep, continue, go on; 4. link verbs of seeming: seem, appear. The use of various link verbs helps to express different shades of meaning and makes our speech more colourful. Compare: She is happy. — She looks (feels, appears, seems, becomes…) happy. Some notional verbs may function as link verbs in different contexts. Compare: We came late. — My dream came true. He went home. — He went crazy. She ran to the park. — The well ran dry in summer. They stayed at the office. — They stayed cool in court. The second part of the nominal predicate is called a predicative and can be expressed by a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a numeral, an infinitive and a gerund. They are artists and they are young. London turned out windy and foggy. His lecture was both logical and psychological. The fault is mine. He is only eighteen. Our aim is to master English and to become good teachers. The most difficult thing in life is choosing. 244 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The most common predicative adjectives are: able difficult ready sure right different hard aware likely good nice true wrong bad fine funny afraid dead happy full glad possible impossible unable important necessary clear small unlikely better Remember that an adverb is used to modify a verbal predicate, while an adjective is used as the second part of the nominal predicate, i. e. predicative. Compare: He works slowly. — He is slow. Speak seriously. — This is serious. 3) The Double Predicate. This type of predicate is a combination of two predicates — of a verbal predicate and of a nominal predicate. The river had frozen solid in the night. The river had frozen. It was solid. Take it easy. Take it. Stay (be) easy. The pizza was served hot. The pizza was served. It was hot. 245 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The double Predicate is getting more and more widely used in Modern English, especially in colloquial and newspaper styles. It gives information in a short and expressive way. Phrases like: “easy come, easy go”, “take it easy”, “sitting pretty”, “smb likes it hot”, “to serve smb right”, etc. have become the norm in the language. God, I love it when I get the answer right, and everyone looks impressed. These guys like talking big, it makes them feel good. I’m travelling light. Just me and my bag. 4) There are different types of mixed compound predicates: modal-nominal, phrasal-nominal, modal-phrasal, nominalmodal-phrasal. It must be a dream. He was to become a national hero. They ceased to be partners last year. He began to be on his own at the age of sixteen. We had to begin living all over again. You ought to stop doing nothing. It’s time she should again begin feeling safe. You ought to start to be more courteous to each other, friends. Word Order. Inversion Due to its historical development the English language has lost nearly all case inflections, expressing the relations of the members of the sentence. To compensate this, English has developed a rather fixed word order, strictly indicating the syn246 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс tactical functions of the words in the sentence. Generally the subject precedes the predicate verb. (Except sentences with “there is/was…”) Word Order in English Declarative Sentences An Adverbial Modifier of… Subject Predicate Object place manner time Mr. Grant got a message from America by e-mail yesterday. I found a job in a shop through Internet last year. by car on Sunday. — at the moment. We went She is reading — to the theatre some books in the library But: There is nothing new under the moon. There are many good things in this life. (сказуемое) (подлежащее) But in some instances the traditional word order is changed and the predicate verb is placed before the subject. This linguistic phenomenon is called “inversion”. Inversion may be either full (the whole predicate is put before the subject) or partial (the first element of the predicate precedes the subject). Inversion can be required either by grammatical or stylistical reasons. Grammatical inversion is obligatory in interrogative sentences, in which the auxiliary or the modal verb should be placed before the subject. Is that all right? Will that do? Do you like it? Has he phoned? Can you help us? Must we do it? 247 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Emphatic inversion helps to make our speech more expressive. It is possible: 1. if the sentence opens with some emotional adverbial modifier, placed at the head of the sentence like: not for the world, not for love or money, not for the life of me, not for anything, in vain, so, vainly, little, never (again), at no time, on no account, under no circumstances, not until, in no way, (how) little, nowhere. Such words and phrases have either negative or restrictive meaning and the inversion is partial. Not for the world would I change places with her! Nowhere else in this wide world have I seen such beauties as on this island. Never again will I believe you! In no way are you to speak about such matters when there are children around! But: if the predicate is a simple verbal one, the auxiliary “do” in the required form should be used. In vain did he try to find out the truth, they wouldn’t tell. So little did we know that there was practically no hope to find her. 2. if there are constructions like: hardly … when, scarcely... when, no sooner… than, in the principal clause of a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time. The inversion is partial. Hardly had the private detective finished his examination, when the local policed arrived. No sooner had he uttered the words, than she began laughing. 248 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3. if a long adverbial phrase is placed at the beginning of the sentence. Far away in the dark, gloomy wood stood a small house. High in the mountains stands a castle, the home of Count Dracula. 4. if the adverbs here and there, now and then, such are at the beginning of the sentence and are followed by a noun (full inversion). Such is the order of things. Here comes my boyfriend. Then came the turning point of the match. But: if the subject is a pronoun, the inversion is partial. Here he comes. There she goes. Then it came. 5. if such adverbs of place as away, up, down, in, out, off… are stressed. Away went the car, up flew the elevator (full inversion takes place if the subject is a noun, but if the subject is a personal pronoun, partial inversion takes place). Away it went. Up it flew. Down they crashed. 6. if an auxiliary or a modal verb is repeated to apply the preceding statement to a new subject. I should have done it. — So should I. I don’t know a thing about it. — Neither do I. But: there is no inversion if the statement refers to the same subject. — You look upset. — So I am. — You like it. — So I do. — Aye, he’s a coward. — So he is. 249 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 7. Inversion is regular in subordinate clauses of condition, the conjunction “if” is omitted, and the chance to fulfil the action is very small (problematic) or is entirely lost. Should you meet her, ask her to call me. Had I known it before, I would have been more careful. Had it been true, we would have trusted them. 8. Cleft Sentences. In Modern English there are quite a number of cleft sentences. A clause can be clefted, i. e. divided into two parts, each with its own verb. There are two main types of clefting: -it-clefts and -wh-clefts. Both types of clefts are used to bring particular elements into focus. It was there and then that our paths crossed. It is in autumn that the garden is at its best. It is not the gay coat that makes the gentleman. What he is is a genius. What worries us all was their silence. Depending on what element of the sentence the speaker wants to emphasize, a sentence can be transformed into different cleft sentences. It was Frank who reached Texas by plane. Frank reached Texas It was Texas that Frank by plane. reached by plane. It was by plane that Frank reached Texas. 250 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Here is another example. They split up for that particular reason last year. It was they who split up for that particular reason last year. It was for that particular reason that they split up last year. It was last year that they split up for that particular reason. There are also demonstrative cleft sentences of the type: That’s how I see it. That’s what we thought. This is how the car starts. That’s where we all live. Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject in the English Language In Modern English the predicate-verb agrees with the subject in number and person. When subjects and predicates match each other in person and in number, we say that they “agree” and this grammatical phenomenon is called agreement. I am a future teacher. You are all my friends. The doctor has just come. They teach English. One should observe some rules of agreement which present special difficulties. 1. Two or more homogeneous noun-subjects, pronoun-subjects, gerund-subjects expressed by nouns in the singular, connect251 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс ed by “and” or asyndetically require the use of the predicate-verb in the plural. She and I have always been great friends. Radio and television have changed social habits. My saying what I want and my insisting on it make her angry. Red tape and tough competition are in the way of many businesses. Note: When two nouns denote one person or thing, the predicate-verb is in the singular. The Dean and Lexicology lecturer is Mrs. Popova. Bread and butter is a wholesome food. Whisky and soda was his favourite drink. A black and white cat is sitting at the door. The repetition of the determiner shows that two different persons or things are meant. My schoolmate and my cousin have just dropped in. The bacon and the eggs are in the fridge. A black and a white cat are sitting under the bush. 2. After several infinitives functioning as subjects, the singular form of the predicate is used. To succeed, to rise in the world, to become financially independent was her greatest ambition. 3. There is a strong tendency to use the singular form of the predicate-verb preceding the homogeneous subjects, especially with the introductory “where”, “here” or “there”. Where is my coat and hat? There was plough-land and pasture there. Here comes Mrs. Graham and her husband. 252 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс In case of different person or number of the subjects the predicate agrees with the one that stands next to it. There was lobster and different vegetables to it. There go your sons and their teacher. 4. When homogenous subject are connected by means of the conjunctions “either… or”, “neither… nor”, “not only but”, the predicate-verb is in the singular when the subjects are in the singular and of the same person. Neither the clock nor the weathermaster has ever been right. The predicate agrees with the subject next to it if the homogeneous subjects are of different person or number. Not only the Earth but also the other planets move round the sun. Either James or I am to do it. 5. The predicate-verb is in the singular when two singular subjects of the same person are connected by “as well as”. My wife as well as her friend is ready to help you. But it agrees with the subject that comes first if the homogeneous subjects are of different person or number. Compare: The students as well as the teacher were present at the meeting. The teacher as well as the students was in the room. 6. Words joined to the subjects by means of “with”, “together with”, “including”, “in addition to” do not affect the form of the predicate-verb. A cab with two passengers has stopped dead. The children together with their tutor were invited to enter the hall. 253 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 7. Nouns which occur only in the plural form require the verb in the plural. The commonest are: arms (= weapons), clothes, contents, customs, earnings, savings, belongings, lodgings (also called digs), premises, headquarters, remains, odds, outskirts, regards, stairs, eaves, memoirs, victuals, slops, preserves. Her clothes are the latest fashion. The customs were opened all round the clock. Here belong names of objects which have two inseparable parts: binoculars, braces, knickers, scales, tongs, tweezers, scissors, glasses, bifocals, spectacles, pants, pyjamas, shorts, tights, trousers, jeans. These tights were produced in Italy. Where are my glasses? Are the scales electronic? 8. Nouns which are always singular agree with the verb in the singular form: advice, news, money, information, weather, rubbish, work, foliage, leafage, linen, furniture, equipment, luggage, baggage, clutter, litter, rubbish, crockery, cutlery, hardware, software, kitchenware. Also names of diseases: measles, mumps, diabetes. Measles is an infectious disease. Diabetes is a serious disease. The news is shocking. Money makes money. My linen is made of cotton. My baggage is gone. The information is too good to believe. 9. Names of multitude denoting people and animals (police, people, militia, the clergy, the rich, the French, the cavalry, poultry, cattle) are used with the predicate-verb in the plural. The police are downstairs and they want to see you. 254 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс There were 120 people in the lecture hall. Only the rich have such things as yachts, villas and planes. The cattle are up in the fields. 10. If the subject is expressed by a collective noun representing a limited group of people, the predicate is either a singular or a plural verb. This depends on whether the subject is thought of as a unity of people or a collection of individuals considered separately. Here belong the nouns: association, audience, band, board, cast, class, club, clan, college, committee, community, company, crowd, crew, department, electorate, mafia, enemy, family, firm, generation, government, gang, group, jury, orchestra, population, press, public, school, staff, team, university. Their staff is well-trained and efficient. The staff are going to raise that question again. His family are great musicians. His family is big. The company were entering the hall by different doors. I don’t care what your company is like. My class is small. My class are unruly today. Here belong also the names of such organizations as the Bank of England, the BBC, British Gas, the Post Office, British Rail, IBM, Sony. Compare: Bank of London is a reliable bank. Are Bank of London going to sue Luke? The Post Office is on that street. The Post Office have always got an excuse for the late delivery of post. 255 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 11. The subject expressed by a definite, indefinite or negative pronoun usually agrees with the singular form of the predicate-verb. Either/neither/each of the alternatives is acceptable. Every bush and every tree was in blossom. Every cloud has a silver lining. Neither of them is wanted on the phone. No one is absent today. 12. The negative pronoun “none” and the interrogative pronouns “who” and “what” are now treated in both ways depending upon the number of persons or things the reference is made to. None of the problems have/has been solved yet. Who is this man? Who are with him? 13. The form of the predicate-verb in a clause beginning with a relative pronoun (who, which, that, what) agrees with its antecedent. How is it, papa, that you, who are so clever with everybody else, are not a bit clever with me. “Except myself,” retorted Soames, “who am also in a damnable position.” Anyhow, she has what amounts to a high Cambridge degree. He showed me the letters which were of no importance to them. 14. The predicate-verb in the emphatic construction “it is (was)… that” agrees with the pronoun “it”, and thus is always singular. 256 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс It is the children we live for. It was they who started all this. 15. The subject in the plural expressed by the nouns denoting measure of value, time, weight, distance, etc. agrees with the predicate in the singular when the whole amount is meant. Six shillings a week doesn’t keep body and soul together very unitedly. The twenty minutes is up. Thirty miles is not a great distance in these days of rapid travel. 16. In combinations of quantitive words (a lot of, lots of, plenty of, quantity, majority, succession, portion, part, bulk, mass, series, a great/good deal of, handful, etc.) with nouns, the number of the latter defines the number of the whole combination. Plenty of cheese is imported from Holland. Plenty of cheeses are on display in the shop-window. Note: The same combinations with the nouns “number”, “majority” and “variety” are usually regarded as singular, when used with the definite article, and as plural, with the indefinite one. The number of books in this library is great. A number of books were on sale. A (the) majority of students are here today. 257 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 17. If the subject is expressed by a word-group beginning with “many a” the predicate-verb is in the singular. Many an officer has arrived. Many a time have I seen it. 18. When the plural form of the subject is used as the title of a book or the name of a newspaper or a magazine, the predicate-verb is in the singular. “The Prince and the Pauper” was written by M. Twain. “Gulliver’s Travels” is full of satire. “New Times” is a political journal. The Beatles is my favourite group. “Windows” is an operative system. 19. If the subject is expressed by a word-group denoting such arithmetic calculations as addition, subtraction and division, the predicate-verb is singular; with multiplication it is either singular or plural. But: Two plus two is four. Twice seven make/makes fourteen. 20. Subjects expressed by fractions require the singular of the predicate-verb to denote a total amount and the plural form to consider individuals. Two-thirds of the work is done. Two-thirds of the party members are present. 21. The subject plural in form but singular in meaning takes a predicate-verb in the singular. a) when it is applied to the names of games: dominoes, draughts, checkers (Amer.), cards, ninepins, billiards. 258 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Checkers is not only a child’s game, after all. The word “dominoes” comes from the Latin word “dominus”, meaning “master”. b) when it denotes metonymic and metaphoric names of persons with pejorative connotation (a butter-fingers — ðîòîçåé, ðàñòÿïà; a sawbones — õèðóðã; a fat-chops — òîëñòîùåêèé ÷åëîâåê; a fat-guts — òîëñòÿê; a lazybones — ëåíòÿé). This sawbones was disliked by his wretched patients. Note: The plural form of these nouns is the same as the singular. These lazy-bones are not ready again. c) when it is expressed by the words: news — íîâîñòü, pains — ñòðàäàíèå, means — ñðåäñòâî (pl.: means), summons — ïîâåñòêà (pl.: summons). Athens is the capital of Greece. The summons was almost magical. Some nouns ending in -s are rather often construed as the singular, but the usage wavers. Here are some of them: works — çàâîä, headquarters — øòàá, gallons — âèñåëèöà, barracks — êàçàðìà, amends — êîìïåíñàöèÿ, odds — ðàçëè÷èå, Doctor’s Commons — àññîöèàöèÿ ïî ãðàæäàíñêèì äåëàì, mumps — ñâèíêà, measles — êîðü, shambles — áîéíÿ, forfeits — ôàíòû. The new gas-works has/have been employing more and more workers. 259 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 22. Names of sciences: linguistics, economics, physics, ethics, etc. are singular, but when these words denote qualities, practical application, course of action or activities, they are constructed as plural (phonetics as “pronunciation”, acoustics (of the room), statistics as “figures”, tactics as “methods”, etc.) At present, so much is known about sound systems of the world’s languages that systematic phonetics is now a reality. His ethics have always been and will remain militant ethics. Statistics is the study of probability. (a branch of study) Statistics are often misleading. (sets of figures) Politics doesn’t interest me. What are your leader’s politics? (political views) 23. Is percent singular or plural? It depends. The percentage is always singular: The percentage of young voters has risen. A percentage is singular if the object of the preposition is singular: A percentage of the work is finished. A percentage is plural if the object of the preposition is plural: A percentage of the reports are finished. The same rules apply when using percent: Sixty percent of the men are wearing hats. Sixty percent of the work is done. 260 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Secondary Members of the Sentence The secondary members of the sentence are: the Object, the Attribute, the Adverbial Modifier. The Object The object denotes a person or thing on which the action of the predicate is directed. There may be direct, indirect and prepositional objects. If there is only one object in the sentence it is always direct. The indirect object can’t be single in the sentence. It is always used with the direct object and comes between the verb and the direct object. Give us (an indirect object) a definite answer (a direct object). Tell me (an indirect object) your secret (a direct object). Sometimes the indirect object can be preceded by the prepositions “to” and “for”. If you can transform the sentence and use one of the objects without the preposition, it means that you have an indirect object in the sentence. I gave the key to him. — I gave him the key. She bought a toy for the kid. — She bought the kid a toy. The prepositional object which is always preceded by a preposition can not be transformed in such a way (after the verbs read, explain, do, dictate, introduce, refer). Explain it to me. Do it for her. Introduce her to us. Read the tale to the child. Dictate the text to them. 261 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Attribute The attribute qualifies the nouns (pronouns) of the sentence. It may be expressed by an adjective, a noun, a gerund, a participle, an infinitive and stands before or after the word it modifies. An attribute to a pronoun always follows it. His eyes were childhood blue. What is the most effective method of foreign language teaching? We met on a Sunday morning. They watched the rising sun. I have some work to do. I can tell you something new. The Adverbial Modifier A modifier is a word or a word group that describes, limits, or qualifies another word or a word group in a sentence. Thus they can help to make a sentence vivid, emphatic and lively. The balloons rose slowly, hobbling and weaving toward the fast-racing clouds. The adverbial modifier characterises an action, state or quality of the sentence, denoting the time, place, manner, degree of the action. It is expressed by adverbs and nouns with prepositions. With verbs of motion the adverbial modifier of place comes immediately after the verb. If there are two or more adverbial modifiers, the usual order is place, manner, time. The adverbial modifier of time can be put at the beginning of the sentence. They lived there happily all their lives. Last night I had a strange dream. 262 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The place of such adverbial modifiers of indefinite time as never, usually, often, seldom, yet, just is before the notional verb or after the auxiliary or modal verb. She always comes on time. Is she often late? You must never complain. One can never tell. Misplaced modifiers Placing modifiers well means not only creating a particular effect but also connecting the modifier to its headword — the word or phrase which it modifies. If it doesn’t clearly point to its headword, the modifier is misplaced like in the following examples. A letter was addressed to the house next door. By mistake the mailman delivered it to us. A miscombined sentence: By mistake the mailman delivered a letter addressed to the house next door to us. In this case, the house next door gets between the modifier, to us, and its headword, delivered. The result is a mystifying sentence. To clear up the mystery, to us should be put right after its headword: By mistake the mailman delivered to us… Here is another example: A born crapshooter Sadowski almost won five hundred dollars that night. Did he win anything at all then? The headword of almost seems to be won and a gambler who has almost won may 263 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс actually have lost everything. If Sadowski did win, the true headword of almost is five hundred dollars: …Sadowski won almost five hundred dollars that night. Dangling Modifiers A modifier dangles when its headword is missing. As it always needs a headword, it will attach itself to a false headword if the true one is not in the sentence. Speaking before a crowd of people for the first time, my knees shook. This sentence seems to say that knees were speaking. Such a mistake results from the miscombination of two sentences: I was speaking… My knees shook. These two sentences have different subjects: I and my knees. While combining them, you must normally keep both of the subjects: when I was speaking…, my knees shook When you combine two sentences, you can drop out one of the subjects only if they coincide: I was speaking… I was nervous. Speaking…, I was nervous. Here is another example: While waiting for a bus, a passing car splashed mud all over my skirt. 264 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The right sentence is: While I was waiting for a bus, a passing car splashed mud all over my skirt. The Composite Sentence A composite sentence consists of two or more sentences (clauses) joined together. The relationship between the clauses may have the character of coordination or of subordination. Accordingly, there are compound and complex sentences. The Compound Sentence A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses which are syntactically independent of each other as they are equal in rank. They are usually joined either asyndetically (without a connective conjunction) or syndetically (with a conjunction). Compare: It was a dark night, the stars were bright in the sky. It was a dark night and the stars were bright in the sky. Conjunctions connect words, phrases and clauses — “to conjoin” means “to join together”. Coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet, still, otherwise, therefore, etc.) and correlative conjunctions (both — and, either — or, neither — nor, not only — but also) connect equal clauses. Max hated his job, but he couldn’t afford to quit. Wanda wanted not only fame and riches, but she also dreamt of love. 265 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Complex Sentence A complex sentence is a composition of two (or more clauses), one of which is the main (principal) clause and the other is the subordinate clause. Subordinate clauses are joined to the main ones by means of conjunctions, conjunctive words, asyndetically and by means of the sequence of tenses. Conjunctions differ from conjunctive words in the following: they are not members of either the principal or the subordinate clause while the conjunctive words play some function in the subordinate clause. Compare the following: He said (that) he had seen the show. He said that was a mistake. Here is a list of the commonest conjunctions: after e. g. I felt much better after I had a rest. although (or though) e. g. Although the weather was bad, we went for a walk. The commoner form in speaking is even though, which stresses the contrast: e. g. We went for a walk even though the weather was bad. as (= when) e. g. He turned pale as he saw a policeman. as (= because) e. g. As you know what to do, I’d better not interfere. as far as e. g. As far as I know, they are decent people. as long as e. g. You can stay with us as long as you like. as long as (= provided that) e. g. You can stay here as long as you don’t make a noise. 266 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû as soon as e. g. As soon as he came, the briefing began. as if (as though) e. g. He looked as if he had won a million dollars. because e. g. Many people study English because they need it for their jobs. In speaking, because is often replaced by that’s why: e. g. I was tired. That’s why I went to bed early. Instead of: I went to bed early because I was tired. before e. g. Before you leave, tell me one thing. considering (that) e. g. Your English is fluent, considering (that) you only started a year ago. if (whether) e. g. a. If I were you, I’d wait. b. I wonder if she’ll come. in case e. g. Take your key in case you come late. now (that) e. g. What are you planning to do now (that) you got your diploma? once (= after or as soon as) e. g. Stick to your promise once you’ve given it. since (= time) e. g. We haven’t met since we left school. since (= because) e. g. Since you will not help me, I must do it myself. so that (= in order that, i. e., purpose) e. g. Get an early night, so that you’ll be fresh in the morning. so + adj. (result) e. g. They were so quiet, that nobody noticed them. that e. g. I know that it is true. 267 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû unless a) Unless means “if… not” e. g. We’re going to have a picnic unless it rains/if it doesn’t rain. b) Unless and if… not are similar but not identical. When an unreal condition comes before the principal clause, unless cannot be used. e. g. If I had done it in time, things would be much better now. c) Don’t use unless when you talk about a feeling which would result from something not happening. e. g. Frederick will be upset if you don’t invite him to the party. She’ll be very surprised if you refuse the offer. until (or till) e. g. We’ll have to wait until (till) somebody turns up. when e. g. Call me when you come to Paris. whenever (= every time) e. g. She goes to London whenever she has a chance. where e. g. The old man hid the money where nobody would think of looking. while e. g. Please don’t interrupt me while I’m speaking. While means during the time that… The word during is a preposition. … while I am at work but during working hours; while the programme is going on but during the programme. Types of Subordinate Clauses Subordinate clauses may perform different functions within complex sentences. These types of clauses fall into three main kinds: nominal clauses (functioning as nouns in various syntactical positions), adverbial clauses and attributive clauses. 268 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс I. Nominal Clauses Nominal clauses can be: 1. Subject clauses which function as subjects and may be introduced by the conjunctions and conjunctive words that, if, whether, who, what, which, when, why, how and some others. That your prediction may come true is highly problematic. Whether to join them or refuse is a dilemma to us. What I need now is a cup of strong coffee. Compare the examples with the empty subject it. It was a great relief that they had passed the interview. The real subject is: “That they had passed the interview”. 2. Predicative clauses which function as parts of compound nominal predicates — predicatives. The truth is (that) he doesn’t get on with his workmate. The problem was how to cross the river. The alternative is to take a loan from the bank or to lose everything. 3. Object clauses which modify verbs and adjectives. They thought that it was a great idea. I wish we were friends. Danny offered his hand to signal that their quarrel was finally at an end. He hated it when they finished their work and he had to leave her. I like it when it’s raining. 269 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Henry was reading over what he had composed that day. He demanded that his salary be doubled, and that his name be put on the door as a partner. II. Adverbial Clauses Adverbial clauses function as adverbial modifiers to verbs and adjectives in the main clause. There may be adverbial clauses of: 1. time introduced by the conjunctions when, while, as, till, until, before, after, since, as soon as, now that, once, hardly… when, scarcely… when, barely… when, no sooner… than. When the police arrived, they were not very interested. He was having a pleasant dream when the phone awoke him. Remember, Nancy, the work must be finished before I return. Let’s wait till the rain stops. She wept bitterly as she told (was telling) her story. I listen to music while I’m driving. Now that you are a great girl of fourteen, you must learn to sit at your work, instead of running around. Once she had bought some furniture, the room had become a comfortable place to live. It always rains after I’ve washed my car. You’ve been causing trouble ever since you arrived. No sooner had I started work than the phone rang. 2. place introduced by the conjunctions where, wherever, everywhere (that). My next visit was to the bank, where I asked to see the manager. 270 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс He just wants to understand where things went wrong. Wherever little Ben goes, he takes the teddy bear with him. Everywhere I went, people were suspicious. 3. condition (real or unreal) introduced by the conjunctions: if, unless, once, in case, as long as, and some others. If I complain, nobody listens. If you run into difficulties, turn to the police. If you will wait for me for a moment, I’ll be right back. Unless we interfere, she’ll make a fatal mistake by marrying that hippie. We are meeting at seven, in case you’ve forgotten. If you gave him a penny for his thought, you would get some change. You can live in our house as long as you keep it tidy. 4. comparison introduced by the conjunctions: as, like, as if, as though, as… as, so… as. We don’t have hot summers like they do in the south. He was as clever as most of his classmates. He covered the page with his hand as though I was (were) trying to steal a military secret from him. 5. concession introduced by the conjunctions though, although, even if, even though, and wh-pronouns ending in -ever. Though he hadn’t stopped working all day, he wasn’t tired. Whoever may come, they are most welcome. 271 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 6. cause or reason introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, so, lest, considering and some others. English spelling is notoriously difficult, largely because it hasn’t changed in the way the pronunciation has over the centuries. He enjoyed talking to her because she was so well informed: she was a news buff. Since it was Saturday, he stayed in bed an extra hour. Since you are on your feet, hand me down a tin of peaches, will you? Considering that you received no help, your results are very good. As no news came, they sent an e-mail again. 7. purpose introduced by the conjunctions that, so that, lest, so as, so, in order that, for fear that. Speak louder so that we may hear you. Express your thoughts clearly lest there (should) be any misunderstanding. Now they live in the country so as to be closer to Nature. Take this money for fear you are short of cash. 8. consequence introduced by the conjunctions that, so… that, such… that. He had worked like a slave all his life so that his children could study. Such was the state of things that they didn’t know what to do. 9. manner introduced by the conjunctions as, the way. She looks exactly as her mother did at sixteen. 272 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс He runs his business the way his father had taught him to do. Why can’t I live my life the way I want to live it? 10. comment and truth (parenthetical clauses) such as: As you know, we are facing a lot of problems now. To tell you the truth, the game is not worth the candle. If you ask me (as far as I can tell), you have no chance of winning the case. To put it another way, why should I interfere? III. Attributive Clauses Attributive clauses are introduced by conjunctive pronouns who (whom), whose, which, that. As they refer to some word in the main clause, they are called relative pronouns. The word they refer to is called their antecedent. Who (whom), whose, that are used with names of persons. Whose, which, that are used with names of things. Attributive clauses fall into two types: defining and non-defining. A defining relative clause is closely connected with its antecedent, and can’t be omitted, as without it the meaning of the principle clause won’t be complete or will have quite a different meaning. Defining relative clauses are not separated from principal clauses by commas. She is not a girl who cries easily. This senator is a guy who I used to lend my clothes to. A non-defining relative clause usually gives additional information about the antecedent, but still it may be left out without changing the meaning of the principle clause. Non273 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс defining relative clauses are separated from principal clauses by commas. My friend, who is a heavy smoker, has a lot of problems with his health. The work, which is being presented today, is a masterpiece. Victor was going on a tour in Europe, which his impresario had arranged. Compare also the following sentences: Cars which cause pollution should be banned. (a defining relative clause; some cars should be banned because they cause pollution). Cars, which cause pollution, should be banned. (a nondefining relative clause; all cars should be banned because they cause pollution). Compound-Complex Sentences A sentence can have more than one main clause and more than one subordinate clause. I feel tired if I stay up, but I can’t fall sleep if I go to bed. The two main clauses (I feel tired, I can’t sleep) are linked by and. They both have a subordinate clause of condition. Compare also the following sentences: Brian said that although it was hard work, he enjoyed the job, because it was interesting and well-paid. The American realized that the painting was a masterpiece, and he hoped that he would be able to buy it as soon as it was finished. 274 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Punctuation Trends in English Punctuation You need punctuation marks to separate sentences, to set off parts of sentences and to increase the effect of individual words. Punctuation more and more rejects formal rules, which generally reflect past time practice and are rather conservative; they do not often report prevailing current usage. Today magazines and newspapers (the media influencing the practice of punctuation basically) employ about half as many points (marks of punctuation) as they did fifty years ago. Since today the average sentence is shorter than the sentence of half a century ago, it requires fewer points. The two general principles governing the use of punctuation are: 1. that if it does not clarify the text, it should be omitted. 2. that in the choice and placing of punctuation marks the sole aim should be to bring out more clearly the author’s thought, as well as to make the reader’s task easier. Most modern style manuals essentially agree that punctuation must be bound to communication, not to rules. Compare the following pairs of sentences. 1. He doesn’t walk normally. (He walks in a strange way). He doesn’t walk, normally. (Usually he doesn’t walk). 2. She left me to talk to the Dean. (I had to talk to the Dean). She left me, to talk to the Dean. (She wanted to talk to the Dean). 275 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3. She is a pretty intelligent girl (= fairly intelligent). She is a pretty, intelligent girl (she is both pretty ad intelligent). 4. Fred thinks (that) I know that Nelly is abroad. Fred thinks, I know, that Nelly is abroad. 5. Women who drive carelessly are a danger to other road users. (Those women who…) Women, who drive carelessly, are a danger to other road users. (= all women drive carelessly). Punctuation marks are very important in the given above examples as they help to remove ambiguity, i. e. to make sure that your words mean only one thing. Two kinds of pointing practice are nowadays in use in the English language: conservative (formal) punctuation, which prefers to use all the marks; and liberal (informal) punctuation, which prefers to omit all the marks not definitely required. Actually, most experienced writers strike a medium: they try to punctuate flexibly, while most people exercise the informal options according to their taste or personal style. For example, you could punctuate the following sentence in different ways: Mr. Pockney, the scientific advisor to the board, has come. Mr. Pockney (the scientific advisor to the board) has come. Mr. Pockney — the scientific advisor to the board — has come. 276 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The following punctuation marks (points) are used in Modern English: Symbol Names . the full stop (the period) ? the question mark ! the exclamation point (mark) : the colon ; the semicolon , the comma … suspension period or the ellipsis – the dash - the hyphen () (round) brackets (parenthesis) [] (square) brackets “” (double) quotation marks ‘’ single quotation marks (inverted commas) All the names of punctuation marks are used as technical terms in linguistics. The Period (or a Full Stop) (.) It is used to mark: 1. the end of a declarative sentence, a mild command, or an indirect question: Learning a foreign language is a step-by-step process. Please send me the report. I wonder who they are. 277 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2. the end of some abbreviations: Dr. Boyle 3 p. m. 350 B. C. U. S. A. Mrs. Dingdong But not in names of organizations: NATO, IBM, CBS, BBC, CNN, FBI. The Question Mark (or an Interrogation Point) (?) Use it at the end of a direct question (not an indirect one). Who can refuse the chance of a lifetime? But: I wonder who wrote that book. One or more question marks may sometimes be used in a single sentence to emphasize each of the separate questions. Will Stella marry John? or will Bess? or will anyone? William Dunbar, who was born in 1465 (?) and who died in 1530 (?), ranks next to Robert Burns in Scotland’s literary history. The Exclamation Mark (Point) (!) Use it to mark the end of an exclamatory sentence, phrase, or clause. What a great day it was! Get lost! What a mess! What a shame! How lucky you are! We won! Use it also in addressing someone or in exclamations: Father, Father! Open the door! Oh no! Oh, my God! Great! 278 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Comma (,) The Comma is the most abused, and the least emphatic of the internal marks of punctuation, representing the shortest pause in the utterance. The function of a comma is to slow the reader down. Commas can influence the meaning of your sentence. Compare the following: Although I wanted to kill Max, I controlled myself. Although I wanted to kill, Max, I controlled myself. In the first sentence Max is the person I wanted to kill; in the second I am talking to Max about my desire to kill someone else. The comma controls the meaning. Use a comma: 1. to separate two independent clauses joined by the conjunctions and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet, either… or, neither… nor. They hoped to meet, so they went out eagerly. “Discovering truths and winning arguments are different matters, for one depends on logic and the other on rhetoric.” (Arthur Shopenhauer) Shakespeare wrote plays, and he also acted on the stage. Do not use a comma when both of the clauses are short. He wrote plays and he also acted. No comma is used if the subject of the second clause is omitted. He wrote plays and acted on the stage. 279 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2. when the if, when, after, before, while, as, since clauses come before the main ones, a comma is used. If they follow the main clause, there is no comma. If it rains tomorrow, I’m going to stay home. I’m going to stay home if it rains tomorrow. As he was thirsty, he drank some water. He drank some water because he was thirsty. Follow the pattern: (TIME) CLAUSE + COMMA + MAIN CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE + NO COMMA + (TIME) CLAUSE 3. to set off non-restrictive clauses and phrases. A non-restrictive clause gives some additional information about the word which it modifies and is not essential for completing the meaning of the sentence. Compare the following: A man who smiles is a man worth while. (Restrictive, no commas). My smiling uncle, whom everybody trusts, cheerfully cuts salaries at his office. (Non-restrictive, commas). Women who eat garlic need to be beautiful. (Restrictive, no commas). Women, who generally possess educated taste-buds, rarely eat too much garlic. (Non-restrictive, commas). 4. to separate two or more words or phrases. Sally, Beth, and Cathy were reading in the library. The cat purred, stretched, and leaped from the chair. 280 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Modern practice is to omit the comma before the and or or connecting the last two items of a series. So, either use it or omit it, as you choose. Option: À, Â, Ñ, and D or À, Â, Ñ and D. 5. to separate coordinate adjectives, each of which modifies the noun individually. Adjectives are coordinate if the word and can be used between them. The three diamond rings in the shop-window were very beautiful. (No comma — you cannot say three and diamond). Compare the following phrases: A large, spacious house. A cold, dark night. A large brick house. A cold spring night. 6. to set off absolute phrases (in any part of the sentence), appositions, parenthetical expressions, words like nevertheless, however, therefore, moreover, besides, consequently, actually, also after yes, indeed, surely, well (mild interjections). Mr. Burton, our personnel manager, is out now. The question settled, everyone left, Also, we noticed that he was pale and excited. His position, nevertheless, seemed shaky. Well, I must leave now. Yes, that’s true. 7. to set off words used in direct addresses. Friends, lend me your help. 8. to set off words or phrases expressing contrast. Children should be seen, not heard. I have called you to make peace, but not to quarrel again. 281 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 9. with names, letter greetings, dates, addresses to separate them from any titles or academic degrees used after them. Dear Matilda, … Cordially, … Sincerely, Jorge Dean, M. A. Barbara Cane, M. D. No comma is used between the name of the month and the day, between a street number and the name of the street. July 12, 1996 15 Amsterdam Avenue In a sentence the comma will be used in the following manner: The president was born April 8, 1872, at 1224 Elm Street, Cleveland, Ohio. 10. to set off a direct quotation. The chairman asked, “How many of you are in favour of this project?” 11. to separate a declarative clause from a tag question. Jack is to get a promotion, isn’t he? The plane will arrive on time, will it not? Everyone has to answer for his actions, don’t they? Misusing Commas Do not use a comma to join two independent clauses. Add a conjunction after the comma or replace the comma with a semicolon or a period. 282 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The men in the shipping department will not follow instructions, they repeatedly make serious errors. (Incorrect — comma should not be used without a coordinate conjunction.) Three options: a) Use a coordinate conjunction after the comma: The men in the shipping department will not follow instructions, and they repeatedly make serious errors. (Correct). b) Use a semicolon between the two independent clauses: The men in the shipping department will not follow instructions; they repeatedly make serious errors. (Correct). c) Punctuate the two independent clauses as two simple sentences: The men in the shipping department will not follow instructions. They repeatedly make serious errors. (Correct). But: “I came, I saw, I conquered.” These clauses are very short and similar in length and structure. The commas here are used deliberately to produce a certain stylistic effect. The Semicolon (;) The semicolon is used to separate more definitely than the comma, but not so decisively as the period. Use it: 1. to separate independent clauses that are related in meaning. Very often the second clause begins with a conjunctive adverb. 283 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Some people give; others take. The 7.30 is my regular train; but I seldom make it. Shakespeare’s plays are nearly four hundred years old; nevertheless, they will speak to us. 2. to divide sentences complete in themselves, when one or more of them already contain commas. Robinson Crusoe lived all alone; he satisfied his wants by hunting and fishing; he never saw any human being for a very long time, and consequently suffered much from loneliness. There were three new delegates at the meeting: Ms. Barbara Smith from Red Bank, New Jersey; Ms. Beth Waters from Pocumtuck, Massachusetts; and Mr. James Papson from Freeport, Maine. 3. in a complex sentence when the subordinate clause is introduced by a special question. He moved restlessly, sighed; what was the use? This was Ralph who came to claim her; but why couldn’t she feel anything? The Colon (:) The colon is used: 1. to introduce a series, a list, an example, or an explanation to something just mentioned. Passengers may have one of four beverages: coffee, tea, milk, or soda. I went to the market and bought the following: a dozen eggs, a pound of cheese, a bottle of soda-water and a bag of potatoes. 284 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Do not use a colon before a list when the items follow a preposition (such as of), or a form of the verb be. Three ways of travelling are flying, driving, and walking. John’s breakfast consists of toast, cheese, marmalade and some tea. 2. to separate clauses not joined by a conjunction when the second clause gives the explanation of what is said before, or gives the choice of what was offered before. “When angry, count four: when very angry, swear.” (Mark Twain) Which was more important: what she truly was, or what he thought she was? 3. to introduce a long or formal quotation. Dr. Jucovy, a ment, ‘People consume more ‘Why do some noted psychiatrist, writes: “The stateare stout because they eat more and calories’ no longer suffices. Now we ask, individuals eat more?’ ” 4. to follow the salutation in a formal letter. Dear Mr. Watson: Dear Sir: 5. to separate clock times, when the time is shown in numerals. 8:40 6:30 11:15 The plane should arrive in Milan at 4:30 p. m. The Dash (–) The dash has the force of a strong comma, but it marks breaks in the continuity and achieves more definite effects of suspense and abruptness than the comma. 285 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Use the dash: 1. to mark a sharp or sudden turn in the thought or structure of a sentence. King Midas — little realizing what he was doing — asked for the golden touch. Such interruptions are not grammatically part of the sentence, but are closely related to it. “Women who write always have one eye on the page and the other on some man except the Countess Haan — Haan, who has only one eye.” (H. Heine) My slight acquaintance with Linda — I had met her just once — made me hesitate to phone her. 2. to set off a word, phrase, or clause summarizing what has been said before. The strikers included plumbers, electricians, carpenters, truck drivers, miners — all kinds of workers. There are two ways of rearing chickens — the natural and the artificial. “He seemed to have a notion that there was some sort of esoteric cookery book full of literary recipes which you had only to follow attentively to become a Dickens, a Henry James, a Flaubert ‘according to taste,’ as the authors of recipes say”. (Aldous Huxley) 3. to set off a word or words intended to effect suspense, climax, or anticlimax. He who laughs — lasts. Freshman themes generally have an introduction, a body, a climax — and an anticlimax. 286 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 4. to mark an unfinished sentence. “Heroes do not write epics. Heroes —” “What do they do?” “They die.” Use your dashes sparingly; do not use the dash instead of a comma. Too many dashes distract the reader and make your writing seem breathless. The dashed sentence is not “wrong”; it is irritating and ineffective. The Parenthesis (round brackets or curves) Use the brackets: to enclose supplementary or explanatory material relatively distant from the centre of communication, which, however, offers a side comment, or helps to clarify a point. A whole sentence, or several sentences may be in parenthesis. Among those attending the concert were Peter Mengis, Roberta Green (the composer), and Henry Grant. Note: A comma may follow the closing parenthesis, but shouldn’t precede the opening parenthesis. The road seemed endless (it was ten miles long, actually), but we were in no mood for statistics. Handle parenthesis with care. Excessive parenthetical style can become irritating and obscure. If commas seem to do as well as the parentheses in realizing your meaning, prefer the commas. 287 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс The Brackets The brackets enclose information entirely independent of the sentence — usually comments, corrections, criticisms, or directions inserted by someone other than the writer himself. Use the brackets: 1. to correct or call attention to an error in the text: “Shakespeare was born in 1563 [1564 is the correct date] and died in 1616.” 2. to insert a clarifying detail, or explanation. “The Allied invasion of Brittany [Normandy] began on June 6, 1944.” “The trouble with Harry [Henry James] seems to be that he has learned to swim without ever going near the water.” Note: Do not use brackets when inserting comments into your own writing. Use parentheses or dashes. The asking price for the clock — $ 500.000 — has not deterred some collectors from attending the auction. The Quotation Marks The quotation marks “-” always in pairs, break sharply the continuity of the writer’s thought. They are a shorthand way of saying quote — unquote. 1. Use double quotation marks “-” to enclose any words, phrases or short passages quoted from speech, writing, or printed matter. 288 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс At his press conference yesterday, the president said that his talk with Russian Ambassador had been ‘‘fruitful”. “An agnostic,” writes Clarence Darrow, “is a doubter.” 2. Use double quotation marks to set off common words and phrases that you don’t take at face value. When a man and woman decide to live together without being married, are they “living in sin”? But use underlining to set off a word you refer to as a word: The word freedom means different things to different people. 3. Use double quotation marks to set off certain titles of magazines or newspapers and for the title of an essay, short story, a poem, a song, a speech, or a chapter in a book. 4. Do not use quotation marks for emphasis as they can actually weaken a statement. Joe’s restaurant serves “good” pie. The implication is that they say it’s good, but I know better. Single Quotation Marks 1. Use them (‘ ’) to enclose a quotation within a quotation. At the beginning of the class, Professor Baker asked, “When does Thoreau speak of ‘quiet desperation’ and what does he mean by this phrase?” 289 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2. Use them to enclose a title when it is part of another title or is mentioned within a quotation: “Frost’s ‘Mending Wall’,” said Professor Ainsley, “is a gently disarming poem.” Punctuating Quotations To punctuate quotations, you must often use quotation marks with other punctuation marks. Here are the guidelines. 1. Use a comma or a colon to introduce a quotation. Frank said, “Let’s buy some beer and a pizza.” Most writers use a comma to introduce quoted speech and a colon to introduce quoted writing. But you need neither a comma nor a colon to introduce a quoted word or a phrase. The doctor said that Tenster “might not live”. The president said the talks were “encouraging”. 2. Use a comma to mark the end of a quoted sentence that is followed by an identifying tag. “It’s time to eat,” said John. But do not use a comma if the quoted sentence ends in a question mark or an exclamation point: “What’s the evidence?” the scientist asks. “Get out!” he screamed. All these examples show, that even after a full stop the tag begins with a small letter, not a capital one. 290 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3. Use a pair of commas to set off a tag that interrupts a quoted sentence, whether spoken or written. “I have noticed,” Benwick Branch declared, “that no one else arrives at work on time.” The second part of the quotation does not begin with a capital letter because it doesn’t begin a new sentence. 4. Use a period to mark the end of a quoted statement that is not followed by a tag. John said, “I’m hungry.” A comma or a period at the end of a quotation should be put inside the closing quotation mark. 5. When you use a semicolon or a colon at the end of a quotation, put it outside the closing quotation mark. The senator announced, “I will not seek reelection”; then he left the room. The new contract has “new benefits for women”: payment for overtime, maternity leave, and seniority privileges. 6. When you use a question mark or an exclamation point at the end of a quotation, put it inside the closing quotation mark only if it belongs to the quotation; otherwise, put it outside. Who wrote, “What’s in a name?” A new idea about the universe always prompts the scientist to ask, “What’s the evidence for it?” Suddenly he screamed, “Get out!” But: Yet the congressman simply dismissed the charge as “unimportant”! 291 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ellipsis Dots (…) 1. Use three spaced dots: to signal the omission of a word or words from the middle of a quoted space; to signal hesitation or halting speech in dialogue: “I… don’t know what to say,” he whispered. 2. Use four spaced dots: a) to show that you are omitting the end of a quoted space (the fourth dot comes before the closing quotation mark). b) to show that you have omitted one or more whole spaces. 3. Use an entire line of spaced dots to signal that a line (or more) of poetry has been omitted. The Slash (/) 1. Use a slash to introduce alternative words: Every writer needs to know at least something about his/her audience. 2. Use a slash to mark off lines of poetry when you run them on as if they were prose. The Hyphen (-) It is essentially a combining mark. It fuses parts into a new whole, expresses a unit idea. Use a hyphen: 1. to divide a long word at the end of a line: enor-mous, mid-dle, mi-cro-scope. The word should be divided at the end of a syllable. 292 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2. to show that two or three words are being used as a single grammatical unit. around-the-world voyage, out-of-date notions, beadyeyed poker players, never-to-be-forgotten experience, forget-me-nots, the go-between 3. to form a compound noun or a compound modifier. scholar-athletes, well-known, English-speaking, LatinAmerican (music) Not all compounds require a hyphen. Some are written as one word (wildlife, playhouse, storytelling), some as two separate words (social security, police officer). 4. to join a prefix to a proper noun or proper adjective. anti-American, post-Renaissance Do not use a hyphen when you join a prefix to an uncapitalized word: poster, deemphasizer, nonprofit. 5. in a number which is written as two words, provided it is below one hundred. Thirty-five applicants have requested interviews. Two-thirds of the trees had been cut. Do not attach a hyphen to the word for any number over ninety-nine. Some books now cost over two hundred dollars. Eight thousand spectators watched the game. The Apostrophe (’) 1. Use an apostrophe to mark the omission of letters in a contraction. I’ve, isn’t, doesn’t, won’t, it’s 293 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 2. Use an apostrophe to help form the possessive of some nouns and pronouns: a) if the noun is singular, add the apostrophe and -s: girl’s, anyone’s, game’s, nobody’s The final s may be omitted in a singular proper noun ending in -s: Keats’, Charles’, Bess’, Denis’ But in current usage ’s is generally used like in: Burns’s poems, Brams’s music, St. James's park b) if the noun is plural and ends in -s, add just the apostrophe: boys’ toys, the Jones’ house, workers’ demands c) if the noun is plural but doesn’t end in -s, add the apostrophe and -s: men’s clubs, women’s magazines, children’s department d) to indicate joint possession, add the apostrophe, and the -s if necessary, to the second of the two nouns: Paul and Edith’s wedding anniversary, Ilf and Petrov’s novels e) if the noun is compound, add the apostrophe and the -s if necessary, to the last word: mother-in-law’s invitation, commander in chief’s report 3. In general, do not use an apostrophe with nouns naming inanimate things: the front door of the house, the surface of the painting 294 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 4. Do not use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun. Many writers confuse the contraction it’s with the possessive pronoun its. If you have trouble keeping them straight, try remembering this: Use its like his; use it’s like he’s. his success he’s successful its success it’s successful 5. Use it to help form the plural of a figure, a letter, or a word treated as a word: three 7’s the 1920’s two b’s five but’s Capitalization 1. Capitalize the first word of a sentence. 2. Capitalize the first words in proper nouns, such as names of persons, places, firms, special events: General Grant, Alaska, DuPont, Christmas, New Year, Easter 3. Capitalize the first and the last word of a title, whatever they are, and all the words in between except articles, prepositions, and conjunctions. “Gone with the Wind” “A Month by the Lake” 4. Capitalize the pronoun I whenever it occurs. Abbreviations (ab) They often occur in informal writing, but in formal writing they are less often. Follow the guidelines: 295 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 1. use ab. for most titles accompanying a name: Ms. Elizabeth Fish Dr. Martha Jenny Peters But: Miss Jenny Gind. 2. use the full titles when referring to religious, governmental, and military leaders: Senator Margaret Chase Smith The Honorable Hugh Carey, Governor of New York General George C. Marshall 3. you may use ab. in referring to well-known firms and other organizations: NBC, IBM, NASA, ADIDAS, CNN, BBC 4. use ab. in terms that help to specify a date or a time of day (units of measurement if the amounts are in numerals): 350 B.C. A. D. 1776 8:30 A.M. 2:15 P.M. 5. do not use ab. in formal writing for the days of the week and the months of the year: Sunday, Tuesday, August, April 6. Do not use ab. in formal writing for the names of most geographical entities: New England The Snake River Lake Avenue but U. S. Mt. McKinley St. Louis In formal writing most terms should be spelled out in full. 296 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Numbers 1. Spell out a number when it begins a sentence, don’t give it in figures. Five orchestras performed. Eighty-five dignitaries attended the opening ceremony. 2. Spell out a number that can be written in one or two words. The firemen worked without relief for twenty-four hours. The stadium can hold eighty thousand spectators. Use numerals if spelling out a number would require more than two words. She has a herd of 350 cows. The stadium holds 85,000 spectators. 3. Use numerals for addresses, dates, exact times of day, exact sums of money, exact measurements such as miles per hour, scores of games, mathematical rations, fractions and page numbers. 22 East Main Street October 7, 1997 44 B. C. 11:15 AM $ 4.36 $ 3,5 million 65 mph by a score of 5 to 4 a ratio of 2 to 1 7/8 page 102 However, when a time of day or a sum of money is given as a round figure, spell it out: Uncle Ben always gets up at six. He used to earn two dollars for ten hours of work. With ten cents in his pocket, everything seemed possible. Supplement Glossary of Grammatical Terms Absolute adjectives: have no comparative or superlative forms because they express a quality you either have or you don’t. (full, perfect, pregnant, dead, middle, round, square, wooden, medical, unique) abstract noun: names, concepts, qualities, actions, or states. (peace, health, life, love, freedom, haste, time, inertia) active voice: use of the verb so that the subject acts directly, as opposed to passive voice. (active: I smacked him. passive: He was smacked by me.) adjective: a descriptive word; always modifies a noun or a pronoun. (green, white, simple, easy, pretty, hard, fast, lovely, fine) adverb: a descriptive word; always modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb or a clause. (quickly, often, sadly, always, seldom, definitely) agreement: subjects and verbs must agree in person and in number. This means that the subject and verb must go together. (I laugh, Ted laughs.) This just means that you must use a singular verb if you’re referring to a singular noun, and a plural verb if you’re referring to a plural noun. 298 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс antecedent: the specific noun that a pronoun replaces and to which it refers. The two must agree in person, number, and gender. (Fred used his words as nobody else did. Everyone has to answer for his actions, don’t they?) apostrophe: a punctuation mark that shows ownership (Anne’s puppy) or forms a contraction (don’t, wouldn’t, it’s) appositive: a noun, pronoun or a phrase set off by commas, that interrupts the sentence and gives further explanation. (Ralph, my boss, was late again.) article: short word that functions as an attribute (determiner) to a noun to indicate which one. The is the definite article; a, (an) is an indefinite article. Used only with noun or substantivized parts of speech. auxiliary (helping) verb: a verb that combines with the base form (the infinitive) to build up a verb phrase and to determine tense. The primary auxiliaries are do, have and be. Modal auxiliaries are can, may, must, have to, to be to, should, ought to, need, dare to. cardinal numeral (number): a number that answers the question how many? (seven, fifty, one hundred) case: category that describes the function of a noun or a pronoun: subject, object, or possessive (ownership). Nouns have the Common Case and the Possessive Case. Pronouns have the Nominative case (he) and the Objective case (him). clause: a group of words that have a subject and a predicate. Independent clauses may stand alone as a sentence. (I worked today.) Dependent clauses cannot stand alone. (While I was walking downtown, I met Alice.) collective noun: think of it as a “group” noun. (committee, jury, team, staff, government, crew, family) Treated as singular when you think of it as a whole, a unit; plural — when you regard them as individuals. 299 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс colon: a punctuation mark that signals a list to follow, or an explanation. (Three things are needed: a bat, a ball, and a glove.) comma: a punctuation mark used to break up the sentence, to make the reader pause. concrete noun: names, people, places, things; may be common or proper. conjunction: a word that joins words, phrases or clauses together. Common conjunctions are and, but, because, yet, or, as, after, before, since, until. continuous: six tenses formed by using the -ing form of the verb. Used to express a progressive action, either at the given moment (present, past, future), or at a period of time; also some planned actions. correlative conjunction: called a seesaw conjunction, because it connects equal parts of a sentence together like a see-saw. Common correlative conjunctions are: not only-but also, neither-nor, either-or, both-and. dangling modifier: a word, phrase, or clause that cannot logically modify the sentence element to which it is syntactically related. A modifier dangles when its headword is missing. As it always needs a headword, it will attach itself to a false headword if the true one is not in the sentence. (False: Speaking (modifier) before a crowd of people for the first time, my knees shook. This sentence seems to say that knees were shaking. Correct: When I was speaking…, my knees shook.) ellipsis: an omission, signalled by three dots. Used in quotations, when part of the quote is left out. (He wrote that a man is always attempting … to prove himself.) Another kind of ellipsis is the omission of a word when the meaning is understood. (the shoe I bought instead of shoe that I bought) 300 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс faulty comparison: an error of clarity. When making a comparison, be sure to compare verb to verb or noun to noun. finite verb: a verb that can join with a subject to form a predicate to make the sentence complete. (I live. She lives. They live.) future: a tense used to describe events that haven’t happened yet. Think of it as the “tomorrow” tense. (I will eat turkey tomorrow.) future perfect: a tense used to show that an action will be finished before a specified time in the future. (I will have finished the project by next Tuesday.) gender: applies to nouns and pronouns; specifies whether the antecedent is male, female or neuter. God, he (masculine); goddess, she (feminine); godliness, it (neuter) — according to its sex. gerund: -ing form of the verb (verbal) used as a noun, attribute, an adverbial, or part of the predicate. (Dancing is fun. I enjoy dancing. My hobby is dancing.) hyphen: a punctuation mark used to form compound words. (blue-green, well-read, out-of-date) idiom: a peculiarity of the language; no rules apply. Idioms include figurative language (raining cats and dogs; a black sheep in the family) imperative mood: the form of the verb expressing a command or urging an action. Used to boss people around or to give directions. (Go now! Freeze! Dismiss! Stay cool!) indefinite pronoun: does not refer to a specific noun. Include: some, any, much, many, every, each, either, little, few, none, plenty, etc. indicative mood: the form of a verb expressing a fact, a question, or voicing an opinion or statement. Most sentences are indicative. 301 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс indirect object: substitute for a prepositional phrase. Receiver of the direct object. (Give me the cup. Direct object = cup; indirect object = me) It almost always precedes the direct object; it is usually the personal recipient of verbs of giving, showing, telling and the like. indirect question: a sentence pattern in which a question is the basis of a subordinate clause. The verb follows the subject in indirect questions. (Everyone wonders what the matter is. Nobody knows what his name is.) infinitive: the principle representative of the verb-lexeme as a whole, the most general name to it. It occupies a unique position in the language — it serves as the derivative base for all the other regular forms of the verb. The infinitive has the category of tense (indefinite, perfect) and voice (active, passive), and can perform different functions in the sentence. (to be — to have been, to live — to be living — to have been living) inflection: changes in word forms to indicate person, number, gender and case in nouns and pronouns; comparative and superlative forms in adjectives and adverbs; person, tense, voice, and mood in verbs. intensifier: a modifier that increases the emphasis of the word or words that it modifies. (It isn’t that easy. It’s the best car available.) interjection: a grammatically independent word or group of words expressing an exclamation of surprise, shock, fear, dismay, or the like. (My word, what are you doing? Ouch! Big Deal! Crikey!) interrogative pronoun: or question pronoun, is used simply to ask a question. (What? Which? Who? When? Where? Why?) 302 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс intransitive verb: the distinction between intransitive and transitive verbs is made in the dictionary: vt or vi. An intransitive verb doesn’t need a direct object to complete its meaning. (I walked.) A transitive verb takes a direct object. (She saw the film.) irregular verb: a verb with a past tense and past participle that does not follow the usual -ed or -d pattern, but forms them in other ways: seesaw-seen; bring-brought-brought; gowent-gone, let-let-let. linking conjunction: or subordinate conjunction, links a subordinate clause to the rest of the sentence. (after, before, while, since, until, till, if, as soon as, unless) linking verb: doesn’t express an action, but a state of being. (be, get, become, grow, seem, look, remain, feel, small, taste, sound) misplaced modifier: a word, phrase, or clause that is placed incorrectly in the sentence, so that it appears to modify the wrong word. Confusion ensues. (The traveller paid for the motel room and opened the door with a credit card. — with a credit card should follow paid or room.) modifier: a word, phrase, or clause that acts as an attribute and qualifies the meaning of another word, phrase, or clause. mood: is the form of the verb which shows the speaker’s attitude toward the idea expressed by the verb. See imperative mood, indicative mood, subjunctive and conditional mood. morphology: part of Grammar studying different words (parts of speech) and their morphemes, which are the smallest meaning-carrying units. nominative case: see case. noun: names a person, place, object, concept, and the like. They function as subjects, objects, attributes, predicatives and appositives. 303 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс number: the form of a noun, pronoun, demonstrative pronoun or verb that indicates whether it is singular or plural. (oakoaks, I-we, you-they, buy-buys, this-these, that-those) object: the object of a verb has action performed to it. (He hit the ball. She called me.) objective case: see case. ordinal numeral (number): the form of a number that expresses order or sequence (first, twenty-third, two hundredth, a millionth) parallel construction: when you make a list, express the elements in the list in similar form, whether they be nouns, phrases, or clauses. Also, when using seesaw (coordinating) conjunctions, express the elements on either side of the conjunction in similar form. participle: a verbal with properties of both an adjective and a verb. Like an adjective, a participle can modify a noun or pronoun; like a verb, it has present and past tenses and can take an object. The present participle usually ends in -ing, the past participle in -ed, d, — en, or an irregular form. The present participle is active, the past participle is passive. (Reeling, Spinks hit the canvas. The torn page was a clue.) With auxiliary verbs, present participles form the progressive tenses. (I am making, I had been making, I will have been making). Past participles form the perfect tenses (I have made, I had made, I will have made). Further, past participles, with auxiliary verbs, are used to form the passive voice (I am beaten, I was beaten). parts of speech: the eight grammatical categories into which words can be grouped depending on how they function in a sentence. Many words act as different parts of speech in different sentences. The parts of speech are nouns, verbs, adjectives, pronouns, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. 304 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс past perfect: a tense used in a sentence that already has the simple past, to express an action that happened earlier. (He confessed that he had made a serious mistake.) person: the relation between a subject and its corresponding verb, indicating whether the subject is speaking about itself (first person I or we), being spoken to (second person you), or being spoken about (third person he, she, it, or they). Be has several forms depending on the person (am, is, and are in the present tense plus was and were in the past). Other verbs change form in the present tense indicative with a thirdperson singular subject (I fall, you fall, she falls, we fall, they fall). Personal pronouns also change form as subjects, objects, and possessives. (I-me-my-mine; he-him-his-his; they-them-their-theirs) phrase: a group of words that can function as a single unit. The four main kinds of phrases are prepositional phrases, infinitive phrases, participial phrases, and gerund phrases. plural: more than one, as opposed to singular, which is only one. Applies to nouns, pronouns, and verbs. predicate: the actual or implied finite verb and related -words in a sentence. The predicate expresses what the subject does, experiences, or is. prefix: an addition (often derived from a Latin preposition or negative) to the beginning of a root word to alter its meaning (preview, undress). preposition: a part of speech that indicates the position of a noun or pronoun in space or time and links it to other sentence elements. (He was at the top of the ladder before the other contestants had climbed to the fourth ring.) See phrase. 305 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс present perfect: a tense used to express a completed action connected with the present through its result; an action that started in the past and continues into the present. (I have lost my mittens; She has been here for hours.) pronoun: a word that stands in for a noun. There are several classes of pronouns: personal (she, it); relative (that, which); interrogative or question (what, which); indefinite (both, each, any, many); demonstrative (these, those); reflexive or mirror (itself, yourself, themselves). redundancy: saying the same thing twice; needless repetition. (close proximity) reflexive pronoun: or mirror pronoun, is used to spin the action back at the subject (He did it himself), or for emphasis (The candidate himself wrote the speech). relative clause: a subordinate, or dependent, clause that is introduced by a relative pronoun (which, that, who, what). A relative clause always acts as an attribute. relative pronoun: introduces a relative clause. Examples: which, that, who. Indefinite relative pronouns have no antecedent (what, which, whatever, whomever). restrictive element: a word, phrase, or clause that limits the essential meaning of the sentence element; it modifies or provides necessary identifying information about it. The restrictive element is not set off from the element that it modifies with commas, dashes, or parentheses. (The tree that I hit was an oak. The oak at the side of the road was a hazard.) sentence: a group of words containing a subject and a finite verb and expressing a complete thought. In writing, a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point. A sentence may be declarative and make a statement (The sun rose.), inter306 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс rogative and ask a question (Did the sun rise?), exclamatory and indicate surprise or other strong emotion (How beautiful the dawn is!), or imperative and express a command (Get up earlier tomorrow.) Besides having these functions, sentences are classified grammatically. A simple sentence is a single and independent clause without dependent clauses. (I left the house.) Its subject, predicate, or both may be compound. (Sears and Roebuck founded a mail-order house and a chain of stores.) A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses linked with a coordinating conjunction, a correlative conjunction, or a semicolon. (I did not wish to go, but she did. I did not wish to go; she did.) A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. (After he had cleaned up the kitchen, Tom fell asleep in front of the television.) A compoundcomplex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. (We had hoped to go climbing, but the trip was postponed because she sprained her ankle.) See also clause, semicolon: a punctuation mark used to separate two independent clauses. (I ran; I fell.) singular: used to describe nouns and pronouns when there is only one of them (bus, it) as opposed to plural, more than one. Also used to describe the verb form that matches the singular noun or pronoun (bus moves it flies). split infinitive: the often awkward intrusion of some words between to and the base form of the verb in an infinitive construction (to better serve rather than to serve better, to really like rather than to like really). subject: the main member of the sentence that indicates who or what a sentence is about. subjunctive mood: the form of a verb used to express a wish, a request, or a condition that does not exist. The contraryto-fact subjunctive using were is the most common. (If 307 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс I were president, I would change things.) The dependent that clause expressing a command, demand, necessity, request, requirement, or suggestion is also common. (I asked that he come.) The subjunctive also survives in many timehonoured expressions. (Be that as it may. Long live the Queen!) subordinate clause: or dependent clause, can’t stand alone as a sentence. It will be introduced by a linking, or subordinate conjunction (after, while, if) or a relative pronoun (which, that, who). subordinating conjunction: introduces a subordinate, or dependent, clause. Examples of subordinating conjunctions: after, if, while. substantive: a word, phrase, or a clause that functions as a noun, (an individual, the rich, a go, a must, a stay-athome; No more “I love yousl”) suffix: an addition to the end of a word that alters the word’s meaning or part of speech — as in migrate (verb) and migration (noun) or late (adjective or adverb) and lateness (noun). syntax: part of grammar dealing with the arrangement of words in a sentence in order to reveal the relation of each to the whole and each to the other, the word order; different types of sentences: compound, complex, compoundcomplex. tense: the verb forms that indicate the time at which an action takes place or a condition exists. The tenses are basically present, past, and future. Verbs have simple (I love), perfect (I have loved), progressive (I am loving), and perfect progressive (I have been loving) forms that show tense and, used in sequences, show the time relationships of actions and events. 308 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс transitive verb: takes a direct object (She met me) as opposed to an intransitive verb, which doesn’t (She swam). verb: a word or group of words that expresses what action the subject takes or receives, what the subject is, or what the subject’s state of being is. Verbs change form to show tense, number, voice, and mood. A transitive verb takes an object or has passive forms. (Edison invented the incandescent bulb. The incandescent bulb was invented by Edison.) An intransitive verb does not take an object. (The bulb glowed.) Linking verbs join a subject and its complement. (Edison was pleased.) Depending upon its use in a sentence, a verb may sometimes belong to all three groups. (Evans grew oranges (transitive). The oranges grew well (intransitive). The oranges grew ripe (linking).) verbal: the three kinds of verbals are infinitives, gerunds, and participles. They can have different functions in the sentence. (Running is excellent exercise (gerund, subject). We went to the track to run (infinitive, adverbial modifier). A running well never dries (participle, attribute).] Punctuation Practice Ex. 1. Insert commas where necessary in the following sentences. 1. Bob was usually a quiet man but he screamed upon entering the room. 2. Hugh tried to breathe to keep from fainting and to remember his first aid. 3. When he stopped playing tennis it was dark outside. 4. Before leaving we heard the man sneeze. 309 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 5. The nimble fat and furry raccoon began to poke at the water balloon. 6. The man’s white cotton shirt was balled up in the corner. 7. He was a handsome brilliant scholar. 8. Bananas that are green taste tart. 9. Bananas which grow in the tropics do not need refrigeration. 10. Now then let’s get down to work. 11. On the other hand error can lead to revelation. 12. What the candidate promised in fact is impossible to achieve. 13. Bye I must be going. 14. Mrs. Honey my favourite teacher is wearing a wig. 15. Ralph the president of the student council is a future programmer. 16. S. Fitzgerald said “The very rich are different from you and me.” “Yes” Hemingway replied 17. For him to think meant to act. 18. You should keep one eye open however safe you feel. Indeed some of us keep both eyes open others of us moreover wish for a third eye. Ex. 2. In the following sentences, replace the inappropriate commas with semicolon. 1. It is hard to form just ideas, wayward notions, however, come without being called. 2. A small group of people arrive: I recognise Martin Parrot, the director, Wolfgang Reinhardt, the supervising producer, and George Amy, the caller. 3. He is a man, hence, he is fallible. She is a woman, therefore she will fool him. 310 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 4. “Man can have only a certain number of teeth, hair, and ideas: there comes a time when he necessarily loses his teeth, hair, ideas.” (Voltaire) 5. All power corrupts, moreover absolute power corrupts absolutely. Ex. 3. In the following sentences, replace the inappropriate punctuation marks with colons. 1. A salad needs three things, a miser for the vinegar, a spendthrift for the oil, and a madman for the tossing. 2. There are three kinds of women — the beautiful, the intellectual, and the majority. 3. Intelligently enough, he attributed his error to a single cause-stupidity. 4. Dear Sir; I have read your letter, a courtesy you apparently did not vouchsafe mine. Yours truly, Jojo Jones 5. There are two methods of curing the mischiefs of faction; the one, by removing its causes; the other, by controlling the effects. Ex. 4. Abbreviate the following words. 1. anno domini; 2. bachelor of arts; 3. ante meridiem; 4. Doctor; 5. logarithm; 6. private first class; 7. radio aircraft discovery and recognition; 8. tuberculosis; 9. South Dakota; 10. videlicet; 11. square inch; 12. gill; 13. barrel; 14. Puerto Rico; 15. hundredweight; 16. ton; 17. January; 18. Monday; 19. northwest (compass direction); 20. Celsius; 21. District Columbia. 311 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ex. 5. Place the apostrophe, or the apostrophe s, wherever required. (Below are given the nominative forms of those nouns to be converted into the possessive). 1. Smith Brothers Cough Drops; 2. Newton Law; 3. earth surface; 4. geese cackling; 5. hero welcome; 6. Prince of Wales horse; 7. James novels; 8. Queen Elizabeth II coronation; 9. Achilles heel; 10. anybody else word; 11. princess gown; 12. princesses gowns; 13. Xerxes triumph; 14. heres how; 15. at 6s and 7s; 16. Mississippi has four s s; 17. six î clock; 18. youll; 19. theyd; 20. whos. Ex. 6. Use an initial capital letter for the words requiring capitalization. 1. the anglo-saxon language was the language of our saxon forefathers in england, though they never gave it that name, they called it english. thus king alfred speaks of translating “from book-latin into English”; abbot aelfric was requested by eathelward “to translate the book of genesis from latin into english”; and bishop leofric, speaking of the manuscript (the “exeter manuscript”) he gave to exeter cathedral, calls it “a great english book.” 2. the city of nome, alaska, acquired its name through error, there was a small prospectors’ settlement known as anvil city on the seward peninsula in Alaska, a Washington clerk, in drawing a map, did not know its name, and wrote “name?” at that place on the map. one of his superiors took the word for “nome” and that name still stands. 3. “stories in the modern manner”, edited by philip rahv and william phillips, was published by avon books. Perhaps the best story in it is gide’s “theseus”. 4. it is the grace of god that urges missionaries to suffer the most disheartening privations for their faith, this grace 312 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс moved saint isaac jogues to say (when he came to canada), “i felt as if it were a christmas day for me, and that i was to be born again to a new life, to a life in him.” Ex. 7. Punctuate the following story. a witty doctor henry was from the united states and he had come to london for a holiday one day he was not feeling well so he went to the clerk at the desk of his hotel and said i want to see a doctor can you give me the name of a good one the clerk looked in a book and then said Dr Kenneth Gray 61010 henry said thank you very much is he expensive well the clerk answered he always charges his patients two pounds for their first visit to him and one and a half for later visits henry decided to save 50 p so when he went to see the doctor he said i have come again doctor for a few seconds the doctor looked at his face carefully without saying anything then he nodded and said oh yes he examined him and then said everythings going as it should do just continue with the medicine i gave you last time Ex. 8. Punctuate the following story. peter judd joined the army when he was eighteen and for several months he was taught how to be a good soldier he did quite well in everything except shooting one day he and his friends were practising their shooting and all of them were doing quite well except peter after he had shot at the target nine times and had not hit it once the 313 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс officer who was trying to teach the young soldiers to shoot said you re quite hopeless peter don t waste your last bullet too go behind that wall and shoot yourself with it peter felt ashamed he went behind the wall and a few seconds later the officer and the other young soldiers heard the sound of a shot heavens the officer said has that silly man really shot himself he ran behind the wall anxiously but peter was all right i m sorry sir he said but i missed again Ex. 9. Punctuate the following passage. Billy Wifflamoo, the Final Chapter Billy had several more visits from the aliens sometimes they ate snacks on his Buick sometimes they played music and danced One alien in particular became Billy’s friend The alien taught Billy some good tricks a foolproof method for shooting foul shots a lip smacking recipe for tadpoles and a way to make his eyes change color at will. Later in life Billy found himself married with two small children living in a peaceful suburb He said that he couldn’t be happier You miss the aliens said his wife one night putting the children to bed She was right His Buick had gone to the scrap heap and the aliens once his friends did not appear anymore sometimes it made Billy sad but he threw himself into his work as an accountant for a chain of dry cleaners and occasionally he made a little money making bets on his foul-shooting Although he lived a sedate quiet life he always treasured the days of snacking on the Buick with the aliens. 314 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ex. 10. Punctuate and paragraph the following, putting in capitals where necessary. When columbus returned from america he was much honoured by the king and queen of spain and was entertained at many banquets naturally he excited the envy of many people who thought that the honour columbus received was due to them on account of their position one day when the great explorer was at a dinner in company with some nobles the latter began to disparage his achievement and to say any one of us could have done the same after all there was nothing wonderful in merely sailing westward until land appeared columbus overhearing their talk resolved to silence then he took up an egg and challenged them to make it stand on one end the egg was accordingly passed round the table all tried but no one succeeded columbus then took the egg broke it slightly at one end and so made it stand upright the nobles exclaimed that it was easy we could have done that yes said columbus it was easy to do but it was first necessary to think of it this silenced his detractors who began to understand how foolish they were. Ex. 11. Punctuate and paragraph the following. Don quixote is the work of cervantes who composed the book while he was in prison in this book the writer laughs at the foolish ideas about knights fairies dragons and sorcerers which prevailed in the middle ages don quixote was a madman who imagined himself called upon to go out into the world as a knight errant and to set right the wrongs of people in distress he rode on a wretched horse called rozinante and accompanied by his servant sancho panza and in trying to right these wrongs he often made matters a great deal worse by his interference once he even went so far as to attack some windmills 315 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс supposing that they were giants people who undertake acts of self sacrifice or of kindness which are not necessary or which lie out of their path have ever since been called quixotic people and such actions quixotic actions. Seven Easy Ways to Look Bad Some grammar mistakes can cause the most distress to the listener or reader. When someone else makes them, it drives people crazy. Here are the most frequent ones, in order of degree of irritation caused. 1. Writing to instead of too; your instead of you’re; it’s instead of its. Is it sloppiness, or is it ignorance? To is a preposition that indicates direction: I went to the dentist. Your and its are ownership pronouns; use them to indicate possession or ownership: Your slip is showing. You’re and it’s are contractions, shortened versions of you are and it is. To say You’re slip is showing would be to say You are slip is showing, which would sound incorrect English. 2. Writing or saying Between you and I. This is quite common and quite irritating. Remember the trick of dealing with subject and object pronouns: do them one at a time. Between you. Correct. Between I. Incorrect. Since you would say between me, say between you and me. Me is the object of the preposition. The reason this error causes the listeners such distress is that saying I instead of me is a sorry attempt to sound stately, or official, or erudite. 316 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 3. Mixing up lie and lay, raise and rise. This error drives some people crazy, but isn’t hard to explain. Lie never takes an object; lie means to rest or recline: I need to lie down. The books are lying on the floor. The principal forms of lie are: lie, lay, lain, lying. Lay always takes an object, and means to put down, to place: He laid the books on the floor. He will lay himself on a bed of nails. Ask yourself, “Lay what?” In the sentences above, the answer would be the book, and himself. If there is no answer, use lie. The principal parts for lay are: lay, laid, laid, laying. Raise, rise. Raise means lift or move something upward. In the case of children, it means bring up or rear. As a transitive verb, it takes a direct object — someone raises something: The guests raised their glasses in good cheer. Rise means go upward. It is not followed by a direct object; something rises by itself: She saw the steam rise from the pan just as the soup bubbled into a bull. 4. Mixing up Use bring that book to the speaker: bring it with bring and take. to indicate movement toward the speaker: Bring me. Use take to indicate movement away from Take that book with you when you go. Not: I’ll me. 5. Writing their instead of there. There indicates location, it’s an adverbial modifier of place. Their is a possessive pronoun, used as an attribute to the noun. (They went there. Their house is in the country.) 6. Mixing up good and well. Good is an adjective and can be used in the sentence as an attribute or as a predicative (part of the nominal predicate). Well is an adverb and modifies a verbal predicate, expressing an action. Compare: Gabriel is a good host and cooks quite well. It’s a good job and I’m going to do it well. 317 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс 7. Mixing up bad and badly. Bad is an adjective, used to modify a noun, an adjective or to follow a linking verb such as be, look, smell, taste, feel, or seem. Badly is an adverb, used to modify a verb. Compare: The guests felt bad because the dinner was so badly prepared. She looks bad as she slept badly last night. The List of Irregular Verbs Infinitive Past Past Participle A abide abode, abided abode, abided/abidden arise arose arisen awake awoke, awaked awaked, awoke B be was/were been bear bore borne, born beat beat beaten, (beat) become became become befall befell befallen beget begot, begat begotten begin began begun behold beheld beheld 318 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû Infinitive Past Past Participle bend bent, bended bent, bended bereave bereft bereft, bereaved beseech besought besought beset beset beset bet bet, betted bet, betted betake betook betaken bethink bethought bethought bid bade, bid, bad bidden, bid bind bound bound bite bit bitten, bit bleed bled bled blend blended, blent blended/blent bless blessed, blest blessed, blest blow blew blown break broke broken breed bred bred bring brought brought broadcast broadcast, broadcasted broadcast, broadcasted build built built burn burnt, burned burnt, burned burst burst burst buy bought bought 319 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû Infinitive Past Past Participle C cast cast cast catch caught caught chide chid chidden, chid choose chose chosen cleave clove, cleft, cleaved cloven, cleft, clove, cleaved cling clung clung clothe clothed, clad clothed, clad come came come cost cost cost creep crept crept crow crowed, crew crowed cut cut cut D dare dared dared deal dealt dealt dig dug dug do did done dive dived dived draw drew drawn dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed drink drank drunk drive drove driven dwell dwelt (ed) dwelt (ed) 320 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû Infinitive Past Past Participle E eat ate eaten F fall fell fallen feed fed fed feel felt felt fight fought fought find found found fit fit fit flee fled fled fling flung flung fly flew flown forbear forbore forborne forbid forbade, forbad forbidden forecast forecast, forcasted forecast, forcasted foreknow foreknew foreknown foresee foresaw foreseen foretell foretold foretold forget forgot forgotten forgive forgave forgiven forsake forsook forsaken forswear forswore forsworn freeze froze frozen 321 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû Infinitive Past Past Participle G gainsay gainsaid gainsaid get got got, gotten (U. S.) gild gilded, gilt gilded, gilt give gave given go went gone grind ground ground grow grew grown H hamstring hamstrung, hamstringed hamstrung, hamstringed hang hung, hanged hung, hanged hang hanged hanged have had had hear heard heard heave heaved, hove heaved, hove hew hewed hewn, hewed hide hid hidden, hid hit hit hit hold held held hurt hurt hurt I inlay 322 inlaid inlaid АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû Infinitive Past Past Participle K keep kept kept kneel knelt (ed) knelt (ed) knit knitted, knit knitted, knit know knew known L lay laid laid lead led led lean leant, leaned leant, leaned leap leapt, leaped leapt, leaped learn learnt, learned learnt, learned leave left left lend lent lent let let let lie lay lain lie lied lied light lit lit light lighted lighted lose lost lost M make made made mean meant meant meet met met 323 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû Infinitive Past Past Participle melt melted melted, molten miscast miscast miscast misdeal misdealt misdealt misgive misgave misgiven mislay mislaid mislaid mislead misled misled misspell misspellt misspellt misspend misspent misspent mistake mistook mistaken misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood mow mowed mown O outbid outbid outbid outdo outdid outdone outgrow outgrew outgrown outride outrode outridden outrun outran outrun outshine outshone outshone overbear overbore overborne overcome overcame overcome overdo overdid overdone overhang overhung overhung overhear overheard overheard 324 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû Infinitive Past Past Participle overlay overlaid overlaid overleap overleapt, overleaped overleapt, overleaped override overrode overridden overrun overran overrun oversee oversaw overseen overshoot overshot overshot oversleep overslept overslept overtake overtook overtaken overthrow overthrew overthrown P partake partook partaken pay paid paid prove proved proved put put put Q quit quitted, quit quitted, quit R read read read rebind rebound rebound rebuild rebuilt rebuilt recast recast recast redo redid redone 325 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû Infinitive Past Past Participle relay relaid relaid remake remade remade rend rent rent repay repaid repaid rerun reran rerun reset reset reset retell retold retold rewrite rewrote rewritten rid rid, ridded rid, ridded ride rode ridden ring rang rung rise rose risen rive lived riven, rived run ran run S saw sawed sawn, sawed say said said see saw seen seek sought sought sell sold sold send sent sent set set set sew sewed sewn, sewed 326 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû Infinitive Past Past Participle shake shook shaken shave shaved shaved, shaven shear sheared/shore shorn, sheared shed shed shed shine shone shone shoe shod shod shoot shot shot show showed shown, showed shrink shrank shrunk, shrunken shrive shrove shriven shut shut shut sing sang sung sink sank sunk, sunken sit sat sat slay slew slain sleep slept slept slide slid slid, slidden sling slung slung slink slunk slunk slit slit slit smell smelt, smelled smelt, smelled smite smote smitten sow sowed sown, sowed 327 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû Infinitive Past Past Participle speak spoke. spoken speed sped sped spell spelt, spelled spelt, spelled spend spent spent spill spilt, spilled spilt, spilled spin spun/span spun spit spit/spat spit/spat split split split spoil spoilt, spoiled spoilt, spoiled spread spread spread spring sprang sprung stand stood stood stave staved, stove staved, stove steal stole stolen stick stuck stuck sting stung stung stink stank stunk strew strewed strewn, strewed stride strode, strided stridden strike struck struck, stricken string strung strung strive strove striven sunburn sunburnt, sunburned sunburnt, sunburned 328 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû Infinitive Past Past Participle swear swore sworn sweep swept swept swell swelled swollen, swelled swim swam swum swing swung swung T take took taken teach taught taught tear tore torn tell told told think thought thought thrive throve, thrived thriven, thrived throw threw thrown thrust thrust thrust tread trod trodden U unbend undent unbent unbind unbound unbound underbid underbid underbidden, underbid undergo underwent undergone understand understood understood undertake undertook undertaken undo undid undone 329 АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû Infinitive Past Past Participle unwind unwound unwound unhold unheld unheld upset upset upset W wake woke woken waylay waylaid waylaid wear wore worn weave wove woven wed wedded, wed wedded, wed weep wept wept wet wet, wetted wet, wetted win won won wind wound wound withdraw withdrew withdrawn withhold withheld withheld withstand withstood withstood wring wrung wrung write wrote written Bibliography 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Jake Allsop, Cassell’s Students’ English Grammar, 1985. B. S. Azar, Fundamentals of English Grammar, New Jersey, 1992. Cobuild English Guides, Prepositions. Harper Collins Publishers, 1997. Cobuild English Guides, Reporting. Harper Collins Publishers, 1996. Cobuild English Guides, Articles. Harper Collins Publishers, 1996. Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary. Harper Collins Publishers, 1991. Grammar Smart. The Princeton Review. A Guide to Perfect Usage, New York, 1996. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English, 2002. R. Quirk, A. Greenbaum, G. Leech & J. Svartvik (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, London: Longman. Education Resources on the Internet — Home Page: www.edufind. com/english/grammar. Учебное издание ИНОСТРАННЫЙ ЯЗЫК: ШАГ ЗА ШАГОМ Саакян Аида Суреновна АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА Базовый теоретический курс Ответственный редактор Н. Уварова Редактор Н. Шестопалова Художественный редактор Г. Федотов Технический редактор Л. 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