Download Английская грамматика: базовый теоретический курс

ÓÄÊ 811.111(07)
ÁÁÊ 81.2Àíãë
Ñ 12
Ñ 12
Ñààêÿí À. Ñ.
Àíãëèéñêàÿ ãðàììàòèêà : áàçîâûé òåîðåòè÷åñêèé êóðñ / À. Ñ. Ñààêÿí. — Ì. : Ýêñìî, 2013. — 336 ñ. — (Èíîñòðàííûé ÿçûê: øàã çà øàãîì).
ISBN 978-5-699-58560-1
 ýòîì ïîñîáèè ïðåäñòàâëåí áàçîâûé òåîðåòè÷åñêèé êóðñ ãðàììàòèêè ñîâðåìåííîãî àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. Ñ åãî ïîìîùüþ âû ñìîæåòå ñèñòåìàòèçèðîâàòü ñâîè çíàíèÿ, ïðîÿñíèòü íåïîíÿòíûå ìîìåíòû, ïîâòîðèòü âñå âàæíûå ïðàâèëà è èñêëþ÷åíèÿ. Àâòîð îáðàùàåò îñîáîå âíèìàíèå íà çíà÷èìûå òîíêîñòè è íþàíñû, à òàêæå ðàññêàçûâàåò îá èçìåíåíèÿõ, ïðîèçîøåäøèõ
â ñîâðåìåííîì àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå. Â äîïîëíåíèå ê ýòîìó âû íàéäåòå â êíèãå îñíîâíûå ñâåäåíèÿ
îá àíãëèéñêîé ïóíêòóàöèè.
Ïîñîáèå ïðåäíàçíà÷åíî äëÿ èçó÷àþùèõ àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê íà ïðîäîëæàþùåì óðîâíå, ñòóäåíòîâ, ñëóøàòåëåé ÿçûêîâûõ êóðñîâ — âñåõ, êîìó õîòåëîñü áû îñâåæèòü è ñèñòåìàòèçèðîâàòü
ñâîè çíàíèÿ ïî ãðàììàòèêå àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà.
ÓÄÊ 811.111(07)
ÁÁÊ 81.2Àíãë
ISBN 978-5-699-58560-1
© Ñààêÿí À.Ñ., 2013
© ÎÎÎ «Èçäàòåëüñòâî «Ýêñìî», 2013
Contents
Ïðåäèñëîâèå . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MORPHOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Noun and its Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CASE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GENDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE ARTICLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The main cases of the use of the indefinite and definite
articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Indefinite Article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Definite Article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Generic Use of the Definite Article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Articles with the Names of Meals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Use of Articles with Material Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Use of Articles with Uncountable Abstract Nouns . . . . .
The Use of Articles with the Names of Diseases . . . . . . . . . . .
The Use of Articles with Nouns Denoting Parts of the Day
and Seasons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Use of Articles with Geographic(al) Names . . . . . . . . . . .
The Use of Articles with Proper Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Use of Articles with Names of Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Articles with Nouns in Apposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Articles with the Nouns bed, school, town, college, hospital,
jail, prison, market, table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Use of Articles in With-, Like-, In-phrases . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Use of Articles in and with Of-phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Use of Articles with Some Set-Phrases and Free
Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
The Adjective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Numeral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Pronoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Personal Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Possessive Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Demonstrative Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Indefinite Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Self — Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interrogative (Question) Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . .
Relative and Conjunctive Pronouns . . . . . . . . .
Reciprocal Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Adverb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE PRESENT TENSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Present Simple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Present Progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Present Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Present Perfect Progressive . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE PAST TENSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Past Simple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Past Progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Past Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Past Perfect Progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE FUTURE TENSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Future Simple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Future Progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Future Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Future Perfect Progressive . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Means of Expressing Future Actions in
Reported Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Sequence of Tenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE DIRECT MOODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE INDIRECT (OBLIQUE) MOODS . . . . . . . .
The Subjunctive Mood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Conditional Mood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
MIXED TYPES OF SENTENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE OLD SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modal Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CAN AND MAY (COMPARISON) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MUST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HAVE TO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MUST AND HAVE TO (COMPARISON) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BE TO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WOULD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SHALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NEED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SHOULD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OUGHT TO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DARE (TO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE MODAL PHRASES HAD BETTER, WOULD RATHER
The Verbals (The Non-Finite Forms of the Verb) . . . . . . . .
THE INFINITIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Complex Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE GERUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Verb Characteristics of the Gerund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE INFINITIVE AND THE GERUND (COMPARISON) . .
The Verbal Noun and the Gerund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PARTICIPLE I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Nominative Absolute Participle Construction . . . . . . . . .
PARTICIPLE II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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SYNTAX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Simple Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO THE AIM
OF COMMUNICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO THEIR
STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE MAIN MEMBERS OF THE SENTENCE . . . . . . . . .
The Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Predicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
WORD ORDER. INVERSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AGREEMENT OF THE PREDICATE WITH THE SUBJECT
IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE SECONDARY MEMBERS OF THE SENTENCE . . . . . . .
THE OBJECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE ATTRIBUTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Composite Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Compound-Complex Sentences.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TRENDS IN ENGLISH PUNCTUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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SUPPLEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Glossary of Grammatical Terms
Punctuation Practice . . . . . . . . . .
Seven Easy Ways to Look Bad. .
The List of Irregular Verbs . . . .
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. . . . . . 246
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Ïðåäèñëîâèå
Ýòî ó÷åáíîå ïîñîáèå ÿâëÿåòñÿ áàçîâûì òåîðåòè÷åñêèì êóðñîì ãðàììàòèêè ñîâðåìåííîãî àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà äëÿ ó÷èòåëåé ñðåäíèõ øêîë, ãèìíàçèé,
âûñøèõ ó÷åáíûõ çàâåäåíèé, äëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ ïåðâîãî, âòîðîãî è òðåòüåãî êóðñîâ ôàêóëüòåòîâ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà, à òàêæå äëÿ øèðîêîãî êðóãà ëèö, èçó÷àþùèõ àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíî.
Äàííîå ó÷åáíîå ïîñîáèå ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíîå èçëîæåíèå îñíîâíîãî òåîðåòè÷åñêîãî îáúåìà çíàíèé, íåîáõîäèìîãî äëÿ îâëàäåíèÿ
ñòðîåì ÿçûêà è ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ íàâûêîâ óñòíîé
è ïèñüìåííîé ðå÷è.
Êíèãà «Àíãëèéñêàÿ ãðàììàòèêà: áàçîâûé êóðñ»
ïîñòðîåíà íà îñíîâå ôàêòè÷åñêîãî ìàòåðèàëà,
ïðåäñòàâëÿþùåãî ñîáîé ëèòåðàòóðíûé è ðàçãîâîðíûé ÿçûê Âåëèêîáðèòàíèè è ÑØÀ êîíöà XX è íà÷àëà XXI âåêîâ.  íåé îòðàæåíû òå èçìåíåíèÿ,
êîòîðûå ïðîèçîøëè â ñèñòåìå àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà
íà ðóáåæå äâóõ òûñÿ÷åëåòèé.
Âíèìàíèþ ÷èòàòåëÿ ïðåäëàãàåòñÿ ðàçäåë ïî àíãëèéñêîé ïóíêòóàöèè, êîòîðàÿ íå ïîëó÷èëà äîñòàòî÷íîãî îñâåùåíèÿ â îòå÷åñòâåííîé ëèòåðàòóðå
è ïðåäñòàâëÿåò çíà÷èòåëüíûå òðóäíîñòè äëÿ èçó÷àþùèõ àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê.
7
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Ïðèëîæåíèå ñîäåðæèò ìàòåðèàë ñïðàâî÷íîãî
õàðàêòåðà: ñïèñîê ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ òåðìèíîâ, ïîëíûé ñïèñîê ôîðì íåïðàâèëüíûõ ãëàãîëîâ, ïðàêòèêóì ïî ïóíêòóàöèè, íåêîòîðûå òèïè÷íûå îøèáêè
è ñïîñîáû èõ óñòðàíåíèÿ.
Ïðåäëàãàåìàÿ êíèãà ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé ïåðåðàáîòàííîå èçäàíèå ó÷åáíîãî ïîñîáèÿ, èñïîëüçóåìîãî ñ 1980 ãîäà íà ôàêóëüòåòàõ èíîñòðàííûõ ÿçûêîâ
(àíãëèéñêèõ îòäåëåíèÿõ), íà ôàêóëüòåòàõ íà÷àëüíûõ êëàññîâ è äîøêîëüíîãî âîñïèòàíèÿ, áèîëîãîõèìè÷åñêèõ ôàêóëüòåòàõ, â ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèõ êîëëåäæàõ ã. Ìîñêâû, à òàêæå â ðÿäå âóçîâ Ðîññèéñêîé
Ôåäåðàöèè.
Àâòîð
In richness, good sense, and convenience, no other of the living languages
may be put beside English.
Jakob Grimm
Language is a means of human communication. Language is also the most basic and marvellously complex instrument of culture. Try to imagine the world without language. In fact, you cannot
do so, because language is perhaps the most ancient
heritage of the human race. Language exists only
when it is listened to, as well as when it is spoken.
Language shows a person: speak and I’ll say who
you are.
Language has great power. It can bring us together, it can praise, delight, inspire. But it can also
hurt, offend, destroy.
English has always been a hybrid language, what
Daniel Defoe called “your Roman-Saxon-DanishNorman-English”.
The English language consists of the three constituent parts: the phonological system, the lexical
system, the grammatical system.
Phonetics is a science which studies the phonic
system of the language (sounds, intonation, etc.)
Lexicology is a science which studies the wordstock of the language, its building material (words,
phrases, etc.)
9
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
You can have perfect pronunciation and the richest vocabulary imaginable, but you won’t be able to
speak a language if you don’t know how to make up
sentences with the help of which we communicate,
that is if you don’t know its grammatical structure.
Grammar is a science which studies the structure
of the language. The two parts of English Grammar
are: Morphology and Syntax.
Morphology deals with Parts of Speech. Syntax
studies the Sentence, different types of sentences
and their meanings.
Morphology
All the words of the English language are grouped into different types of classes which are traditionally called parts of
speech. Morphology is a part of grammar which studies parts
of speech. The classification of words into parts of speech is
based on the three main principles: 1) the grammatical meaning; 2) the form; 3) the syntactical function.
There are notional and functional parts of speech. Notional
parts of speech have independent meanings and functions in
the sentence. Functional words serve to connect words or sentences, or to specify the meanings of other words.
The notional parts of speech are:
— The Noun
— The Adjective
— The Pronoun
— The Numeral
— The Verb
— The Adverb
— The Interjection
The functional parts of speech are:
— The Preposition
— The Conjunction
— The Particle
— The Article
11
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
The Noun and its Classification
The noun denotes objects, substances, living beings (people
and animals), abstract notions, different phenomena. The English noun has the grammatical categories of number, case and is
associated with the article. There are different classifications of
the Noun. The most important are the Semantic classification
and the classification into countable and uncountable nouns.
The Semantic classification of nouns is based on their
meaning, according to which they fall into different groups.
A common noun is the general name of an object, a place,
a person or an idea.
a computer, a city, a boy, a student, love, life
A proper noun is the name of a particular person or of a
geographical place.
Mrs. Honey, Brian, London, the Tiber, the Alps.
A common noun may be concrete, abstract or collective.
A concrete noun names an object that occupies space and can
be seen and touched.
a flower, a CD, a banana, a star, a fish
Concrete nouns fall into class and material. A class noun
refers an object to the same class of things. It can be counted:
a book, a room, a ring, à man, a cat. A material noun denotes
substance and is generally uncountable: bread, juice, glass, coal,
chalk.
An abstract noun names an idea, some quality or a characteristic.
freedom, happiness, intelligence, competence, darkness,
power
12
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
A collective noun names a group of people or things.
a government, a family, a flotilla, people, police, clothes,
furniture, news, money, information
It can all be presented in the following table:
The Noun



Common


Concrete
Abstract
  
Class Material


Collective
Proper

Personal


Geographic(al)
Proper Nouns
Proper nouns may become common if:
a) the name of a painter, writer, inventor, designer or a firm is
used to denote some work.
This small museum has a Dali.
A Longman will help you a lot with your English.
I have a Sony, my brother has a Panasonic.
He fell to the floor like a sack of King Edwards (a sort
of potatoes).
b) they denote characteristic qualities of the bearer of the
name (but not the person himself!).
He’s a poet, but not a Shelley.
This man is a veritable Cicero.
This fellow is really a Jack-of-all-trades (but master of
none).
Poor darling looks like a Cinderella.
It doesn’t take an Einstein to work that out, does it?
13
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Some common nouns have become proper names: the City,
Parliament, Congress, the Tube, the Tower, the Channel, the
Globe, the Black Sea, the Red Sea, the Dead Sea, the White
(Black) Sea, the Big Apple, the Oval Hall, Penguin (a publishing
house).
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns denote:
1. Groups of people: crew, team, cast, family, company, committee, ministry, government, staff, crowd, class, council,
company, gang, clan, etc.
If you think of the group as a single body, it is singular and
agrees with the verb in the singular.
The staff is well-trained and efficient.
My family is big.
This team is well-trained.
If you think of all the individuals who make up the group,
it is plural.
The staff are going to buy a leaving present for their
boss.
My family are all cat lovers.
Compare also names of organizations:
The British Government is starting its work next week.
The British Government are demanding compensations.
2. Names of multitude: police, people, clergy, cattle, poultry,
dice, vermin (âðåäèòåëè) etc. are singular in form, but plural in meaning and require the verb in the plural.
The local people are very friendly.
Are the police here? Police are coming soon.
14
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Dice are used in many board games.
The cattle are in the fields.
Vermin are small animals, such as rats and mice which
carry disease and damage crops.
Plankton are found in all oceans.
3. Nouns which occur only in the plural form and require
the verb in the plural. There are about 50 of these. The
commonest are: arms (= weapons), clothes, riches, goods, customs, earnings, savings, lodgings (also called digs), odds and
ends, outskirts, surroundings, headquarters, premises, regards,
stairs, eaves, memoirs, victuals, slops, preserves, dregs, slums,
sweepings, peelings, belongings, remains.
Here also belong names of objects which have two inseparable parts: binoculars, bifocals, glasses, spectacles, scales,
scissors, pants, pyjamas, shorts, tights, trousers, jeans, braces,
knickers, tongs, tweezers.
Her clothes are very trendy.
Your pyjamas are on the bed.
These tights are of the finest quality.
My jeans are denim blue.
The word content can be used both in the plural and in
the singular.
a) The contents of something (a bottle, a bag, a room, a book)
are everything that is contained in it.
He swallowed the contents of his glass.
We admired the house and its superb contents.
I knew the contents of the letter by heart.
What are the contents of the magazine?
15
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
b) The contents of a speech, a television programme, an essay is its subject matter and the ideas that are in it, in
contrast to such things as its form or style.
The editor had to change the contents of the newspaper column.
His novels are all form and no content.
Note the use of the word content in the computer language:
Content exists on Web Sites around the world.
A consumer selects and downloads from content menu.
Satellites receive and transmit assembled content.
The word content is also used to express an ingredient of
something.
No other food has so high an iron content.
What’s the content of sugar in your blood?
4. Nouns which are always singular in form (except the word
“news”) and take the verb in the singular. Here belong:
a) abstract nouns: advice, news, money, information, weather, rubbish, work, knowledge, progress, traffic, accommodation.
Money is the soul of business. Money makes money.
It’s useful advice. It was breaking news.
It is fine weather today.
This equipment was made in Italy.
His progress is very slow.
Traffic is usually heavy in the centre of Moscow.
b) material nouns: baggage, luggage, jewellery, furniture,
equipment, (bed)linen, clutter, litter, garbage, rubbish, foli16
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
age, leafage, crockery, cutlery, pottery, hardware, software,
houseware, kitchenware, toast.
This jewellery is unique. Your luggage was too heavy.
Our furniture is made of wood.
The leafage is turning yellow.
The best linen comes from Holland.
My toast is burnt again.
c) names of diseases: measles, mumps, diabetes, shingles,
hepatitis.
Diabetes is an illness in which someone has too much
sugar in their blood.
Measles is an infectious disease.
Hepatitis is becoming a very common disease.
Note the two uses of the names of some branches of
study in -ics: athletics, ceramics, economics, ethics, linguistics,
phonetics, physics, politics, acoustics, statistics, mathematics,
but: arithmetic.
Statistics is the study of probability (a science)
There is a lie, there is a big lie, and there is statistics.
Statistics are often misleading. (sets of figures)
Mathematics is a difficult subject.
Arithmetic is a part of mathematics.
Compare also the following:
Politics doesn’t interest him. His politics are radical.
17
3. The cattle are in the
fields.
3. This team consists of
eleven players. The team
are wearing new shirts
today.
4. The clergy are stationed in the Vatikan.
The Media are the Press,
the Radio, TV.
2. The police are here. The
police have come.
media
cattle
poultry
2. Our staff is well-trained.
The staff are very young.
people
police
clergy
1. The people here
are very friendly.
(но: the peoples of the
world = народы)
cast
staff
company
gang
clan
are
is/are
1. My family is small.
(как единое целое)
My family are good eaters.
(члены семьи)
family
class
group
team
crew
The verb
in the plural
The verb either
in the singular
or in the plural
7. What good work it is!
6. It is fine weather today!
5. It is tasty toast.
4. His knowledge is deep.
3. His money comes from
oil business.
6. These stairs are old.
5. My glasses were
made in Italy.
4. The scissors have become blind.
3. These scales are not
correct.
2. Where are the customs?
pants
tights
trousers
scales
scissors
stairs
wages
2. The news has come.
clothes
contents
customs
glasses
goods
jeans
pyjamas
1. These clothes cost a lot.
knowledge
toast
success
progress
weather
work
are
The verb
in the plural
1. It is timely advice.
advice
information
hair
money
news
furniture
linen
is
The verb
in the singular
Collective Nouns
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Another important classification of nouns into countable
and uncountable is based on the possibility of nouns to be
counted.
Countables
Uncountables
a thing
a child
an apple
a minute
a penny
news
freedom
happiness
work
tea
milk
Употребляются с:
is/are
has/have
many, a lot of
(a) few, several
a/the
some
is
has
much, a lot of
(a) little
the
some
1. If the noun is countable, it can agree with the verb in the
singular and in the plural; it can also take the indefinite article. The indefinite pronouns (not) many or (a) few are used
with it.
This is a great book. — These are great books.
I’ve got (not) many / (a) few French books at home.
2. If the noun is uncountable, it agrees with the verb only in
the singular; it can’t take the indefinite article. (not) much /
(a) little are used with it.
It is hard work. (No article!)
He does much work.
I have (a) little work today.
19
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Number
Countable nouns in English have two numbers — the singular and the plural which can be expressed in English by:
1. adding -s or -es to the singular form of a noun:
a
a
a
a
wish — wishes
kilo — kilos
bus — buses
hero — heroes
a
a
a
a
day — days
chief — chiefs
story — stories
life — lives
Mind the spelling rules:
a) -s
-sh
-ch
-х
-o
 -es
b) -y  -ies
(после
согласной)
с) -f/-fe  -ves
a bus — buses
a bush — bushes
a watch — watches
a fox — foxes
a potato — potatoes
a tomato — tomatoes
a hero — heroes
But:
photos, pianos, discos,
radios, zoos, videos,
cuckoos
a cry — cries
a party — parties
a story — stories
a country — countries
a dictionary — dictionaries
But: -ay
-ey  -ys
-oy
boys, toys, days, plays,
monkeys, joys, keys
a shelf — shelves, a half — halves
a life — lives, a knife — knives
a wolf — wolves, a leaf — leaves
But: roofs, chiefs, cuffs,
cliffs, handkerchiefs,
scarfs (scarves)
an elf — elves, a calf — calves
2. the change of the root vowel:
a man — men
a woman — women
20
a goose — geese
a louse — lice
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
a child — children
a foot — feet
an ox — oxen
a mouse — mice
a tooth — teeth
3. identical forms for the singular and for the plural:
1) a deer — two deer
a sheep — ten sheep
a swine — a lot of swine
2) a fish — (many) fish (also with some kinds of fish:
a carp, a pike, a salmon, a trout, etc.)
a carp — two carp
a trout — five trout
The form fishes denotes different kinds of fish and is seldom used in English.
He studies the fishes of the Atlantic.
3) a bison — bison(s),
a buffalo — buffalo(es)
4) a species — three species
a series — three series
a means — many means
5) a lazy-bones — lazy-bones (ëåíòÿè)
a butter-fingers — butter-fingers (ðàñòÿïû)
Names of nationalities ending in -ese, -ss also have identical
forms for the singular and for the plural:
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
Portuguese — ten Portuguese
Burmese — the Burmese
Japanese — two Japanese
Vietnamese — a few Vietnamese
Swiss — many Swiss
Milanese — some Milanese
Chinese — the Chinese
Viennese — all Viennese
21
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
4. foreign plurals.
A lot of words borrowed from Latin and Greek form their
plural in Modern English in the regular way, i. e., by adding -(e)s. But a few have kept their original Latin or Greek
plural endings. The most common of them form the plural
according to the table below:
1
2
3
4
5
Singular ending
Regular plural
Latin (Greek) plural
-us
-uses
-i
a cactus
a stimulus
cactuses
stimuluses
cacti
stimuli
-a
-as
-ae
an antenna
a formula
antennas
formulas
antennae
formulae
-um
-ums
-a
a datum
a curriculum
a medium
a millenium
—
curriculums
mediums
milleniums
data*
curricula
media
millenia
-ex
-exes
-ices
an index
indexes
indices
-ix
-ixes
-ices
an appendix
appendixes
appendices
-is
6
7
*
22
-es
a basis
a crisis
—
—
bases
crises
-on
-ons
-a
a criterion
a phenomenon
criterions
phenomenons
criteria
phenomena
data — is used in both singular and plural
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
5. the plural of compound nouns.
1) Generally compounds form the plural by adding -(e)s to
the second element.
a grown-up — grown-ups
a boyfriend — boyfriends
an office-block — office-blocks
a forget-me-not — forget-me-nots
But: a passer-by — passers-by,
a hanger-on — hangers-on.
2) Nouns ending in -in-law add the plural -s to the noun:
a father-in-law — fathers-in-law,
a mother-in-law — mothers-in-law,
a daughter-in-law — daughters-in-law,
a son-in-law — sons-in-law.
But: his/her in-laws.
3) If the first element is man or woman, both elements are
made plural:
a woman-driver — women-drivers,
a manservant — menservants.
6. As for uncountable nouns some of them are always singular
and some are plural.
Compare:
English singular invariable nouns
information
advice
money
news
progress
furniture
work
yeast
cream
ink
linen
rubbish
hair
weather
The verbs are always singular.
English plural invariable nouns
clothes
contents
sweepings
odds, ends
greens
customs
scales
goods
shorts
trousers
jeans
scissors
tights
pants
The verbs are always plural.
23
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Compare:
It is hitting news.
My jeans are denim blue.
This is timely advice.
These glasses were made in Germany.
It’s fine weather today.
Her clothes are very trendy.
7. The Emphatic Plural. Some uncountable nouns may be
used in the emphatic plural for the sake of emphasis, mostly in literary style:
the waters of the Pacific, the snows of Kilimanjaro,
the southern skies, a thousand thanks, Good Heavens,
the heats of the desert, the colds of the North.
Case
English is a highly possessive language. There are so many
expressions in it built on the formula N’s + N, starting with A
as in Adam’s apple and ending with Z as in Zeno’s paradoxes.
This grammatical category shows the relation of the noun
with other words in the sentence and is expressed by the form
of the noun. English nouns have two cases: the Common case
and the Possessive case. The Common case has no inflection
and its meaning is very general. The Possessive case expresses
possession, belonging and is generally used with animate nouns
denoting people and animals. But in some cases the noun in
the Possessive case has a purely descriptive character: a man’s
club, children’s toys, a woman’s magazine.
Nouns denoting inanimate objects are not generally used in
the possessive case. The “of + noun” phrase is used with them:
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
the leg of a table, the foot of a mountain,
the cap of a pen, the end of the story,
the roof of a house, the cover of the book.
Mind the difference in meaning in the phrases of the type:
Old McDonald’s farm — McDonald’s old farm
The new director’s speech — The director’s new speech
Happy Teachers’ Day — Teachers’ Happy Day
Silly Mark’s remark — Mark’s silly remark
The main city’s museums — The city’s main museums
1. The Possessive Case is formed in the following ways:
1) by adding the inflection ’s or just’ (the apostrophe) to the
stem of the noun in the singular not ending in s.
the boy’s toy, a child’s game, student’s grammar
Note: If a noun in the singular ends in s and has only one syllable it also forms the possessive case with apostrophe
and -s.
the bus’s tires, the boss’s order
2) by adding only an apostrophe (’) to the noun in the plural.
The second s is not used.
students’ life, workers’ wages, teenagers’ slang,
parents’ meeting, weight-watchers’ club
3) by adding an apostrophe and -s if a proper name ends
in -s, -x, -z. In this case the full inflection is pronounced.
Max’s ['mæksɪz] doubts
Keats’s ['kіːtsɪz] odes
Little Liz’s ['lɪzɪz] dress
Thomas’s ['tɒməsɪz] ideas
I was trying to remember Pythagoras’(s) Theorem.
Elvis’s voice never fails to move people.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
4) By adding the inflection ’s to the last element of a compound noun:
a brother-in-law’s virtues, brothers-in-law’s virtues
Singular
Plural
-’s
a boy’s toy
a girl’s dress
an actress’s life
a woman’s magazine
Burns’(s) poems
-’
boys’ toys
girls’ dresses
actresses’ lives
lawyers’ duties
the Romanovs’ family tree
-’s
children’s shop
men’s hobbies
women’s magazines
sheep’s wool
deer’s horns
2. There is a growing tendency in Modern English to use the
possessive case with inanimate nouns denoting:
1) time or distance:
a moment’s silence, a two-miles’ drive,
a good night’s sleep, a fortnight’s holiday;
2) seasons, years, months and days:
a summer’s morning, July’s heat, today’s news,
Tuesday’s programme, last year’s plan,
this year’s events;
3) countries, cities and towns:
England’s history, France’s gardens,
London’s buses, Germany’s policy;
4) unique nouns (the world, the sun, the moon, the earth,
names of planets):
the sun’s rays, the world’s history,
the moon’s light, the Earth’s diameter,
Mars’s influence;
26
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
5) names of vessels:
the ship’s crew, the yacht’s owner,
the boat’s sail, the plane’s crash.
6) ordinary objects:
the river’s bed, the ocean’s roar,
the lake’s surface, my jeans’ pocket.
3. If two coordinate nouns (joined by and, but, or), express joint
possession, the apostrophe is usually added to the last noun.
The whole phrase is called “Group Possessive”.
James’s father’s office,
the Prime Minister of England’s speech,
Jack and Jill’s father, Tom and Mary’s teacher,
Ilf and Petrov’s novels, Kate and David’s wedding,
The McDonald brothers’ first restaurant
If the coordinate nouns express individual possessions,
the apostrophe is used with both nouns:
John’s and Mark’s skateboards,
Nick’s and Ann’s parents,
Mr Parker’s and Mr Marshall’s agencies
4. There are some cases of the so-called “Absolute Possessive”.
It is called “absolute”, as it is used absolutely, without the
noun, which is not repeated for the sake of style.
My son would like to have a bike, like Steve’s.
Her smile was sweet and innocent like a child’s.
Here eyes were sharp and black as a bird’s.
I heard a voice. It was my boss’s, but in my confusion I took it for someone else’s.
He opened the envelope, his fingers shaking like a
schoolboy’s.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Absolute Possessive is used:
1) to express some locality (with local meaning: a house,
a shop, a clinic, an auction, etc.)
the baker’s, the barber’s, the hairdresser’s, the vet’s,
the optician’s, the tailor’s, the dressmaker’s,
the flourist’s, the newsagent’s, the greengrocer’s,
the confectioner’s, the ironmonger’s, the doctor’s,
my aunt’s, the butcher’s, the dentist’s, McDonald’s,
Christie’s, Sotheby’s,
but: Harrods.
After work I dropped in at the greengrocer’s and the
cleaner’s.
We got all the information at the travelling agent’s.
2) with partitive meaning which equals to “one of”
Bess is a friend of my mother’s.
Is she a client of Ms Morgan’s?
He married a classmate of Andy’s.
I am a fan of Paul’s.
3) to express some strong emotions (mostly negative ones)
How I dislike that new boyfriend of Susan’s!
That dress of Margie’s was something!
I’m trying to knock some sense into that very thick
head of Peter’s before it’s too late.
5. The Possessive Case is used in some set expressions which
are survivals of Old English Genitive Case which was freely
used with all nouns in Old English:
to one’s heart’s content (delight), at one’s wit’s end,
at one’s fingers’ ends, in (out of) harm’s way,
from a bird’s view, to a hair’s breadth,
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
for friendship’s (manners’, convenience’s) sake,
at arm’s reach, at arm’s length, (at) a stone’s throw,
at sword’s point, at the razor’s edge,
at a moment’s notice, at death’s door,
in the mind’s eye, a baker’s dozen, to be nobody’s fool,
to know somebody for donkey’s years.
Note: When dedication is implied the Possessive Case is not
used.
The State Tretyakov Gallery, The Pushkin Monument,
The Nelson Column, the Kennedy Centre,
The Templeton Fund, The Peter and Paul Fortress.
Gender
Gender does not find any grammatical expression in English. The distinction of male, female and neuter can be understood from
1. the lexical meaning of the noun:
a man — a woman, a boy — a girl,
a brother — a sister, a monk — a nun,
a king — a queen, Mr. — Mrs. (Miss, Ms.).
2. the use of personal pronouns he, she, it:
The principal entered the hall and everybody rose to
greet her.
There was a she-crab soup on the menu, my favourite.
3. the use of suffixes -ess, -ine, -ina, -er, -ette:
a manager — a manageress, a poet — a poetess,
a hero — a heroine, a waiter — a waitress,
an author — an authoress, a baronet — a baroness,
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
a widow — widower, a tzar — a tsarina,
a ballet dancer — a ballerina, a lad — a ladette,
a bachelor — a bachelorette.
4. In many words you do not know whether the person referred to is male or female. The most common are:
a
a
a
a
child, an agent, a cousin, a friend, a foreigner,
guest, a visitor, a tourist, a neighbour, a parent,
person, a stranger, a customer, a client, a witness,
passer-by, a spectator.
Also in names of professions such as an artist, a cook,
a doctor, a lawyer, a director, a secretary, a journalist, a judge,
a scientist, a student, a teacher, a professor, a tutor, a lecturer,
a speaker, an editor.
To make a distinction, you can use the words male or female, man, lady or woman.
a male cousin, a female student, a lady doctor,
a woman driver
But nowadays phrases like a male nurse, or a male secretary are considered to be sexist and may sometimes sound
offensive. It looks as if such usage ignores half the human
race — or at least seems to assume that the other half is
more important. You can bring the language up to date, and
make it sound non-sexist and politically correct by:
a) using plural forms:
Lawyers must pass the bar exam before they begin to
practise.
b) using both pronouns:
A lawyer must pass the bar exam before he or she can
begin to practise.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
c) eliminating the pronouns:
A lawyer must pass the bar exam before beginning to
practise.
d) using non-sexist words like:
a chairlady — a chairperson,
a congressman — a member of Congress,
a mailman — a mailcarrier,
man, mankind — humans, human beings,
humanity, the human race,
a policeman (woman) — a police officer,
a fireman — a firefighter
e) compounding:
a manservant, a maidservant, a bull-elephant, a cowelephant.
5. The use of female gender is traditional with the names
of vessels (ships, boats, cruisers, etc.), vehicles (cars, coaches,
planes), countries:
The new yacht has started on her voyage.
She is a terrific car!
Ireland! She is our Motherland!
Compare the use of gender with some animals:
The eagle has left his rocky nest.
The swallow was teaching her young to fly.
The cat tried to guard her young and has upset her
milk.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
To be politically correct, mind the use of “they”, especially in tag-questions:
Everyone tried to do their best.
If someone wants to spend their money here, it isn’t
up to me to stop them.
Anyone would have done the same, wouldn’t they?
And no one was injured, were they?
The Article
The Main Cases of the Use
of the Indefinite and Definite Articles
The Article is a word that serves as a noun determiner
alongside with such determiners as demonstrative, possessive
and indefinite pronouns. The article is one of the main means
of expressing the category of definiteness and indefiniteness in
English.
The Indefinite Article
1. The Indefinite Article originated from the Old English numeral one: one > a (an). That’s why it can be used only
with a countable noun in the singular. The main meanings of
the indefinite article are classifying (general) and numerical.
1) In its classifying (general) meaning the article serves to
refer an object to the class of objects of the same kind,
just to classify it:
I am a school teacher. It’s a teenager novel.
The indefinite article implies that the object denoted by the
noun is spoken of as a representative of the class. The arti32
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
cle in this meaning can be substituted by such words as “any”,
“every”. It is often used in proverbs and sentences expressing
a general truth:
A teacher should be patient. A dog is a good friend.
A burnt child dreads the fire. An Englishman makes
a good husband.
Mind the absence of the article in the plural:
Dogs make good pets. Englishmen make good husbands.
New times bring new habits.
2) In its numerical meaning the indefinite article retains
its original meaning of the cardinal numeral “one” and
expresses oneness. This meaning is evident with nouns
denoting units of measure (time, distance, length, weight,
etc.):
An apple a day keeps wrinkles away.
A penny saved is a penny gained.
A pound is a unit of weight in Britain.
An hour will be enough for me.
2. A countable noun in the singular takes the indefinite article if it is used:
1) in the function of the subject and just classifies it.
A student should work hard.
A teacher sows seeds of knowledge that will grow forever.
Also in sentences with the construction “there is (comes,
appears, etc.)”:
There comes a bus. There is a fax for you on the desk.
But:
There are faxes on the desk. (no article in the plural)
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
2) in the function of a predicative:
He is an air traffic controller.
That guy is a family friend.
I am a teacher. She is a nurse.
But:
We are teachers. They are nurses.
3) in the function of a direct object:
I wrote a letter. We got a Christmas card from London.
We had a late dinner. We are going to have an early
spring.
We got a fax. But: We got faxes yesterday.
4) in some set-phrases expressing one-time (îäíîêðàòíûå)
actions like: to be à success, to have a rest, to have a lovely
time, to give a look, to give a lift, to give a hint, to do
a favour, to make a will, to make a fuss, to make a mistake, to take a seat, to have a date, to keep an eye on.
The play was a success.
Did you have a great time at the party?
Can you give me a lift to the station?
Will you do us a favour?
5) after the exclamatory “what”, “such”:
What an idea! What a surprise! What a shame! What
a man!
It’s such a waste! He is such a smart man!
With plural nouns there is no article:
What ideas! What surprises! What people!
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
If the noun is uncountable (abstract or material) no article is used:
What fine weather! What interesting news!
What tasty jam! What strong coffee!
6) with a descriptive attribute. Compare:
It was night. — I was a cool night.
It’s summer. — It’s a very hot summer.
Note: nouns denoting seasons and parts of the day and modified by adjectives “late”, “early”, etc. in the function of
a predicative take no article.
It was early morning. It is late autumn.
But:
Let’s have an early supper.
I am an early bird. We had a late visitor last night.
The Definite Article
The definite article originated from the Old English demonstrative pronoun that. The equivalents of the definite article are possessive and demonstrative pronouns this — these,
that — those.
The Definite article is used:
1) if the context or the situation makes the noun clear.
Open the door. Go to the kitchen. Where is the key?
The flowers were splendid. I liked the present a lot,
thank you.
2) if the noun was already mentioned.
Three little Kittens lost their mittens…
The three little kittens they found the mittens.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
3) if the noun has a restrictive (limiting) attribute. It may
be expressed by a clause, a prepositional phrase, by the
words very, right, left, central, wrong, only, one, opposite,
main, last, next (following), same, by ordinal numerals, by
the superlative degree of adjectives.
You are the man we are looking for.
We got into the wrong train.
He is the only person for the position.
The second performance was a sensational success.
The longest day comes to an end.
Such words as all, whole, proper, previous, necessary, usual,
upper, lower can be either descriptive or limiting to the noun
which they modify. Compare:
All children like toys. (descriptive, children in general)
All the children are in the garden. (limiting, definite
children)
I spend the whole day at home. (definite day)
She is a chocoholic. She can eat a whole box of chocolates at a time. (descriptive, one box)
What is the proper word for it? (= the right word)
Did you have a proper meal? (a good one)
Will you read the previous sentence? (definite)
He had two children from a previous marriage. (descriptive)
He asked the usual questions. (definite)
On a usual day I get up very early.
4) with unique objects or notions. They are the sun, the moon,
the earth, the world, the universe, the horizon, the equator,
the south, the north, the west, the east, the globe, the Milky
Way, the cosmos, the hemisphere, the atmosphere.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Take me to the Milky Way!
The moon moves round the Earth. The Universe is
endless!
They thought they could change the world. Instead,
the world changed them.
The equator is an imaginary line drawn round the middle of the Earth at an equal distance from the North
Pole and the South Pole.
There are evident changes in the climate due to the
pollution of the atmosphere.
But if these nouns are preceded by descriptive attributes,
the indefinite article is used.
We all hope to see a better world.
Imagine a world without lying, killing or stealing.
The sun shone in an unclouded sky.
I was guided by a full moon.
The moon is a moon whether it shines or not.
The house has got a friendly atmosphere.
5) with an adverbial modifier of place to identify the exact
place.
Jane is in the garden.
The indefinite article is also possible.
He was born in a village in the North of Ireland.
The train stopped at a small station.
6) in a number of idioms like:
to make the best of something, to be in the know,
to read between the lines, in the light of something,
to be on the safe side, if the worst comes to the worst,
the long and the short of it, in the long run, to change
for the better (for the worse), out of the blue, etc.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
The Generic Use of the Definite Article
1. A singular countable noun with the definite article may represent a whole class of objects, thus becoming the symbol
of that class, the image of it. We mainly find here names
of animals, plants, professions and occupations, unique phenomena, inventions, collective nouns denoting social groups.
Scientific terms are also often used generically.
Nobody knows which appeared first: the hen or the egg.
The cat is officially the most popular pet in the UK.
The arrival of the computer has revolutionized industry.
The article is a word specifying the noun.
The mind is always fooled by the heart.
The pen is mightier than the sword, and considerably
lighter to hold.
Shhh… the Muse is upon me.
Sometimes it is possible to use the indefinite article to denote any representative of the class.
A violet is a lovely flower. A dog is a good friend.
But the indefinite article is not permissible when invention,
genre or à phenomenon is meant.
He believed in the American dream.
The telephone was invented by Bell.
The spirit, we thought, must take precedence over the
flesh.
The brain is a wonderful organ.
The barometer rises and falls for rain and fine.
The computer was first constructed in Pennsylvania
in 1946.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
2. The nouns man, woman, child used in a generic sense, take
no article.
Now I know what man is capable of.
Woman’s work is never done.
Man needs something for the sake of which to live.
Man, woman, child — these are eternal notions.
My father and I talked man to man about it.
God provides the wind, but man must raise the sails.
Articles with the Names of Meals
To this group of nouns belong: breakfast, brunch (elevenses),
lunch, dinner, supper, tea.
1. When these nouns are used in their abstract meaning denoting a process of taking food, or are associated with time,
they are used without any article, such as:
to have (take, prepare, serve, cook) dinner, breakfast,
lunch, supper; to go to dinner, to be at dinner (lunch); to return by (before, after) supper.
Lunch is at two p. m. Dinner is ready (served, laid).
We’ll discuss it after tea. I’ll have a meeting before
lunch.
2. The indefinite article is used when names of meals are
modified by descriptive attributes.
You can get a hot supper here.
We had a late breakfast.
It’s not a very fancy lunch, I’m afraid.
They had an early dinner.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
3. The definite article is found with names of meals if there is
a situation, a context, a restrictive attribute, or if the food itself is meant:
The dinner you cooked was marvellous.
How much did you pay for the supper?
I must go to the kitchen and have a look at the dinner.
4. Sometimes names of meals become countable nouns denoting:
1) a party (both articles may be used):
We gave a dinner last night.
Many celebrities came to the dinner.
They met at an official lunch.
Have you received the invitation to the dinner?
2) a portion (the indefinite article expresses oneness):
I don’t have enough money to buy a supper.
A set-dinner is rather cheap at this restaurant.
The Use of Articles with Material Nouns
1. Material (uncountable) nouns used in a general sense take
no article and have no plural form.
Food is something we cannot do without.
There is cold juice in the jug. Fruit is useful.
We all had fish and chips for supper.
2. The definite article is used if the noun is clear from the
situation or the context or if there is some limitation.
The food she cooked was uneatable.
The bread is on the table.
Wasn’t the cake delicious?
40
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
3. Some uncountable material nouns can become countable and
express different sorts, kinds, portions. Here belong the following nouns:
beer, cheese, coffee, detergent, food, jam, meat, medicine,
perfume, soup, tea, whisky, wine, wood, wool, etc.
— Which wines are produced in this region?
— A dry red wine and a rose.
My Granny makes a very fine jam. She makes four
jams every year.
Want a beer? Two teas, please.
There are four soups on the menu today.
Compare the following:
I am fond of ice cream, a high-caloric food.
Caviar is one of the few high-caloric foods which
I am very fond of.
Wool is a natural fibre that has many fine qualities.
British wools come from select regions, like the Shetlands.
The use of articles with the noun FISH
1
Singular
Plural
a fish
two fish
fish (продукт питания)
a carp
three carp
Do you like fish?
a trout
four trout
There is fish on the menu.
a pike
many pike
Fish is useful.
What a beautiful
fish!
There are many (a lot of)
fish in this lake.
I gave a fish to
the cat.
How many fish did you
catch?
Notes
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû
Singular
Plural
Notes
The form fishes
(различные виды рыб)
is rarely used!
The fishes of the Atlantic.
There are different fishes
in the aquarium.
The noun fish can have
a collective meaning:
Fish travel long distances
in the sea.
2
Ecologically, fish are at risk
now.
The use of articles with the noun FRUIT
Fruit
Fruits
The
Singular
(uncountable)
Plural
(situation, context,
limitation)
A kind of food, product
(no plural):
Fruit is good for health.
It is rich in vitamins.
There is fruit on the table.
Do you like fruit?
Is fruit expensive this year?
Different kind of fruit:
The fruit is on the table.
Many different fruits
are brought from Italy,
Greece and Spain.
Where is the fruit?
I like citrus fruits best.
How much did you pay
for the fruit?
What are the local
fruits?
In figurative meaning
(the results of…):
the fruits of nature
the fruits of industry
the fruits of our efforts
42
The fruit which you
bought was very good.
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû
Fruit
Fruits
The
Singular
(uncountable)
Plural
(situation, context,
limitation)
A botanic term:
a fruit (плод)
fruits
(«ягоды», «плоды»)
A strawberry is
a beautiful fruit.
This bush gives red
fruits.
The English nouns “fish” and “fruit” somehow turn out to
be very difficult for learners of English. In fact, they are absolutely different as the noun “fish” is a common countable one,
which has identical (the same) forms for the singular and for
the plural (one fish — two fish) like the nouns “deer”, “sheep”,
etc. The noun “fruit” is uncountable in English, it denotes food,
and generally it agrees with the verb in the singular and can’t
be used with the indefinite article.
The Use of Articles
with Uncountable Abstract Nouns
1. Uncountable abstract nouns used in a general sense take no
article:
Reason and love are sworn enemies.
When in distress, people look for friendship.
I’ve come to you for help.
Love isn’t measured by words.
My ancestors were all distinguished men. In war, in
peace, in church, in science, and in education.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
2. Uncountable nouns may become countable if they denote
kinds or special aspects of the notion which they denote.
A dull anger rose in his chest.
A strange fear overcame me.
Your fears are ungrounded.
3. No article is used if abstract nouns are modified by such attributes as modern, English, French, real, authentic, symbolic,
proletarian, medieval, ancient, contemporary.
French poetry, modern art, contemporary science, authentic literature
The definite article is used if there is a limiting attribute.
The French poetry of the 19th century.
The Russian art of that period.
4. Some uncountable nouns are never used with the indefinite
article. They are mostly nouns of verbal character denoting actions, activity, processes, such as: information, news,
advice, progress, work, weather, money, assistance, permission. They don’t take the indefinite article and agree with
the verb only in the singular.
It’s good advice, I’ll follow it. Your news is good.
It’s excellent weather today. Time is money.
He got permission to leave the country.
There is big money in oil business.
If it is necessary to express oneness, use phrases like: a piece
of, an item of, a word of, an article of, a sum of, a breath of,
a spell of, etc.
There is an item of news that may interest you.
We need a breath of fresh air.
That’s a pretty sum of money.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
There is always a spell of sunny weather in October.
I’m writing chiefly to tell you an unbelievable piece of
news — I have passed my driving test!
Compare also the following:
This watch is a fine work.
We are offering a full list of polygraphy works: forms,
business cards, calendars, stickers, leaflets, etc.
5. In the set-phrase “in all weathers” the noun weather is in
the plural.
She works in her garden in all weathers.
Mind that in Modern English the plural form monies is
widely used in the meaning of «ñðåäñòâà ôèíàíñèðîâàíèÿ»,
«ðàçëè÷íûå âèäû âàëþò».
What monies circulate in this country?
The project received community monies.
Many people wonder where public monies go.
The Use of Articles
with the Names of Diseases
1. Names of diseases are uncountable nouns and generally don’t
take any article. They are:
AIDS, appendicitis, cholera, diabetes, hepatitis,
herpes, influenza, foot-and-mouth disease, malaria,
measles, mumps, pneumonia, smallpox, tuberculosis,
typhoid
The child has the first symptoms of measles.
Foot-and-mouth disease cases rose again in England.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
2. The definite article is possible with the names of such diseases as mumps, chickenpox, flu (but not influenza).
She had a mild attach of flu.
I’m coming down with the flu (influenza).
Nouns, denoting physical states of people function like any
countable nouns.
Have you caught a cold again?
Take an aspirin against the cold.
Feed a cold and starve a fever.
There was an epidemic of colds in the school in late
October.
3. Words ending in -ache in British English have either the indefinite article or no article at all.
I’ve got earache. He’s got an earache.
The word headache is countable: a headache — headaches.
In American English all the words with -ache are countable
and the sentence “I’ve got earache” is not the norm.
The word heartache is not used with the indefinite article as it expresses some emotional pain, sadness or suffering.
To express some physical pain use the words attack, problem,
trouble.
His first love caused him unbearable heartache.
She had a heart attack two years ago.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
The Use of Articles with Nouns
Denoting Parts of the Day and Seasons
This group includes the nouns: day, night, morning, evening,
noon, afternoon, midnight, dawn, dusk, twilight, sunrise, sunset,
daytime, nightfall, winter, spring, summer and autumn.
1. These nouns are very often treated as abstract nouns. No
article is used with reference to parts of the day or of the
year, light or darkness, as in:
As morning broke, the light wind died away.
Evening came. Night fell. Winter set in.
If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?
Winter eats what summer provides.
2. When these nouns have a descriptive attribute the indefinite article is used:
We were having tea in my room on a cold January
afternoon.
But no article is used if these nouns are modified by such
adjectives as early, late, real, broad, high.
It was high noon. It was broad day.
It was early spring (late autumn, etc.).
3. The definite article may occur with such words if they are
clear from the situation, or context, or if there is some limitation.
We watched the sunrise from the balcony.
The evening was calm. The winter is severe this year.
It happened on the morning of April 12th.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
4. In some prepositional phrases either the definite article or
no article may be found.
1) the definite article is used in the following phrases:
in the morning, in the evening, in the daytime, in the
afternoon, in the night, in the winter, in the summertime.
2) no article is used with these nouns after the prepositions
at, by, about, past, before, after, towards, till (until):
at night, at dawn, by day, by night, by noon, by midnight, past noon, after sunset, till morning.
I had a class till noon. It became colder after sunset.
3) there is no article in the following phrases:
all day (long), all night (through); day after day; day in,
day out; from morning till night; (to work) day and night;
in the dead of night; in the dead of winter.
He worked demonically from dawn till late at night.
Danny practised keyboard exercises day and night.
But we say: all through the night; all through the day.
The Use of Articles
with Geographic(al) Names
1. Names of continents, countries, regions, cities, towns and villages are as a rule used without any article.
Australia, Europe, Russia, France, California, Siberia,
Moscow, Rome, Beijing, Yalta, Sosnovka, Sofrino.
But:
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
No article is used either when these nouns have such attributes as north(ern), south(ern), ancient, old, central.
North America, Southern France, Central America,
South-East Asia, Old England, Ancient Rome
Names of states including such common nouns as union,
kingdom, states, dominion, federation, republic, lands, are used
with the definite article.
the Soviet Union, the Union of South Africa,
the United Kingdom, the Russian Federation,
the Irish Republic, the Netherlands
The definite article is also used in abbreviations.
the USSR, the USA, the UK
2. Names of some regions are traditionally used with the definite article.
the Antarctic, the Crimea, the Caucasus, the Far East,
the Middle East, the Midlands, the Lake District, the
Ruhr, the Transvaal, the Riviera, the Tyrol, the Punjab, etc.
The following countries named after the corresponding regions, take no article:
the
the
the
the
the
Sudan (region) — Sudan (country)
Yemen — Yemen
Argentine — Argentina
Cameroon — Cameroon
Ivory Coast — Ivory Coast
The variant without the article is more widely used.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
3. Names of streets, parts of the city, squares, parks are generally used without any article.
Tverskaya Street, Regent Street, Oxford Street,
Broadway, Charing Cross Road, Park Lane,
Pennsylvania Avenue, Manezh Square, North London,
Trafalgar Square, Sokolniki Park, Hyde Park,
St. James’s Park
Names of streets modified by ordinal numerals take no article:
42nd Street, Fifty Eighth Street, Fifth Avenue,
15th Park Lane, etc.
But:
the Strand, the Mall, (the) Wall Street,
the Latin Quarter, the West End, the East End.
4. Names of oceans, seas, channels, canals, falls, rivers and
lakes usually take the definite article.
the Pacific (ocean), the Adriatic (sea),
the English Channel, the Panama Canal,
(the) Niagara Falls, the Volga, the Baikal, the Ontario,
the Moskva-River, the River Thames
When names of lakes are preceded by the noun lake
(which is often the case), no article is used.
Lake Baikal, Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake Balaton
5. Names of mountain chains and groups of islands are used
with the definite article.
the Rocky Mountains (the Rockies), the Himalayas,
the Alps, the Urals, the British Isles, the Philippines,
the Canaries, the Kuriles, the Bahamas, the Maldives
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Names of separate mountain peaks and separate islands are
used without any article.
But:
Etna, Vesuvius, Elbrus, Everest, Cuba, Cyprus,
Haiti, Fair Isle, Madagascar, Barbados,
Bermuda (but: the Bermuda Triangle)
the Isle of Man.
6. Names of bays and peninsulas take no article.
Hudson Bay, Mexican Bay, Kamchatka, Scandinavia,
Taimir
The definite article is used if the word “peninsula” itself is
used.
the Balkan Peninsula, the Kola Peninsula,
the Scandinavian Peninsula
7. Names of deserts generally take the definite article.
the Sahara Desert, the Gobi, the Kara-Kum,
the Kalahari
8. No article is used with the names of stations, airports and
bridges.
Victoria Station, Gatwick, Vnukovo Airport,
Tower Bridge, London Bridge, Krimsky Bridge
But:
the Brooklyn Bridge, the Bridge of Sighs.
9. Geographic names that generally don’t take any article may
be used:
1) with the definite article when there is a limiting attribute:
The Russia of the 21st century will be very different
from the Russia of the 20th century.
In “Ivanhoe” Walter Scott described the England of
the Middle Ages.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
The definite article is necessary, if a geographic name is in
the plural.
The two Americas have a great variety of climatic
zones.
Why have the winds of all the Russias blown into Jasper’s club?
The definite article is used in the combinations of the type:
the City of New York, the Cape of Good Hope,
the Lake of Geneva, the Village of Dubrovo.
2) with the indefinite article when there is a descriptive attribute, or if it is implied:
It was a new Russia that he found on his return.
There will always be an England for me.
They found themselves in a steel and concrete London.
The Use of Articles with Proper Names
1. There is no article with names of universities, colleges and
schools.
Moscow University, Oxford University, Trinity College,
King’s College, Heaton Manor School,
Salisbury Grammar School
2. Names of theatres, museums, picture galleries, concert halls,
cinemas, clubs and hotels are used with the definite article.
the Bolshoi Theatre, the Opera House,
the British Museum, the National Gallery, the Forum,
the Continental or (the) Continental Hotel
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
3. Names of famous trains, ships, yachts and boats are used
with the definite article.
the Orient Express, (the) Titanic, the Sedov,
the Beauty of the West, “the Magnolia”,
“the Beautiful Dreamer”
4. Names of English and American newspapers are generally
used with the definite article.
the Daily Telegraph, the Independent, the Times,
the Observer, the Financial Times, the Sun, the Star
Names of foreign newspapers take no article:
Le Monde, Moskovski Komsomolets,
Arguments and Facts
Names of magazines as a rule take no article (though it is
possible).
Times, House Beautiful, Punch, the Spectator,
Cosmopolitan, Newsweek, Vogue, Forum,
Computer Weekly, Hello!, Goal!
But:
The Yellow Pages, The Spectator,
The New Yorker.
5. Names of months and days of the week are usually used
without any article.
January, February, Monday, Tuesday
Compare: We met on Friday. (Ìû âñòðåòèëèñü â ïÿòíèöó
(ïðîøëóþ).
We met on a Friday. (Ìû âñòðåòèëèñü â îäíó
èç ïÿòíèö).
Last year my birthday fell on a Monday.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
6. Names of most organizations and political parties are used
with the definite article.
the
the
the
the
the
the
But:
Kremlin, the Senate, the Capitol, the Government,
United Nations, the State Duma, the Pentagon,
Navy, the Army, the Liberal Party,
London City Council, the FBI, the EC,
BBC, the World Bank, the Stock Exchange,
International Monetary Fund
Parliament, Congress, Whitehall, Downing Street.
7. Names of languages are used without any article unless the
noun “language” is mentioned.
English, French, Japanese
But:
the English (French, Japanese) language.
8. Names of sport events take the definite article.
the Olympic Games, the World Cup,
the World Championship
No article is used if a geographic name is used to indicate
some sport competition.
Wimbledon (tennis), Luzhniki (football),
Ascot and Epsom (horse races), Henley (rowing)
9. Names of musical groups are used with the definite article if the noun is in the plural.
the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, the Eurythmics,
the Supremes, the Cardigans
In other cases no article is used.
Queen, ABBA, Gorky Park, Genesis, A-Ha
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
10. Names of highways (motorways) and roads generally take
the definite article.
the Al, the M3, the New Seattle Highway
11. Names of internationally known prizes take the definite article.
the Nobel Prize, the Booker Prize, the Pulitzer Prize
My cousin Tom received the Nobel Prize for Literature.
Mother Teresa of Calcutta got the Templeton Prize
in 1973.
The Use of Articles with Names of Persons
1. Generally no article is used with names of persons as they
point out individuals.
Tom, Mary, Mrs. Wilson, Mr. Robinson, Ms. Loveday
No article is used either if names of persons are modified
by such descriptive attributes as little, old, dear, poor, honest,
with which they form close units.
Lucky Jim, Old Jolyon, Poor Smith, Dear Old Emily
2. The indefinite article is used to indicate one member of
a family or a certain person having the name in question.
She was a true Dobson. A Mr. Parker to see you, sir.
3. The definite article is used with a name in the plural to indicate the whole family, also if the noun has a limiting attribute.
the Forsytes, the Dobsons, the Peacocks, the Romanovs
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
— We met Michael Swan in London University. — Do
you mean the Michael Swan who wrote the book “How
English works”? — Exactly.
And just look at me now. I’m a completely different
person from the old Becky.
4. We find no article with the names of members of a family
(Mother, Father, Aunt, Uncle, Baby, Cook, Nurse, Grandmother) when they are treated as proper names by the members
of the family. In this case such nouns are usually written
with a capital letter.
Mother is still resting. Is Nurse back?
There is also no article with nouns in direct address:
— How is my wife, doctor?
— Don’t worry, sir, she’s fine.
Well, young man, how are things?
5. Sometimes names of persons change their meaning and become common countable nouns if:
1) the name of a scientist, painter, inventor or manufacturer is used to denote his work, a prize, or an award.
a Webster, a Goya, a Ford, a Faberge, an Oscar,
a Emmy
2) the characteristic qualities of the bearer of the name (but
not the person himself) are meant.
He is a typical Kazanova. You are a true Tarzan.
This fellow’s really a Jack-of-all trades.
Mozart was called the Raphael of music.
He had a talent to become a Dickens, a Henry James,
a Flaubert.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
6. If a personal name has a descriptive attribute, it takes an indefinite article to describe a temporary state or a new image of the person.
A scared Michelle opened the door.
A new Adrian Mole is emerging from the ashes.
The definite article is used with a personal name (having
a descriptive attribute) to describe a permanent state, or traits
of character.
Now she was playing the practical, sensible Cora, the
woman who always got things done.
Articles with Nouns in Apposition
1. As a rule, a countable noun in the singular in the function
of an apposition takes the indefinite article (its classifying
meaning is strongly felt in this case).
My friend, a student, joined the club.
“I’m sure you know Mr. Hard, a professor at McGill,”
she reminded.
Boris, a professional skateboarder, explained the rules.
2. The definite article is used with a noun in apposition when:
1) it refers to a well-known person:
Pushkin, the great Russian poet, was very fond of autumn.
2) it has a limiting attribute or is clear from the situation:
He left his coat on the table, the cashmere coat, which
he had bought in London.
It’s Mr. Hooks, the newspaper editor, he wants to see
you.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
3. If the apposition precedes the proper name, it takes the definite article.
the painter Turner, the composer Britten,
the student Ognev
4. Nouns in apposition are generally used without any article
if they denote a position, rank, state, post or occupation,
which is, as a rule, unique, and can be occupied by only one
person at a time. Here belong such nouns as: king, queen,
president, prime-minister, head, rector, director, dean, manager, chief, principal, etc. The noun in this case usually has
an “of-phrase” attribute.
His father was now President of the second largest
electronic corporation in the world.
Mr. Jackson, superintendant of the school, was an old man.
Mr. Dodson, director of the theatre, was an actor as well.
But we use the article to denote a person himself:
The Queen of the Netherlands visited Russia last year.
The Prime-Minister made an announcement yesterday.
The Dean has come. The President is in Japan now.
Compare the following:
Listen, Nigel. As long as Bruce is head of this company, he will handle all our top customers.
He’s still chairman. You see, as the managing director
of the firm, he has the last word.
5. When nouns denoting titles, military ranks or posts are followed by a proper name no article is used.
Doctor Watson, Professor Jones, Colonel Pickering,
Queen Elisabeth, King John, Princess Fiona,
Sir William, Admiral Nelson, Academician Vinogradov
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Articles with the Nouns
bed, school, town, college, hospital, jail, prison,
market, table
1. There are a number of countable nouns in English which
are often used without any article, as they change their
meanings and become uncountable and denote process rather than a concrete thing:
But:
to go to school — to study, to be in full-time education
to be in hospital — to be ill, to be a patient
to send someone to prison — to imprison a person for
doing something wrong
to go to bed — to go to sleep
to go to church — to go to pray
to be at table — to have some meal
to be at the table — to study, to write or to read
something.
2. When these nouns denote concrete objects (buildings) they
can take either article.
Compare:
He was sent to prison for five years (= he was a prisoner).
She went to the prison to visit John (= the building is
meant).
Compare also:
The shabby-looking man said he had just got out of
prison. Though it was quite a normal prison, he said
that still prison is prison.
A new church was built nearby.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
He sat up on the side of the bed.
Library books are not to be taken outside the school.
Life in a provincial town was unbearable for him.
There is a new hospital in (the) town, not far from the
church.
Let’s put the coffee table opposite the bed.
There is a church in Suzdal, which I especially like.
My friend works at a paediatrics hospital.
The noun “town” used in prepositional phrases, doesn’t take
any article when it denotes the nearest big centre of population as opposed to “the country”. (Also when the town we
live in is meant).
I’ll be out of town next week. We had lunch in town.
In winter we prefer to live in town, not in the country.
The Use of Articles
in With-, Like-, In-phrases
1. A countable noun in the singular generally takes the indefinite article in adverbial and attributive phrases, introduced
by the conjunctions:
1) In:
But:
in a hurry, in a whisper, in a loud (low) voice
in loud voices
2) With: with a look (nod, smile, yawn)
3) Like: She swims like a fish. She sings like a bird.
He works like a demon. He sleeps like a log.
It seems like a dream.
They are like a cat with a mouse.
He lives like a rolling stone.
But: They behave like children.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
4) As:
She was as happy as a lark.
She was as pretty as a calendar picture.
He was as busy as a bee.
It was as light as a feather.
That was as easy as falling off a log.
A change is as good as a rest.
He felt as nervous as a kitten.
2. No article is used in the phrases if the noun is uncountable.
in (with) surprise, in (with) anger, in fury
It was as black as night. She was as white as snow.
It was as green as grass. It was as soft as butter.
The Use of Articles in and with Of-phrases
Depending on the context or situation the of-phrase may be
either descriptive or limiting to the head-noun.
1. The definite article is used with the head noun if this head
noun denotes part of the whole, expressed by the of-phrase.
the
the
the
the
the
top of a/the hill, the bottom of a/the lake,
end/beginning of a/the story,
figure (profile, shadow, face) of a/the man,
roof of a/the house,
middle (depth, width) of a/the river
2. If the noun in the of-phrase is used in a general sense (in
the plural mostly) it takes no article. The head noun may
take either article. The definite article is used according to
the situation, the indefinite one expresses oneness.
a/the set of stories
a/the box of matches
a/the party of people
a/the box of sweets
a/the flock of birds
a/the team of players
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
3. If the noun in the of-phrase is a material or an abstract
one, no article is used with it, and the head noun may be
used either with the indefinite or with the definite article.
a/the
a/the
a/the
a/the
a/the
stick of chalk
block of ice
article of furniture
heap of rubbish
sense of humour
a/the
a/the
a/the
a/the
a/the
bar of chocolate
item of news
strip of land
word of advice
breath of air
The Use of Articles with Some Set-Phrases
and Free Combinations
1. No article is used in set-phrases with the prepositions from…
to, in which we find two different nouns:
from head to foot, from top to toe, from start to finish,
from top to bottom, from beginning to end.
2. We find no article in set-phrases with the same noun connected by different prepositions:
hand in hand, arm in arm, shoulder to shoulder,
word for word, side by side, face to face, step by step,
line by line, day after day, night after night,
year after year.
3. The article is not used in free combinations in which the
same noun is repeated after the prepositions from… to:
from tree to tree, from street to street,
from term to term, from word to word,
from day to day.
The number of nouns thus used is practically unlimited.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
4. There is generally no article with homogeneous parts of
a sentence going in pairs:
Horse and rider; Husband and wife;
Lock and key; Mother and child.
5. A considerable number of nouns have no article when they
are used in adverbial prepositional phrases:
by
by
by
on
on
tube, by train, by plane, by boat, by bus,
air (sea), by post, by accident, by chance,
mistake, at hand, at home, off hand, in person,
deck, on foot, on tiptoes, at sea, on hand, on leave,
business, on holiday.
The Adjective
1. The adjective is a part of speech which modifies the noun.
Adjectives can express qualities (large, modern, quiet), physical and emotional states (cold, busy, friendly, happy), origin
(American, Asian), opinions (excellent, fantastic, cool), frequency (weekly, daily, regular).
According to their morphological composition adjectives can
be simple (young, new, fresh), derived (careful, woody, rainy),
compound (well-known, much-praised, man-made).
All adjectives fall into two groups — qualitative and relative. Qualitative adjectives denote properties of a substance directly (great, calm, gold, beautiful). Relative adjectives describe
properties of a substance through relation to some material
(woollen, wooden, golden, cotton, glass, plastic, metal), to place
(Italian, European), to time (ancient, contemporary).
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Compare:
Sun eclipses are rare. Sunny weather makes me happy.
This gold watch is a piece of art. Everybody admires
her golden hair.
This is the golden age of communications.
When two or more adjectives come before a noun, the usual word order is:
Opinion-Value-Size-Age-Shape-Colour-Origin-Material-Temperature
a pretty little wooden house (value + size + material)
a beautiful old red London bus (value + age + colour
+ origin)
This word order is not compulsory. Sometimes a short adjective comes before a long one:
a soft, comfortable chair; a happy, peaceful home;
a tall, handsome man; a bright, cheerful smile.
The adjective big generally comes before value adjectives:
a big bad wolf, a big tall building,
a big handsome man, a big fat woman.
2. Adjectives are used in the sentence in the functions of an
attribute or of a predicative:
He always drinks cold milk. He was cold and miserable.
Adjectives denoting temporary states are used only predicatively: ill, well, unwell; as well as adjectives with the prefix -a:
afraid, alike, alive, alone, asleep, awake, aware (of), ashamed.
She doesn’t look very well today.
— I feel faint. — Are you ill?
We are aware that he is ashamed.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
In the figurative meaning the adjective ill can be used attributively.
A March wind is an ill wind, my mother used to say.
It happened by ill luck that she was out.
Did you get any ill effects after the operation?
3. Adjectives have degrees of comparison: the comparative and
the superlative degrees. The adjective expressing some quality without comparison is said to be in the positive degree.
An equal or an unequal degree is expressed with the help
of the conjunctions: as … as, not as (so) … as, twice as … as,
three times as … as, etc.
There’s nothing harder than to apologize.
“Sorry” is the hardest word.
She is as old as I am.
He is not as clever as he seems to be.
This dictionary is twice as expensive as that one.
The atmosphere at home is as thick as treacle.
The comparative and the superlative degrees of comparison
are formed in the synthetic, analytic and suppletive ways.
The synthetic degrees of comparison are formed by adding
the inflections -er, -est (fine — finer — finest) to the adjectives having one or two syllables.
Will it be warmer or colder tomorrow?
The grass is greener, the sky is bluer, the birds are
tweetier after my recovery.
It was the greatest day in his life.
Kids always say the funniest things.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
The analytic degrees are formed by means of “more” and
“most” (difficult — more difficult — most difficult).
It’s a difficult question, the second one is more difficult, but the third one is the most difficult.
Some adjectives can form their degrees of comparison in
both ways. Here belong: angry, clever, common, cruel, friendly,
gently, handsome, narrow, pleasant, polite, quiet, simple.
It can be presented in the following table:
Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives
The form
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
Synthetic
nice
nicer
nicest
(one/two
syllables)
hot
hotter
hottest
long
longer
longest
happy
happier
happiest
-er
-est
Analytical
interesting
more interesting
most interesting
(three or more
syllables)
beautiful
more beautiful
most beautiful
comfortable
more comfortable
most comfortable
serious
more serious
most serious
more
most
Some adjectives can have either form. Compare: angry, clever, common, cruel,
friendly, gentle, handsome, narrow, pleasant, polite, quiet, simple.
simple
handsome
66
simpler
simplest
more simple
most simple
handsomer
handsomest
more handsome
most handsome
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Several adjectives form their degrees of comparison irregularly, in the suppletive way when some other words are used
to build up the forms.
good — better — best
bad — worse — worst
little — less — least
many — more — most
I’m sure it’s a better way out.
You’re the best of the very best.
We all start off with the best intentions in life.
This furniture takes less space.
He is the least sociable person at the office.
Suppletive Adjectives
(formed from different words)
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
good
better
best
bad
worse
worst
little
less
least
many
more
most
It’s a good day today.
The weather is better
today.
It’s the best day in the
whole summer.
He made little progress
in his studies.
He spends less time
on his studies this year.
He has made the least
progress in the group.
She said goodbye to her
many friends.
She had more friends
than we expected her
to have.
Most shops will be open
at this time.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Double Degrees of Comparison
later (более поздний)
late (поздний)
the latter (the former)
(«последний из двух
перечисленных»
the latest (последний,
самый новый)
last («прошлый»
во времени)
the last («последний»
по порядку)
Let’s go by a later train. I usually watch the latest news. I met Max and Henry in
the street. The former («первый») said “Hello”, but the latter («последний») didn’t
recognize me. Last year we went to the Crimea. Read the last sentence, please.
near («близкий»)
nearer
(«более
близкий»)
nearest («ближайший»
в значении «расстояния»
в прямом и переносном
смысле)
next («следующий»
по времени)
(the) next («следующий»
по порядку)
Let’s sit nearer to the stage. We can have a snack in the nearest cafe. What are
your nearest plans? I’ll see Ann next week. The next stop is yours.
Обе формы обозначают расстояние:
far
(«дальний»,
«далекий»)
farther
(«более дальний»)
farthest
(«самый дальний»)
further
(«дальнейший»,
«последующий»)
furthest
(«самый дальний»)
He went farther (further) into the wood. They sat at the farthest (furthest) table.
We are waiting for further instructions. There was no further comment.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû
old («старый»)
older («старше
по возрасту»
oldest («самый старший»
по возрасту)
elder («старший» —
родственные
отношения)
eldest («самый старший»
по положению)
Mary is three years older than Peter. He is the oldest of the five children. Boris is
my elder brother. Andrew is very young, but he is the eldest at our office.
Compare the following:
This country is no further (or farther) by sea than by
land.
I have nothing further to say. No further comment.
Note 1. When you compare one thing or person to other members of the group, you should use the words other or
else with the comparative degree. Thus you can’t say,
“You are smarter than any person in this room”. You
must say, “You are smarter than any other person (or
anyone else) in this class.”
Remember, that when you compare two things, you must
use the comparative degree, when you compare three or more
things, you should use the superlative degree.
Both examples are good, but I think that the first
one is better (two examples are compared).
All the examples are good, but I think that the first
one is the best (you compare several examples).
Compare also:
Of Orwell’s two satires, I think “Animal Farm” is the
better.
“Animal Farm” is the best of Orwell’s works.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Note 2. Some adjectives called absolute adjectives, describe
qualities which mean 100 percent of the quality involved. Thus they can’t be used in the comparative
or in the superlative degree:
middle, dead, immaculate, pregnant, supreme, left, empty, perfect, square, round, wooden, medical, full, perpendicular, unique.
For example, a glass of water can not be fuller or fullest or
most full.
We can show the difference in degrees by using such words
as almost or nearly.
The flowers are nearly dead from the cold.
Those over there are almost dead.
Note 3. Compound adjectives form their degrees in the following ways:
well-off — better-off — best-off
well-read — better-read — best-read
well-known — better-known — best-known
good-natured — better-natured — best-natured
fine-looking — finer-looking — finest-looking
light-minded — lighter-minded — lightest-minded
strong-willed — stronger-willed — strongest-willed
You can also say:
or:
He is more well-read than I am.
More so than I am.
Note 4. Remember the adjectives ending in “-ly”:
daily practice
friendly people
a lively child
a homely dog
an early bird
a lovely time
What started as a weekly ritual soon became almost
a daily one.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
A diary is a book in which people may keep a dailyweekly-monthly record of important events in their
lives.
Intensification of the Degrees of Comparison
of Adjectives
1) The Positive degree can be intensified with the help of such
words as ever so, this, that, dead, pretty, most to express
a high or a very high degree of quality, but not the highest.
The film is ever so interesting.
“I didn’t expect your blood pressure to be this high,”
said the doctor.
It wasn’t going to be that simple.
Listen, I am dead serious about it.
My salary is pretty laughable, but I like the job.
It’s a most puzzling crossword.
Mind, it’s most urgent.
2) The Comparative degree can be made more emphatic with
the help of repetition, also by the use of the words no, far,
much, a great deal, a lot, etc.
The sooner the better. The less said, the better.
The more I think about it, the less it makes sense.
The less money we have, the less we spend.
The more original a discovery, the more obvious it
seems afterwards.
Life would be far better if everyone could simply do
their jobs properly.
Fred had hardly disappeared when someone far less
welcome turned up.
I find it a lot easier to travel when you know languages.
Your offer is much (a great deal, far) better than Alex’s.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
3) The Superlative degree of adjectives can sometimes be intensified by very, by far, also by means of adjectives like
possible, desirable, available, imaginable.
These are my very best impressions.
She is by far the best teacher we have.
This is the fastest car available.
It’s the best way out possible.
Problem Adjectives
There are some adjectives which present considerable difficulties for English language learners. To the most confusing
ones belong:
historic
great, important events,
changes, decisions
1
historical
connected with history,
part of it
The discovery of penicillin was a historic event.
They played their part in the historical process.
It was a historic change for the country.
It is documented in the historical
archives.
Man’s flight into the cosmos was a historic event.
These are manuscripts of historical
interest.
Historical (or historic) books, pictures, etc., describe people, things, or situations that existed in the past: historical novels, a historical representation of
the war, actors in historical costumes, the play now has historic rather than
aesthetic merit, historical methods.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû
2
classic
classical
something of a very high quality,
or standard, a very good example
of a style, a book, a movement,
a piece of art, etc.
something traditional
in style, form, or content
London is the classic example
of a scattered city.
Classical music is music that is considered to be serious and
of lasting value.
This statement was a classic illustration of British politeness.
Ancient Greek and Roman classical
plays are never off the stage.
I prefer the classic style in architecture.
She is studying classical languages
(Arabic).
economic
economical
connected with economics
using little of money, time, effort,
language, etc.
It was a period of economic crisis.
3
We offer tuition in classical ballet.
The country is facing great economic
difficulties.
What has gone wrong with the economic system of the country?
She’s a very economical housewife.
This car is very economical.
It needs little petrol.
She spoke in short, economical
sentences.
For the use of the adjectives of the kind:
synthetic(al), analytic(al), electric(al), music(al) consult a reliable dictionary.
Substantivized Adjectives
Adjectives can often become substantivized (become nouns).
In such cases they are either wholly (fully), or partially substantivized.
I. Wholly substantivized adjectives (converted into nouns) acquire all the features of nouns: number, case, articles. They
denote:
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
1) Class nouns: a relative, a native, a savage, a criminal,
a white, a black, a romantic, a cynic, a hopeful, a liberal,
a conservative, a radical, a weekly, a daily, a monthly,
a classic, a comic, etc.
a native — natives — the natives’ huts
a relative — relatives — the relative’s visit
I’m a romantic by nature.
“Swan Lake” has become a universal classic, though its
first performance in 1877 was a flop.
At school we read mostly “Enjoyable classics”.
Almost a hundred hopefuls stood in a queue outside
the theatre.
You’re an incurable romantic, that’s what you are.
2) Names of some nationalities: a Russian, an American,
a German, an Italian, a Greek.
a Greek — Greeks — the Greek’s cooking
Here also belong names of languages: English, Russian, German, French, etc.
Russian is a much more difficult language than English.
There are so many Englishes in the world.
But:
the English language, the Russian language.
3) Names of colours.
Black suits you best. I like bottle green.
The girl was dressed in red.
Substantivized adjectives are often used to denote shades
(tints) of colour.
The picture was in greens and blues and the most glorious of yellows.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Her hair was a glossy black.
The green of the leaves looked fresh.
The sky was a pale blue, the sea was a steel grey.
II. Partially substantivized adjectives and Participles II take
only one feature of the noun, mostly the definite article.
They denote:
1) All the persons possessing some common quality or feature as a group, but not as separate individuals.
the old, the young, the dead, the dumb, the rich, the
poor, the civilized, the cultured, the privileged, the chosen,
the wealthy, the homeless, the needy, the desperate, the
hungry, the wounded, the unemployed, etc.
Robin Hood took the money from the rich and gave it
to the needy.
The cheerful live longest in years. The strongest survive.
He honoured the wise, the witty, and the wealthy.
I, Adrian Mole, have read most of the Russian Greats
and am about to embark on “War and Peace”.
If you want to denote an individual, use the nouns man,
woman, person or people: an old man, deaf and dumb people,
a wealthy person, etc.
Note: two partially substantivized short adjectives connected
by “and” generally have no article.
Old and young came to the celebration.
But articles cannot be omitted in titles of books, films, etc.
Last year I saw a few serials: “The Rich and the Famous”, “The Bold and the Beautiful”, “The Cool”,
“The Charmed”.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
I have in my library such books as “The Insulted and
Humiliated”, “The Possessed” by F. Dostoevsky, “The
Miserable” by V. Hugo, “The Red and the Black” by
Stendhal.
2) Names of nations ending in -sh, -ch, -ss which require
the definite article to denote the whole nation: the French,
the Irish, the Spanish, the Swiss, etc.
The English are proud of their police.
The Dutch are famous for their tulips.
If separate members of the nation are meant, the nouns
man and woman or people are used:
an Englishman, a Frenchwoman, English people.
3) Abstract notions: the beautiful, the unbelievable, the mystic, the mysterious, the supernatural, the impossible, the
cool, the cold, the dark, the good, the bad, the immediate,
the unknown, etc.
She dreamed of the impossible. We got lost in the dark.
The unexpected is always frightening.
If only the impossible became the possible.
Hemingway wrote: “I can tell the bad from the good.”
4) Adjectives are substantivized in the following prepositional set-phrases: in the negative (positive, affirmative), to
the quick, in the open, on the whole, in the main, in short,
in general, to get the better of something, a change for the
better (for the worse), for the best of, not in the least, all
of a sudden, out of the blue, to leave for good, for smb’s
own good, to be in the dark, to do smth for the good of…,
to the full, etc.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
The Numeral
I. The numeral is a part of speech denoting number or order.
Numerals may be used in the sentence in the function of:
1. an attribute
Ten people are wanted for the job.
The second song was a great hit.
2. a predicative
My son is twenty and my daughter is twenty-two.
3. the subject, an object or an adverbial modifier when substantivized.
Seven is a lucky number.
The two left the office early.
We often invited them to make a four at tennis.
I am teaching the child to count by tens.
II. Numerals fall into cardinals and ordinals.
1. Cardinal numerals are used in counting and answer the
question “How many?”
She has three questions to ask.
He caught four fish yesterday.
There are ten students in my class. John has two cars.
All cardinal numerals may become substantivized and turn
into nouns.
Take this actress. At sixty seven she’s still a size eight.
The four played a game of cards.
Hundreds went to the show.
Hundreds of millions of pounds were lost.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Mind that if the numerals hundred, thousand, million are
modified by another numeral, they take no plural ending.
Compare:
five hundreds of people – five hundred people
three thousands of children – three thousand children
two millions of citizens – two million citizens
An average Hollywood film costs $27 million to make.
We count: by tens, by hundreds, by thousands, also by the
hundred, by the thousand.
The child learned to count by tens.
Cops were walking in twos and threes.
Remember the following idioms with numerals:
to be dressed to the nines, to be on cloud nine (with joy,
happiness), to be in seventh heaven, to be at sixes and sevens…,
on all fours.
The children crawled up the steps on all fours.
She was dressed to the nines, yes, she was dressed to
kill.
I am at sixes and sevens with the world.
The room is at sixes and sevens.
2. Ordinal numerals denote order or position and answer the
question “Which?”
Most of them are formed from cardinal numerals by means
of the suffix -th (sixth, seventh, etc.), except first, second, and
third.
Ordinal numerals which modify nouns are usually preceded
by the definite article:
The distance is nothing; it is only the first step that is
difficult.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
She answered on the first ring.
Character consists of what you do on the third and
fourth tries.
Compare the following:
text one
page two
note three
test four
the
the
the
the
first text
second page
third note
fourth test
The indefinite article may also be used with the ordinal numeral. In such cases the meaning will be “an additional one”,
“one more”.
He opened a second beer.
She accepted the offer without a second thought.
Soon I’ll start learning a second foreign language.
You are like a second family to me.
This report offers a third way out of the crisis.
She is learning to dress like a first lady.
As he says, he is a fourth-generation cop.
Remember some set phrases of the kind: a first night, a first
love, a first-class college, a second-rate stamp, a first step, etc.
The young people met at a first night of “Hamlet”.
A first love is never forgotten.
She had a curious sixth sense about men.
Mine is a third-generation computer.
III. Fractional numbers.
In fractional numbers the numerator is a cardinal numeral
and the denominator is an ordinal (used as a noun):
two-thirds, three-sixths.
Decimal fractions: 1.62 = one, point six, two.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
IV. The spoken forms of 0 are:
1. nought
([nɔːt])
2. zero
(['zɪərəʊ])
3. Î ([əʊ])
4. nil or nothing
used in mathematics — 0.7 = nought
point seven
.07 = point nought seven
used in science, for example, in temperatures — –15 C = minus fifteen degrees
or fifteen degrees below zero
used in telephone numbers —
01–500–3026 = î one — five double î —
three î two six
used in scores in such games as football — 2 : 0 = the score was two nothing
or two nil
V. 1. Books use various numbering systems, including Roman numerals: I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, etc.
for 1–10.
2. M = 1000, D = 500, C = 100, L = 50, X = 10, V = 5,
I = 1.
3. Dates on monuments are also sometimes written in Roman, e. g. 1985 would be MCMLXXXV, where M = 1000
(CM = 1000 – 100 = 900), L = 50, XXX = 30 (i. e. 3*10),
and V = 5.
Note: a) In writing, spell out cardinal and ordinal numerals
that can be written in one or two words. Always spell
out numerals that open the sentence.
There were twenty pages in the essay. (not 20)
Five hundred and seventy people attended the conference. (not 570 …)
b) Remember the punctuation marks when writing a
sum of money: $2, 123.56.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Fractional Numbers and Percentages
половина
1
/2
a half*
треть
1
/3
a third
четверть
1
/4
a quarter
одна пятая
1
/5
one fifth
три четверти
3
/4
three quarters
две трети
2
/3
two thirds
полтора (полторы)
1 1/2
one and a half
один и три четверти
1 3/4
one and three quarters
ноль целых (и) пять десятых
0.5
nought point five
одна целая семьдесят пять сотых
1.75
one point seven five
двадцать шесть процентов
26%
twenty-six per cent
*Ho: half an hour, half an apple
The Pronoun
The Pronoun is a part of speech which points out things and
qualities of things without naming them directly like nouns and
adjectives do. Pronouns have a very general, relative character.
Everyone can use the pronoun I and it will denote different
people; the pronoun you denotes a person spoken to; the pronouns he, she, it denote people or objects being discussed. Due
to their general and relative character pronouns are widely
used in different languages as stand-ins (substitutes) for nouns.
In the English language pronouns function either as nouns
or as adjectives and can be classified into noun-pronouns and
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
adjective-pronouns. Noun-pronouns can have the function of
the subject, object, and of the predicative in the sentence.
I am a student. (subject)
It’s me. (predicative)
Explain it to me. (object)
Tom should do it. (object)
Adjective-pronouns can’t function independently, they modify the nouns they are used with.
My life is hard, but still this is my life.
I like some pop-music.
I don’t like any rock music.
Some pronouns have gender, case and number.
Gender:
he — masculine
she — feminine
it — neuter
they — refers to all of them
in the plural
Case: only personal pronouns have cases — the Nominative
Case and the Objective Case.
I — me, he — him, she — her, they — them
Number in the system of pronouns can be expressed in different ways:
I — we; he, she, it — they;
this — these; that — those;
one — ones; other — others;
yourself — yourselves.
Some pronouns are always singular in meaning (each, every, (a) little, much, everything, something, nothing). Others
are only plural (many, (a) few, both, several). Many pronouns
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
have one form for the singular and for the plural meaning
(any, some, who, which).
All is well. But: Everybody is here.
Who is this boy? Who are those girls?
Pronouns are very numerous. According to their meaning
all pronouns fall into the following groups:
1. Personal:
I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
2. Possessive:
me, your, his, her, its, our, your, their
mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs
3. Demonstrative:
it, this, these, that, those, same, such
4. Interrogative:
who (whom), whose, which, what (in questions)
5. Relative:
who (whom), whose, which, that (in attributive clauses)
6. Conjunctive:
who (whom), whose, which, what (in different subordinate
clauses)
7. Self-pronouns:
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
8. Reciprocal:
each other, one another
9. Negative:
no, nobody (no one), none, nothing (in negative sentences)
10. Indefinite:
some, any, no (and their compounds), all, both, each,
every (and its compounds), other, another, one, much,
many, (a) little, (a) few
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Personal Pronouns
Personal Pronouns have two cases — the Nominative Case
and the Objective Case.
Nominative Case
Objective Case
I
he
she
it
we
you
me
him
her
it
us
you
they
them
He sang only to her and only for her.
When a personal pronoun is a subject, or a predicative of
the sentence, it is used in the Nominative Case in official, formal style.
The chairman and I were the speakers that day.
It was they who founded the society.
In informal, colloquial style the use of the objective case of
the personal pronoun has become standard in Modern English.
That’s her. It was them.
Hello, is that me you are looking for?
The Objective Case of the personal pronoun is used after
such prepositions as between, up, but (in the meaning of except), except, without.
The secret was between Bob and me.
It’s up to them, not to us.
He said he would never marry any other woman but her.
But for him, we would not know what to do.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
If the pronoun follows than or as we can use me, him, etc.
(informal style) or I, he, etc. with a verb (more formal). Also in
short answers. Compare:
Informal
More Formal
“I’m scared.” “Me too.”
“I’m scared.” “I am too/So am I.”
“Who’s calling?” “Him.”
“Who is calling?” “He is.”
She’s as intelligent as him.
She is as intelligent as he is.
He is a quicker learner than me.
He is a quicker learner than I am.
We get more money than them.
We get more money than they do.
Possessive Pronouns
The Possessive Pronouns have two forms — the Conjoint
Form and the Absolute Form.
Possessive Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
the Conjoint Form
(pronoun + noun)
the Absolute Form
(pronoun — no noun)
I
you
he
she
it
we
they
my
your
his
her
its
our
their
mine
yours
his
hers
—
ours
theirs
I have a disk.
It’s my disk.
The disk is mine.
They build a house.
— Is it their house?
— No, theirs is new.
She has a friend.
Tim is her friend.
Tim is a friend of hers.
It is an old city.
Moscow is proud of its history.
He wrote a test.
His mark was good.
It’s my paper, not his.
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АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
The conjoint form of the pronoun is always followed by
a noun.
Your idea is interesting. His hair is black and shiny.
My mother used to say that in every story there is always her side, his side, and the truth.
The absolute form is used absolutely, without any noun and
may have different functions in the sentence.
He is a big fan of hers.
I like that idea of yours. The car is not his, it’s theirs.
You know that what’s mine is yours.
You scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours.
Ñâîäíàÿ òàáëèöà
ëè÷íûõ è ïðèòÿæàòåëüíûõ ìåñòîèìåíèé
Personal
Possessive
the Nominative
Case
the Objective
Case
the Conjoint
Form
the Absolute
Form
I
you
he
she
it
we
you
they
me
you
him
her
its
us
you
them
my
your
his
her
its
our
your
their
mine
yours
his
hers
—
ours
yours
theirs
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns have number — the singular and
the plural.
this — these, that — those
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The general demonstrative meaning of these pronouns is
near and distant reference in time and space.
This/these identify something near to the speaker, they are
associated with “here”.
That/those identify something farther from the speaker;
they are associated with “there”.
this room — that house; this year — that day
these rooms — those houses; these years — those days
Singular
Plural
Remember:
this (этот, эта, это)
that (тот, та, то)
this week, this year,
that week, that year,
this file, this method
that file, that method
these (эти)
those (те)
these weeks, these years,
those weeks, those years,
these files, these methods
those files, those methods
— I’m sorry to trouble you. — That’s all right.
— Are you Mr. Grant? — Yes, that’s right.
— Hello, this is Olga. Is that Julia? (в телефонных разговорах)
Indefinite Pronouns
all
any
another
both
each
either
every
nothing
no
none
other/s
one
plenty
several
some
many
much
(a) little
(a) few
a lot of
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Some, Any, No and their Compounds
The pronouns some and any (when used both as noun-pronouns and as adjective-pronouns) indicate indefinite qualities
and quantities. Both can be used with all classes of nouns in
the singular and in the plural.
Some (something, somebody, someone)
any (anything, anybody, anyone)
no (nothing, nobody, no-one)
some,
something,
somebody (= someone)
any,
anything,
anybody (= anyone)
no,
nothing,
nobody (= no-one)
несколько, некоторое количество, что-то, кто-то
Affirmative sentences
There are some good
dictionaries in the shop.
Interrogative and
Negative sentences
Are there any good
dictionaries in the shop?
There aren’t any good
dictionaries in the shop.
He brought some news.
Did he bring any news?
Negative sentences
There are no good
dictionaries in the shop.
(более категорично)
He brought no news.
He didn’t bring any news.
There is something new
for me in this article.
Is there anything new
for you in this article?
There is nothing new for
me in this article.
There isn’t anything new
for me in this article.
Someone knows his
address.
88
Does anyone know his
address?
Nobody knows his
address.
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû
Affirmative sentences
Interrogative and
Negative sentences
Negative sentences
Remember:
Any in these cases means
«любой», «кто-либо»,
«все, что угодно».
Some is used when you
offer or ask for something.
Any child likes toys.
Would you like some
juice?
We are interested
in any information.
I can give you anything
you need.
If anyone calls, tell me
about it.
If she wants anything,
she’ll get it.
— Is anything the matter?
— Nothing is the matter.
No news is good news.
Will you have some more
salad?
Can I have some tea,
please?
Could you lend me some
money?
1) Some usually expresses an indefinite number or amount
or indefinite quality.
I picked some apples from our tree.
Now we shall order some nice food.
You must think of some plan.
It happened some ten years ago.
As a rule, some is used in affirmative sentences. In interrogative and negative sentences the pronouns any or no are
used. However, some remains in interrogative and negative
sentences when the question or negation does not concern the
part of the sentence containing “some”.
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Can I offer you some tea?
Shall we invite some of your friends too?
I could not find some of my books.
Not all your answers are correct. Some are, some aren’t.
2) Any is used in interrogative and negative sentences instead
of “some”. Any may be used as an adverbial modifier of degree in the sentence.
Is there any way out? There can’t be any.
He isn’t any better today.
Any in affirmative sentences means “it does not matter
who, what or which” and corresponds to the Russian «ëþáîé,
âñÿêèé, êàêîé óãîäíî».
Come any day you like. Any child knows it.
“What book shall I give you?” — “Any will do.”
The Pronoun One
The pronoun one is used only with countable nouns and has
the plural form — ones and the possessive case — one’s.
The pronoun one is used:
a) to stand for people:
One should be careful in such matters.
One can do well in college if one budgets time carefully.
b) to express some vague time:
One day I’ll tell you my secret.
I dream that one day trains will run on time.
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c) to avoid the repetition of the same noun (as a word-substitute):
My house is the first one on the left.
He had perfect white teeth like the ones in a toothpaste advertisement.
— How are your little ones? — They are very fine.
d) with the meaning of “only” or “single”:
Your father is the one man to help me.
This is the one way to do it.
The Pronouns A Lot Of, Much and Many
Much means “a large amount” and modifies only uncountable nouns.
I haven’t much time to spare.
You needn’t bring much luggage.
Many means “a large number” and modifies only countable
nouns in the plural.
He has many friends here.
You haven’t made many mistakes this time.
Much and many are used mainly in interrogative and negative sentences and in object clauses introduced by “if” or
“whether”.
Did you have much rain on your holiday?
She hasn’t very much advice to give him.
I wonder if many people will come to the party.
In present-day English a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a great
deal of, a large number of, a good many, a great many replace
much and many in affirmative sentences.
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A lot of is used with both countable and uncountable nouns,
but only in affirmative sentences.
I have a lot of work to do this week.
I have a lot of things to do today.
There is a lot of snow in the forest.
There are a lot of icicles on the roofs.
I know lots of girls who go out dancing every Saturday.
A great many mistakes have been made by nearly everybody.
Much and many can be used in affirmative sentences:
a) when they are used as subjects or modify the subject of the
sentence:
Much depends on what he will say.
Many think things will improve.
Many people think the same.
b) when much is used alone as a noun-pronoun in the function
of an object.
My father meant so much to me.
I would give much to know what the matter is.
c) when much and many are modified by such adverbs of degree, as so, too, as and how.
We’ve got too many things to do today.
Sorry, I’ve given you so much trouble.
The pronouns much and many have degrees of comparison:
much
many
92
}
more — most
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
The task is more or less clear to me.
Karl asked me many more questions about school.
She has much more time this year than she had last
year.
Eventually you’ll get more and more computer wise.
The Pronouns (A) Few, (A) Little
The pronouns (a) little and (a) few are used as noun-pronouns and as adjective-pronouns.
Much was said but little was done. (noun-pronoun)
We have little time this week. (adjective-pronoun)
Few will deny such an evident fact. (noun-pronoun)
I have very few regrets about it. (adjective-pronoun)
Little means “a small amount” and is used with uncountable nouns.
Few means “a small number” and is used with countable
nouns in the plural.
I know little of his life.
Few people can face it.
Both little and few have a negative implication — they
mean “not enough”.
Few people would agree to that.
We have little water.
A little and a few have a positive meaning. They mean
“some, though not much/many”.
He earns a little money and can live quite comfortably
on it.
You should have a few things with you.
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Compare:
I know little about painting (= almost nothing).
I know a little about painting (= something).
There is little change in her. (= almost no change)
There is a little change in her. (= some change)
He has few friends here. (= almost none)
He has a few friends here. (=some friends)
(A) Few, (A) Little
Countable Nouns
Uncountable Nouns
a few (= some, several)
«несколько»
a little (= some)
«немного»
He made a few mistakes in his speech.
Let’s discuss them.
I’ve got a little free time now. I can
speak to you.
Tell us a few words about your trip.
There is a little snow in the forest.
We can go skiing.
few (not many)
«мало»
little (not much)
«мало»
He made few mistakes in his paper and
got a good mark.
I’ve got little free time now. I can’t
speak to you.
Few people know about it.
There is little snow in the forest.
We can’t go skiing.
Remember: (a) few, (a) little are not used in negative sentences, not many, not
much are used instead
He didn’t make many mistakes in his
paper.
I don’t have much free time now.
There isn’t much snow in the forest.
Not many people know about it.
Little and few have degrees of comparison:
little — less — least
few — fewer — fewest
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The procedure took less time than we expected.
Please make less noise.
This child gives us the least trouble.
He is the last but not the least important student here.
There were fewer people at the library today.
I do believe that if you use your brains, you will make
fewer stupid mistake.
Who has made the fewest mistakes?
The Negative Pronoun No
and the Negative Particle Not
The pronoun no is used as an attribute with all classes of
nouns both in the singular and in the plural and it’s the only
modifier of the noun, which does not require either an article
or an indefinite pronoun after it. Compare:
No drum was heard. — Not a sound came.
No trees could be seen. — Not a leaf stirred.
I will give you no trouble. — Not a soul in sight.
The pronoun no means “not… a”, when modifying a countable noun in the singular.
I’ve no pen with me. = I haven’t a pen with me.
It means “not… any” when modifying a countable noun in
the plural or some uncountable nouns.
I saw no children in the park. = I didn’t see any children in the park.
We had no sugar. = We didn’t have any sugar.
No is usually preferable before the subject:
There was no table in the room.
No stars could be seen. There are no comments.
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Every, Each
These pronouns refer to the individual members of a group
and combine only with singular countable nouns. Each stresses
the separate individual, every the individual as a member of
the group.
Every rose has a thorn.
I enjoyed every minute of every day in my life.
The book is divided into three parts. Each part consists
of five chapters.
Each of us faces a choice sooner or later.
Compare the examples in which every points out characteristics common for all the members of the group, while each
describes them individually.
Every teacher should approach each student as an individual.
Every girl wants to get married; each has her own ideal.
Every child got a present. Each got what he had wanted.
1) Every occurs in the following combinations:
COUNTABLE NOUN in the singular
Every +
ONE (pronoun)
Every functions as an attribute and must always be followed by a noun or the pronoun one.
I’ve read every book in this library.
Every cloud has a silver lining.
“Have you checked all the invoices?” “Yes, I’ve checked
every one.”
She is always late for everything except her every meal.
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Every is widely used in frequency expressions.
Every day brings new changes.
We go shopping every Friday.
My children go to the pictures every other Saturday.
Granny visits us every third Sunday.
2) Each is used in the following combinations:
COUNTABLE NOUN in the singular
Each +
ONE

Mother gave each child a candy. The apples cost
15 pence each.
He picked up the letters and examined each one carefully.
The children each received something different.
Each week one of us would host a party to raise money, and to raise our spirits. So each week we could
forget wrongs done to us.
Either, Neither
Alternatives or distribution between two things or persons
can be expressed by using the word either or its negative
form neither (= not either). They both express a singular idea,
i. e. (not) this one or (not) that one. When they are used as attributes to nouns in the pattern neither + Singular noun, the
following verb is in the singular form:
Either extreme is possible.
Neither man knows the code.
If you run after two hares, you will catch neither.
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When they occur as pronouns, i. e. alone or in the patterns
(n)either of + Plural noun (pronoun), there is a tendency to
put the rest of the sentence into the plural:
Either of these roads take(s) you downtown.
Neither of these dresses really suit(s) you.
Neither of you ever want to listen to me.
Have either of you seen my keys?
Either, neither can be used as adverbs:
— It’s not my fault. — It’s not mine either.
— Nobody likes the man. — We don’t like him either.
I’m not old and neither is Michael.
These pronouns can as well be used as part of the correlated coordinators to express alternatives or choices:
She was neither shocked nor surprised.
We can either stay in or go to the pictures.
I neither smoke nor drink.
The word either can also express a kind of condition:
Either you go or I’ll report you. = If you don’t go,
I will report you.
No and None
No is an attribute to a noun (i. e. no + noun).
None is a pronoun (i. e. it is used on its own).
Attribute
There is no butter left.
I have no problems.
98
Pronoun
There is none.
I have none.
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
No-negation is very frequent indeed with the verbs have
and be. The most common collocations with them are:
no chance, no evidence, no reason, no doubt, no need, no
point, no sign, no way, no idea, no problem, no effect, no secret.
In theory, none expresses a singular idea (i. e., not one). In
practice the choice of the verb (is/are, was/were) is influenced
by the noun which is replaced:
Give me some honey. There is none (= no honey).
Give me some oranges. There are none (= no oranges).
When we use none of with a plural noun the verb can be
either singular or plural, although the singular form is usually
more formal:
None of the faxes has/have arrived yet.
All, Both, Half
All and half can be followed by uncountable nouns as well
as countable nouns in the plural.
Give up all hopes of escape!
All students have to take exams.
Half the cake is eaten.
Half the tourists are in the museum.
Half an hour is enough for him to write the test.
All, both, half, are often used with of + pronoun:
all of you, all of us, all of them (similarly, both of you, both
of us, both of them, half of you, half of us, half of them, half
of it).
All of them are my friends.
Half of you are invited.
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All is used in time expressions:
all day, all afternoon, all evening, all night, all week, all
year, etc.
But: all the time, all the year round, all round the clock, all
through the night.
Mind the difference in the use of the article:
All children like toys (children in general).
All the children are already in bed (definite children).
Both is followed only by countable nouns in the plural:
Paul liked Mozart so much that he went to both concerts (or both the concerts).
Both of my children are teenagers.
Mind the place of pronouns:
We all (both) know it (before a simple verbal predicate).
We are all (both) here. The have all (both) come.
(In compound predicates pronouns come after the first auxiliary verb).
All or A/The Whole
Prefer to use the whole with countable nouns in the singular.
I read the whole book in one day.
The whole is also more emphatic than all.
I’ve spent the whole day washing and cleaning and
shopping!
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1) a whole + noun
The cat looked thin, and I gave it a whole tin of cat
food.
Things are quiet at the office and I’m going to take
a whole hour for lunch.
Lily has a sweet tooth. She can eat a whole box of
chocolates at a time.
My father once bought a whole island without telling
my mother.
And then I thought: I have a whole future ahead of me.
2) the whole + (of) (the) + noun
The whole of the city was lit up for the occasion.
This actor knows the whole of “Hamlet” by heart.
It was the old adage “Smile and the whole world smiles
with you.”
Other — the other; Others — the others
1. The word other is used as an attribute to nouns (e. g. other
plans, other countries, in other words, some other people).
The other is used when the choice is out of two persons or
objects.
One hand washes the other.
The grass is always greener on the other side of the
road.
I have two friends. One is a doctor, the other (of the
two) is a teacher.
She has strange eyes. One is black, the other is grey.
“You are a pair,” I smiled. “Each as stubborn as the
other.”
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2. Others is used instead of a noun (it is a noun-pronoun) and
has a very general character.
Some people like coffee, others prefer tea.
You shouldn’t tell such things to others.
Some pilot projects are completed, others are underway.
Some books are worth reading, others are just a waste
of time.
The others is used to refer to the rest of the group or
things.
He sat far away from the others.
She felt superior to the others.
We shall wait until the others come back.
Only three students are present. Where are the others?
Self-Pronouns
(Reflexives)
Personal Pronouns
Self-Pronouns
(Reflexives)
I
you
he
she
it
we
you
they
myself
yourself
himself
herself
itself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
Self-pronouns are either reflexive or emphatic.
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1. A reflexive pronoun can be used in the sentence as an object, attribute, predicative, an adverbial modifier.
He thinks too much of himself.
She is beside herself with anger.
She didn’t like that photograph of herself.
I’m like a cat that walks by itself.
He doesn’t have too many friends. He keeps himself to
himself.
2. The Russian reflexive meaning («-ñÿ») can be expressed in
English by:
1) the construction “verb + oneself”.
The audience laughed itself stupid.
His way of expressing himself is rather strange.
Make yourself comfortable and help yourself to the cakes.
He settled himself on the nearest stool.
2) the verb in the active voice.
They met but soon parted.
She washed, dressed and came downstairs.
3) the verb in the passive voice.
The house is being built in the country.
The text was being translated.
4) phrasal verbs and phraseological units like: to ask for
something, to take the trouble of doing something, to back
down, to be back, can’t help doing, it goes without saying,
etc.
You are asking for trouble, my boy.
He didn’t even take the trouble of phoning us.
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3. An emphatic self-pronoun should be placed after the word it
emphasizes or at the end of the sentence.
He himself told me about it.
I have thought of it myself.
Life itself proves it. They themselves phoned us.
Interrogative (Question) Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns who? what? which? whose? are
used, unsurprisingly, to ask questions.
Who ate my cake? What does he do?
Which cat is yours? Whose idea was it?
The pronoun who can be subject or object:
Who teaches you? Who does she teach?
The objective form of the interrogative pronoun whom? is
now rarely used except in formal style, especially in the pattern preposition + whom. Compare:
To whom should I apply? Who should I apply to?
For whom would I be working? Who can I trust?
Although the interrogative who is much more common
than the objective form whom, still whom should be used in
the cases like:
There was a man whom nobody knew.
They had one child whom they idolized.
He couldn’t forget the girl whom he had met on the
train.
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Relative and Conjunctive Pronouns
Pronouns who(m), which, whose, that are used to join ideas,
usually on the following pattern:
NOUN + INFORMATION ABOUT THE NOUN
Napoleon Bonaparte was
He was a political and military
a man.
genius.


Napoleon Bonaparte was a man who was a political
and military genius.
Marion is a businesswoman. Her work takes all her time.


Marion is a businesswoman whose work takes all her time.
Physics is a subject. I find it difficult.


Physics is a subject which (that) I find difficult.
When the pronoun is the object of the verb, as in the last
sentence, the pronoun is usually omitted.
Physics is a subject I find difficult.
He is someone I have known for a long time.
That or who are used for people; that or which for things;
whose for both things and people.
I don’t like girls who (that) are too choosy.
This is the car that (which) won the race.
They bought a house whose past was rather mysterious.
Never argue with people whose opinions differ from
yours.
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Reciprocal Pronouns
The reciprocal pronouns each other and one another express a mutual relationship between the entities: X and Y like
each other means that X likes Y and Y likes X. Each other is
strongly preferred when the reference is made to two people.
One another is used when there are more than two people.
Actually, I think the two of them suit each other.
I don’t think you like each other very much.
The crowd became restless, and people were asking
one another what had happened.
It is only by teaching respect for one another that different races can live peacefully together.
Reciprocal pronouns are less common in conversation than in
the written registers.
The Adverb
The Adverb is the part of speech which determines the character of the action. Semantically adverbs fall into some groups.
Place
here, there, away, far
Time and frequency
now, then, again, always, still, today, once, twice, never,
ago, ever, just, yesterday, already, sometimes, yet, later,
often, usually
Manner
together, well, fast, hard, quietly
Degree
very, really, too, quite, exactly, right, pretty, more, relatively, slightly, almost, thoroughly, completely, basically
Stance (your attitude
towards what is said)
absolutely, of course, probably, really, actually, mainly,
(un)fortunately, curiously, frankly, honestly, seriously,
personally, surely, worryingly, interestingly, etc.
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The most frequently used adverbs are here, there, now,
then, just, really, so, though, however, for example.
Adverbs are sometimes characterized as words ending in -ly.
But the class is far more diverse in form. There are four major
formal categories of adverbs.
1. Simple adverbs are single words that are not formed from
compounds. Here belong well, too, rather, quite, soon, and
here. Some simple adverbs are clearly related to other word
classes: fast and long can be adjectives; down and round can
be used as prepositions; today and tomorrow can be used
as nouns. Some simple adverbs originated as compounds,
but the independent meaning of the two parts is no longer
transparent (e. g. already, indeed).
2. Compound adverbs are formed by combining two or more
elements into a single word. Here belong such adverbs as
anyway (any + way), nowhere (no + where), and heretofore
(here + to + fore).
3. Adverbs derived by suffixation are formed by adding the
suffix -ly to the base form of an adjective:
clear — clearly, happy — happily, exact — exactly,
lucky — luckily, glad — gladly, real — really.
He was fundamentally stupid.
English spelling is notoriously difficult.
Henry is in love with Bianca. Hopelessly, helplessly,
mindlessly, gloriously, magnificently.
He turns round smiling cheesily.
Two other common suffixes are -wise and -wards (added to
some nouns and prepositions).
homewards, seawards, onwards, afterwards, likewise,
clockwise
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4. Fixed phrases such as of course, kind of, at last.
Some words ending in -ly are adjectives, not adverbs:
lovely, lonely, lively, friendly, manly, womanly, daily,
monthly.
Compare the following:
They are friendly (adj.) people.
They greeted us in a friendly (adv. mod.) way.
The adverbs hard, high, fast, early, late, long, far, little,
much, straight, near, wrong, coincide with the corresponding
adjectives.
Compare:
It’s hard (adj.) work. — They work hard (adv.).
These are fast (adj.) cars. — They drive fast (adv.).
We took an early (adj.) train. — The train arrived
early. (adv.)
Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs
Formation
The Positive
Degree
The Comparative
Degree
The Superlative
Degree
Adjectives
I.
II.
108
One syllable
-er, -est
old
hard
older
harder
oldest
hardest
wise
fast
wiser
faster
wisest
fastest
Two syllables
more, most
famous
pleasant
more famous
most famous
more pleasant
most pleasant
-er, -est
busy
busier
busiest
yi
pretty
prettier
prettiest
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû
Formation
The Positive
Degree
The Comparative
Degree
The Superlative
Degree
Adjectives
III.
IV.
More than
two syllables
more, most
important
beautiful
more important
most important
more beautiful
most beautiful
Suppletive
good
better
best
bad
worse
worst
cleverer
cleverest
more clever
most clever
gentler
gentlest
more gentle
most gentle
friendlier
friendliest
more friendly
most friendly
Remember: double degrees are posible.
-er, -est
or
more, most
angry, gentle, handsome, narrow,
pleasant, polite,
simple, quiet
clever
gentle
friendly
Adverbs
more, most
carefully
more carefully
most carefully
slowly
more slowly
most slowly
one syllable
-er, -est
fast
faster
fastest
hard
harder
hardest
suppletive
well
better
best
badly
worse
worst
far
farther/further
farthest/furthest
Mind the difference in the meaning of the words hard
(«ìíîãî», «òÿæåëî», «óïîðíî») and hardly («åëå-åëå», «åäâà ëè»).
Compare:
Bill studies hard (a lot).
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He hardly knows anyone here (practically nobody).
He trained hard (very much).
He is sick, he can hardly move (can’t do it at all).
Adverbs have degrees of comparison: the positive degree,
the comparative degree, and the superlative degree. Adverbs
ending in -ly form their degrees analytically, by adding the
words more (less) or most (least) to the base form of the adverb.
Simple adverbs form their degrees with the help of the inflections -er, -est. Superlative forms are very rarely used with
adverbs, while comparative forms are occasionally used.
I just kept working harder and harder.
Now he went oftener to visit his friends.
You really ought to go out more often.
In some cases an adverb can be made comparative in both
ways:
oftener — more often
All the registers tend to use more often when the adverb is
followed by than:
She went to the theater more often now than she
used to.
The following adverbs have irregular degrees of comparison:
— farther — farthest
— further — furthest
well — better — best
badly — worse — worst
little — less — least
much — more — most
far
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The Verb
The word “verb” comes from Latin “verbum”, which simply means “word”.
Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech.
This is due to the central role which it performs in the expression of the predicative functions of the sentence, the functions,
which establish the connection between the situation named in
the utterance and reality.
I. The complexity of the verb is not only in the complex structure of its grammatical categories, but also in its various
subclass divisions, as well as in its falling into two sets of
forms different from each other: the finite set and the nonfinite set of forms.
The verb in its finite form possesses the morphological categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. Its
syntactical function is that of the predicate of the sentence.
The non-finite forms (also called Verbals) are the Infinitive, the Gerund, Participle I and Participle II.
Verbals do not function as true verbs. Their syntactical
functions in the sentence may be different because verbals can
be used as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. They can’t function
as the predicate of the sentence, only as part of it.
II. According to their meanings and functions in the sentence
English verbs are classified into notional and structural.
Notional verbs always have a lexical meaning of their own
and can have an independent function in the sentence.
We live in Moscow and love our city.
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Structural verbs cannot have an independent syntactic
function in the sentence — they are always closely connected
with some other words, forming a compound predicate (verbal
or nominal). Modal verbs, link verbs and auxiliary verbs belong
to structural verbs.
The Semantic Classification
Notional
Semi-notional
Auxiliary
(to do, to come,
to dance, to play,
to study, to have)
(can, may, must, have to,
should, used to, begin, start,
stop, go on)
(be, do, have, shall, will,
should, would)
are used as predicates
are used as part
of the predicates
build up analytical
(complex forms)
She did her work well.
We have a new house.
He studies hard.
They play golf every
Sunday.
She could do her work
well.
She has done her work
well.
We have to build a new
house.
We have built a new
house.
You must study much.
They will study hard.
They started playing golf.
They said they would play
golf.
A modal verb is always followed by an infinitive — together they form a modal predicate.
You must join us. I can do it. You should know better.
A link verb is followed by a predicative thus forming a
nominal predicate.
He was a fine mechanic.
She became famous.
She seemed quite happy.
The leaves turned yellow.
An auxiliary verb is devoid of any lexical meaning. These
verbs are: to do, to be, to have, shall, will, should, would.
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Combined with a notional verb they serve to build up analytical forms.
We had seen the play before. Do you enjoy dancing?
Don’t worry. I’ll be home before evening.
Polysemantic verbs have, do, be may be notional as well
as structural words. They are the most overused verbs in the
English language. Compare:
He has three children. (a notional verb used in the
meaning “to possess”).
I had to give up smoking. (a structural word: a modal verb denoting obligation, part of a modal predicate)
I have come for your advice. (a structural word: an
auxiliary verb which serves to build up an analytical
form).
III. Owing to the historical development of the verb system all
English verbs fall into two groups: regular and irregular
verbs.
The regular verbs constitute the largest group. The Past
Simple and Participle II of these verbs are formed by means
of the suffix -ed added to the stem of the verb.
live — lived — lived; play — played — played;
try — tried — tried; study —studied — studied
The irregular verbs (there are about 280 in number) form
the Past Simple and Participle II according to some fixed traditional patterns.
wear — wore — worn; leave — left — left;
send — sent — sent, drive — drove — driven;
go — went — gone; be — was/were — been
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The most common lexical verbs in Modern English
and the frequency of their usage
(in the LSWE Corpus — over 1000 per million words) 1
IV. There are four basic verb-forms in English. They are:
the Infinitive — work, rise; do, come;
the Past Simple — worked, rose; did, came;
Participle II — worked, risen; done, come;
Participle I — working, rising; doing, coming.
1
114
Longman Grammar of Written and Spoken English.
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
The Four Basic Forms
of Regular and Irregular Verbs
Infinitive
Past Simple
Participle II
Participle I
I
II
III
IV
to dance
danced
danced
dancing
to work
worked
worked
working
to play
played
played
playing
to cry
cried
cried
crying
Irregular
to do
did
done
doing
a) The change
of the root vowel
(2nd and
3rd forms)
-ing (4th form)
to feel
felt
felt
feeling
to teach
taught
taught
teaching
to tell
told
told
telling
to find
found
found
finding
to stand
stood
stood
standing
to write
wrote
written
writing
to know
knew
known
knowing
to cost
cost
cost
costing
to cut
cut
cut
cutting
to hit
hit
hit
hitting
to hurt
hurt
hurt
hurting
to let
let
let
letting
to put
put
put
putting
to shut
shut
shut
shutting
The Verb
Regular
-ed (2nd and
3rd forms)
-ing (4th form)
b) Identical forms
for the 2nd and
3rd forms
Among the various forms of the verb the infinitive occupies a unique position. Its status is that of the principal representative of the verb-lexeme as a whole, the most general
name to it. It serves as the actual derivative base for all the
other regular forms of the verb.
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V. The forms of the verb may be of two different kinds —
synthetic and analytical.
Synthetic forms are built up by a change in the word itself:
I find, I found.
I came, saw and won.
Analytical forms consist of two or more components.
He has done his duty. The case is being investigated.
You are being difficult today. We shall be opening
soon.
The first component is an auxiliary verb which has no lexical meaning — it expresses only the grammatical meaning (the
third person singular, the indicative mood, the active voice,
a fulfilled action). The second component is a notional verb
which is the bearer of the lexical meaning.
Thus an analytical form consists of two or more words —
a structural word and a notional word — which form a very
close, inseparable unit.
VI. Verbs are extremely flexible and can change their form
to mark person, number, tense, voice, mood. The general
categorial meaning of the verb is possess, state, forms of
existence, types of attitude, evaluations, etc.
In the sentence the finite verb performs the function of
the verb-predicate, expressing the categorial features of predication, such as tense, aspect, voice, and mood.
Tense is the form of the verb which indicates the time of
the action. The category of tense in English is made up by a
set of forms opposed to each other in referring the events, or
states to the present, past or future.
Aspect is the form of the verb which serves to express the
manner in which the action is performed. It is presented in
English by the opposition of the continuous and non-continuous forms.
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Common Aspect
Continuous Aspect
speaks
is speaking
spoke
was speaking
will speak
will be speaking
has spoken
has been speaking
Compare:
He seems to read a lot.
She seems to be reading and can’t hear you.
She pretends to study hard, but,
actually, she doesn’t work at all.
She pretends to have been studying since
morning.
Voice is the form of the verb which shows the relation
between the action and its subject. There are two voices in
English: the active voice and the passive voice. The verb in
the active voice shows that the subject is the doer of the action; the verb in the passive voice shows that the subject is
acted upon. The category of voice has a much broader representation in the system of the English verb than in the system
of the Russian verb, since in English not only transitive, but
also intransitive verbs can be used in the passive.
Mood is the form of the verb which shows in what relation
to reality is the action expressed by the speaker.
In present-day English the category of mood is made up by
a set of forms presenting the events as real facts, problematic
actions or as something absolutely unreal. Accordingly there
are direct and indirect moods in English. The Direct Moods are
the Indicative Mood and the Imperative Mood.
The Indicative Mood represents actions as real facts. It’s
a “Fact Mood”.
We are students of the English department.
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The Imperative Mood expresses commands and requests.
It’s a “Will Mood”.
Come over there. Relax! Cool down!
The Indirect Moods (the Subjunctive Mood and the Conditional Mood) represent actions as problematic, desirable or
unreal.
He looks as if he had come through a crisis.
I wish this summer were not so hot!
If we had been here then, we would have prevented it.
The Present Tenses
The Present Simple
of the Verb to be («áûòü», «íàõîäèòüñÿ»)
The Affirmative form
The Interrogative
form
The Negative form
The Singular
I
am
(I’m)
Am
I
?
I
am not
(I’m not)
he
she
it
is
(he’s)
(she’s)
(it’s)
Is
he
she
it
?
?
?
he
she
it
is not
(he isn’t)
(she isn’t)
(it isn’t)
are not
(we aren’t)
(you aren’t)
(they aren’t)
The Plural
We
You
They
are
(we’re)
(you’re)
(they’re)
I am (I’m) lucky.
He is (He’s) right.
We are (We’re) on time.
They are (They’re) here.
118
Are
we
you
they
Am I lucky?
Is he right?
Are we on time?
Are they here?
?
?
?
We
You
They
I am not (I’m not) lucky.
He is not (He isn’t) right.
We are not (We aren’t) on time.
They are not (They aren’t) here.
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
The Present Simple
of the Verb to have/have got
The Interrogative
form
The Affirmative form
I
(I’ve got)
we
have
(we’ve got)
you
have got
(you’ve got)
they
(they’ve got)
he
she
it
(he’s got)
has
has got
(she’s got)
(it’s got)
The Negative form
Do you have…?
(Br, Am)
или
Have you got…?
(Br)
I don’t have…
(Br, Am)
или
I haven’t got… (Br)
Does she have…?
(Br, Am)
или
Has she got…? (Br)
She doesn’t have…
(Br, Am)
или
She hasn’t got… (Br)
The Present Simple
I. The Present Simple is formed with the help of the infinitive
without the particle “to”. In the third person singular it has
the suffix -s/-es. The interrogative and the negative forms
are built up analytically, by means of the auxiliary verb
do in the Present Simple and the infinitive of the notional
verb without the particle “to”.
The Affirmative
form
The Interrogative form
I
I
we
we
you
speak
Do
they
he
she
it
speaks
Does
The Negative form
I
speak…?
we
you
you
they
they
he
he
she
it
speak…?
she
it
do not (don’t) speak…
does not (doesn’t)
speak…
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Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû
The Affirmative
form
The Interrogative form
You speak three
languages.
Do you speak three languages?
I do not (don’t) speak three
languages.
He drives his car
well.
Does he drive his car well?
He does not (doesn’t) drive his
car well.
It rains a lot
in summer.
Does it rain much
in summer?
It does not (doesn’t) rain
much in summer.
The Negative form
II. The Present Simple is used:
1) to express facts, statements, habitual actions in the present:
I live in Tula, but every weekend I go to Moscow.
On Sundays we usually stay at home, sometimes we go
to the country.
2) to state laws of nature, universal truths, common knowledge, also in proverbs and sayings:
It snows in winter and it rains in summer in this country.
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
Still waters run deep. Old love doesn’t rust.
3) to denote a succession of actions going on at the moment
of speaking:
She comes in, takes off her coat, flings it on the chair
and walks over to the answerphone.
4) In subordinate clauses of time, condition and concession instead of the Future Simple after the conjunctions
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when, till, until, as soon as, before, after, if, unless, in
case, on condition that, provided, even if:
If he gets a good rest, he’ll be his usual self tomorrow.
I’ll see them before I go to London.
Do it as soon as you are through with your duties.
Even if he hates me, I shall never do him any harm.
Note: in object clauses introduced by the conjunctions when
and if the Future Simple is used to denote future actions.
I don’t know when she will come.
I’m not sure if she will come at all.
5) to express future reference (in timetables):
The show begins at 7.30 next Saturday evening.
The plane takes off at exactly five.
6) to express an action going on at the moment of speaking with non-progressive verbs like believe, know, intend,
belong, understand, need, realize, exist, like, hate, love,
remember, prefer, own, possess:
I believe I understand her. It sounds great.
Yes, I remember her well. Who owns this land?
7) with the verbs to forget, to hear, to be told, to denote
past actions:
I forget your telephone number. Will you say it again,
please?
I hear you are leaving for England.
We are told she returned from Italy last week.
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The following adverbs of indefinite time are the signals of
this tense:
always
generally
regularly
as a rule
never
seldom
ever
occasionally
sometimes
often
usually
every day (week…)
now and then
rarely
from time to time
The Present Progressive
I. The Present Progressive is an analytical form which is built
up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Present Simple and Participle I of the notional verb.
I am thinking of you!
He is working. We are resting.
I am so tired that I’m falling apart.
The same auxiliary verb is used in the interrogative and
the negative forms.
Are you working? Is he still working?
We are not working. He is not working.
(See the table on page 123.)
II. The Present Progressive is used to express:
1) an action going on at the moment of speaking:
I’m just going for a quick cappuccino. Want to join me?
I can’t hear you. Where are you calling from?
Why, oh why am I doing this?
He is keying the information into his computer.
— What are you doing? — I am cleaning my shoes.
Hey, what’s eating you? You can tell me.
Now, clear off, I’m reading.
Why are you still lying in bed like a dying swan?
122
Are they talking?
They are talking.
reading?
reading?
reading?
Is he sleeping?
they
you
we
it
she
he
I
He is sleeping.
Are
Is
Am
Are you reading a book?
reading
reading
reading
The Interrogative form
I’m reading a book.
(they’re)
(you’re)
you
they
(we’re)
we
are
(it’s)
it
(she’s)
is
she
(I’m)
(he’s)
am
he
I
The Affirmative form
are not (aren’t) reading
is not (isn’t) reading
am not (I’m not) reading
They aren’t talking.
He isn’t sleeping.
I’m not reading a book.
they
you
we
it
she
he
I
The Negative form
to be (in Present Simple) + V-ing (the 4th form of the verb)
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Note: Stative non-progressive verbs denoting physical perceptions, emotions, mental abilities (be, see, hear, know, understand, like, dislike, love, have, etc.) are not usually
used in the Present Progressive. The Present Simple is
used instead:
I understand you. I know this man.
Do you see that boy? Do you recognize me?
With the verbs to feel, to look the use of the Present Progressive has become the norm in Modern English.
Thank you, Doctor, I’m feeling stronger now.
You are looking smart today, Margie.
This suit is looking rather worn. I must buy a new one.
a) some stative verbs can be used in the progressive
form when they change their meaning. For example,
the verb to be in the Present Continuous expresses a
certain state or quality peculiar for the person at the
given moment, but not in general. Such usage can be
found only in highly emotional contexts.
I think the critics are being a bit snobbish.
You are being rude to this girl. Aren’t you forgetting
your manners?
Look where you go. You’re being careless!
This Government is continuing the policies of the previous Government.
b) the verbs of sense and mental perception (see, hear, understand) are used to express surprise, doubt, disbelief
(especially in questions).
What am I hearing here?
I can’t believe what I am seeing!
Am I understanding you correctly?
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2) changing, developing situations:
The story is getting more and more interesting.
Family life is changing rapidly.
Distance learning is getting more and more popular.
More businesses are closing around us.
3) an action going on at the present period of time:
My baby sister Rosie is teething.
Are you writing a new book?
No cakes for me. I’m slimming.
She’s spending a good deal on dresses of late.
I am walking around like a smiling robot. But my soul
is weeping, weeping, weeping.
What else do you want? He is already eating out of
your hand.
Let’s visit some schools to see how this method is
working.
4) actions generally characterizing the person denoted by
the subject, bringing out the person’s typical traits. Such
sentences are emotionally coloured, expressing irritation,
disapproval, praise, etc. In such sentences the adverbials
always or constantly are obligatory:
You’re always showing off!
I’m always forgetting people’s names.
He’s constantly complaining that she has so much to do.
She’s always saying stupid things because she doesn’t
think before she says them.
“My petal,” says Luke. “You’re constantly causing traffic jams.”
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5) actions which will take place in the near future due to
one’s previous decision. The action is regarded as something definitely settled (mostly verbs of motion such as to
move, to come, to go, to leave, to return, to start are used):
She is attending a conference next week.
He’s returning on Monday. The boat is sailing next week.
Note:
The Present Progressive of the verb to go + infinitive is commonly used to denote future fulfillment of
the present situation:
I’m going to study Italian. It is going to snow.
She’s going to have a baby. It's going to be a hard day.
6) an action in progress which is simultaneous with some
other action or state denoted by the verb in the Present
Simple. It is used in adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when, while, as long as, if, in
case, unless:
I never talk when I am working.
My father doesn’t talk when he’s driving.
You must always watch the traffic lights when you’re
crossing the street.
Try not to make much noise when you are stirring
your tea.
Note:
When the verbs lie, stand, flow, lead, run are used
with inanimate objects, they should be in the Present
Simple or Past Simple, not in the Progressive Forms,
as they express facts, statements, and not processes.
The path runs (= is) along the bank of the river.
My future lies (= is) in your hands.
The farm lay among the hills.
The river flowed rapidly.
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The church stood on a hill.
The road led to a small cottage.
The following adverbs are used with this tense: now, at the
moment, right now, at present, still, always, constantly.
The Present Perfect
The Present Perfect is an analytical form which is built up
by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Simple Present
and Participle II of the notional verb.
I have worked. He has worked. We have met at last.
The same auxiliary verb is used to form the interrogative
and the negative forms.
Have you worked? He has not worked.
have (has) + Participle II
The Affirmative form
I
we
you
The Interrogative form
arrived
have
(‘ve)
been
gone
Have
they
she
it
I
arrived?
I
we
been?
we
you
gone?
you
they
he
arrived
has
(‘s)
been
gone
he
Has
The Negative form
arrived
have not
(haven’t)
been
gone
they
arrived?
he
she
been?
she
it
gone?
it
arrived
has not
(hasn’t)
been
gone
We’ve just arrived at
the station.
Have you just arrived at
the station?
We haven’t arrived at the
station.
They’ve been here for
a month.
Have you been here for a
month?
They haven’t been here for
a month.
He’s done the task.
Has he done the task?
He hasn’t done the task.
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The Present Perfect is used in present time contexts, i. e.
conversations, newspaper and radio reports, lectures and letters. It is not found in narration where reference is usually
made to past events. The Present Perfect may be resultative
(exclusive) and durative (inclusive).
I. The Present Perfect Resultative (Exclusive) is used to denote
a completed action connected with the present through its
result:
I’ve bought a good dictionary. Look at it.
You can’t see her, she has gone home.
During my seventy-four years I have made a lot of
mistakes.
I’ve been patient for so long but my patience has come
to an end.
The Present Perfect may be found with certain adverbs
of indefinite time and frequency such as ever, just, already,
before, never, not… yet, lately, of late, so far, always.
Have you heard of him lately?
I haven’t even had coffee yet.
We haven’t done much so far.
We have always been very close friends and still are.
Note 1: The Present Perfect is possible with adverbial modifiers
of time that denote a period of time which is not over
yet, e. g. today, this morning, this week, this month,
this year. But if the period is over, the Past Simple is
used.
— Did you read the article in “The Times” this morning? (it is no longer morning) — No, I haven’t had
time to look at the paper today. (today is not over yet)
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Note 2: In special questions introduced by where, how, who,
what, why, what… for both the Present Perfect and
the Past Simple are possible. The choice of tense in
such cases is situational.
Compare:
Why have you done this to me? (I’m upset.)
Why did you do this? (at a certain past moment)
In “when”-questions only the Past Simple is used.
When did you go there?
When did it happen?
Note 3: The Present Perfect is used in adverbial clauses of
time introduced by the conjunctions when, once, before, as soon as, till and until to stress the completion
of the action of the subordinate clause before the action of the principal one.
We’ll see about it as soon as you’ve had your tea.
I’ll tell you whether the machine is good when I have
tried it.
We’ll never rest until we’ve learned the truth.
Once you’ve learned to swim, you’ll never forget how
to do it.
II. The Present Perfect Durative (Inclusive).
1) It expresses an action which began before the moment of
speaking and continues into it. This grammatical meaning is mainly expressed by the Present Perfect Progressive. However the Present Perfect Durative is found
with verbs that cannot be used in the progressive form.
The whole period of the duration of the action may be
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marked by prepositional phrases with for. The starting
point of the action is indicated by the adverb since.
I have been a vegetarian for nine years.
We haven’t had any fun in a long while.
I’ve been here ever since I came to Paris.
We’ve had this house for years.
This car has been mine for years.
The Present Perfect Durative is preferred to Present Perfect Progressive in negative sentences when it is the action itself that is completely negated (the Inclusive Present Perfect
Tense).
I haven’t driven for a long time.
I haven’t worn evening dresses for ages!
For the past four days, I have been unable to write
a word.
2) It may also express an action that began in the past, continued for some time and has just stopped (the Present
Perfect Resultative).
I have been so anxious to meet you.
We haven’t seen each other for years!
3) The Present Perfect Durative can be used in the principle
and in the subordinate clauses of a complex sentence if
their actions are parallel.
I’ve been ever so worried while you’ve been away.
We must say, you’ve made our life easier since you’ve
been in town.
I’ve watched you very carefully during the week I’ve
been here.
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They have been friends for many years and they have
always shared the same interests.
As long as I’ve known you, which is a good ten years
now, you’ve always been a workaholic.
Just think how you have improved in the short time
I have known you!
4) Care should be taken to distinguish between the use of
the Present Perfect and the Past Simple when the period of duration is expressed by a prepositional phrase
with for. If the period of duration belongs to the past,
the Past Simple should be used. It the period of duration
comes close to the moment of speaking or includes it, the
Present Perfect is used.
“I have lived like this for two years,” he said, “and
I can’t stand it any more.”
I teach history at a secondary school. I went to University here for four years and got a degree.
Yesterday he waited for her for two hours but she
didn’t turn up.
The Present Perfect Progressive
I. The Present Perfect Progressive is an analytical form which
is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Present
Perfect and the ing-form of the notional verb (Participle I).
I have been working.
She has been reading.
In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed
before the subject.
Have you been working?
Has she been reading?
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In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.
We have not been reading.
They have not been working.
In spoken English the contracted forms are used:
I’ve, he’s, she’s, it’s, we’ve, you’ve, they’ve, hasn’t, and
haven’t.
have (has) + been + V-ing (Participle I)
The Affirmative form
The Interrogative form
I
we
you
I
have
(’ve)
been
living
Have
they
it
you
I
been
living?
they
he
she
we
been
living
Has
she
we
you
have not
(haven’t)
been
living
has not
been
living
they
he
has
(’s)
The Negative form
he
been
living?
it
she
it
(hasn’t)
I’ve been living in
Moscow for twenty
years.
Have you been living
in Moscow for twenty
years?
I haven’t been living
in Moscow for twenty
years.
He has been working
since nine o’clock.
Has he been working
since nine o’clock?
He hasn’t been working
since nine o’clock.
II. This tense is found in present time contexts, i. e. conversations, newspapers and radio reports, lectures and letters. It
has two uses — the Present Perfect Continuous Durative
(Inclusive) and the Present Perfect Continuous Resultative
(Exclusive).
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l) The Present Perfect Progressive (Inclusive) serves to express an action in progress which began before the moment of speaking and continues into it. In this case either
the starting point of the action or the period of time during which it has been in progress is usually indicated.
It has been raining ever since midnight, and it’s still
drizzling.
I’ve been sitting at my computer for quite a while now.
We’ve been following your career with enormous admiration.
I’ve been keeping diaries all my life.
All these forms are translated into Russian by the Present
Tense, imperfective («äîæäü èäåò», «ÿ ïèøó»).
2) The Present Perfect Progressive (Exclusive) serves to express an action which was in progress quite recently and
which in one way or another affects the present situation,
explains the state of things at the present moment. In this
case, as a rule, there is no indication of time.
Don’t tell your mother what I’ve been saying.
I’ve been talking to your boyfriend and I like him.
Come in! I’ve been looking for you.
Now I understand that it’s all the joys of life that I’ve
been missing.
You can say it’s going to be a bad day if your dog
chews the presentation which you’ve been working on
all weekend.
The Present Perfect Progressive can be used with some verbs
which are normally not used in the progressive forms so as to
express great intensity of feelings in highly emotional contexts.
I’ve been loving you ever since I first saw you!
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Really, I’ve been wanting to come, I’ve been dreaming
about it!
Just lately I’ve been feeling emotionally deprived.
— I can’t fall asleep at night. — I think you’ve been
seeing too many gangster movies.
The Present Tenses
The Present
Simple
(Indefinite)
+
?
–
134
The Present
Progressive
(Continuous)
The Present
Perfect
The Present
Perfect
Progressive
(Continuous)
I walk every
day.
I am walking
now.
I have walked
ten miles.
I have been walking since morning.
He teaches
children.
He is teaching
at the moment.
He has taught
a lot of children.
He has been
teaching for ten
years already.
Do you walk
every day?
Are you walking
now?
Have you
walked ten
miles?
Have you been
walking since
morning?
Does he teach
children?
Is he teaching
at the moment?
Has he taught
many children?
Has he been
teaching for ten
years?
I don’t walk
every day.
I am not walking
now.
I haven’t walked
ten miles.
I haven’t been
walking since
morning.
He doesn’t
teach children.
He isn’t teaching
at the moment.
He hasn’t taught
a lot of children.
He hasn’t been
teaching for ten
years.
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
The Past Tenses
The Past Simple
The Past Simple of the Verb to be
The Affirmative
form
Number
The Interrogative
form
I
I …?
I
he …?
he
she …?
she
it
it …?
it
we
we …?
we
you …?
you
they …?
they
he
Singular
she
Plural
The Negative form
you
was
were
Was
Were
they
was not
(wasn’t)
were not
(weren’t)
I was lucky.
Was I lucky?
I was not (wasn’t) lucky.
She was right.
Was he right?
He was not (wasn’t) right.
You were on time.
Were you on time?
You were not (weren’t) on time.
They were here.
Were they here?
They were not (weren’t) here.
I. The Past Simple is a synthetic form, built up by a change in
the word itself.
I worked. He sang. They won. They split up.
The interrogative and the negative forms are built up
analytically, by means of the auxiliary verb do in the Past
Simple and the infinitive of the notional verb without the
particle to.
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V + -ed (Regular Verbs) (the 2nd form of the verb)
The Affirmative form
The Interrogative form
The Negative form
I
started
I
start?
I
start
we
finished
we
finish?
we
finish
you
enjoyed
you
enjoy?
you
they
had
he
Did
enjoy
did not
(didn’t)
they
have?
they
did
he
do?
he
do
she
went
she
go?
she
go
it
rained
it
rain?
it
rain
have
I started the lecture
an hour ago.
Did you start the lecture
an hour ago?
I didn’t start the lecture
an hour ago.
They enjoyed the
film yesterday.
Did they enjoy the film
yesterday?
They didn’t enjoy the film
yesterday.
It rained a lot last
summer.
Did it rain a lot last
summer?
It didn’t rain a lot last
summer.
We had a lovely time
at the party.
Did you have a lovely
time at the party?
We didn’t have a lovely time
at the party.
II. The Past Simple is used to express:
1) a single action completed in the past and in no way connected with the present. The time of the action is mostly
given or may be implied in the situation.
He left yesterday. They married in 1980. We met in
Germany.
It happened in the 19th century. I said “No” just now.
Note: The Past Simple, never the Present Perfect, is used in
questions beginning with when, because when implies
a certain moment in the past. The answer can be either in the Past Simple or in the Present Perfect, depending on the situation:
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— When did you see him? — I saw him two days ago.
Or: I have just seen him. (just now)
When did you actually arrive?
2) a succession of actions in narration to describe the development of events.
I went up the stairs. I bathed. I changed. Then I went
downstairs and cooked and served dinner for three.
Then I entertained Mr. Stent. Then I wished him
a very good night.
Sometimes you can come across the cases of the so called
“historic present,” when in past-time contexts present tenses
are used to make the narration more vivid.
Just imagine what happened to me yesterday! I came
into the kitchen and what do you think I see? My
cat is sitting on the table and eating the fish. And she
looks so innocent that I have no heart to say anything.
3) an action which occupied a whole period of time which is
now over. The period of time is usually indicated in the
sentence by means of adverbial phrases with the preposition for or during.
He worked hard for ten years until he was lucky.
He fell asleep during the lecture.
I walked in the park for twenty minutes yesterday.
We stayed in the garden for a long time.
She stewed meat for two hours.
4) habitual, recurrent actions in the past.
She lived alone in London, and saw no one except me.
Every day we got up at seven and went to bed at
eleven.
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5) In English there are special means of expressing permanent recurrent actions in the past. They are: used to +
infinitive and would + infinitive.
Used to is more common in informal English. Would is typical of literary style. It is mainly a written form that is used in
stories. It is really a way of providing variety in a narrative.
I liked reading in the garden. I used to take out a deckchair, sit under one of the apple-trees and read.
We used to play in the garden and Mother would make
the cheese cakes for lunch.
Used to is used when we talk about past states that no longer exist.
This building used to be a cinema.
My father used to be a heavy smoker.
Would is stylistically marked. It implies that the speaker
experiences nostalgic feelings about past actions (which no longer happen). Would is used to talk about past habits and repeated actions but not about past states.
When we use would, a specific time or a set of actions
should be mentioned.
Every Saturday evening, Father would take out his old
accordion and start to play old songs. Mother would
look at us severely if we laughed or made a noise.
Sometimes Father would go on for hours.
Used to and would aren’t used when a date or some particular period of time is given.
I studied German for some years.
They met regularly last year.
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Mind how we make the interrogative and negative forms of
used to in spoken English:
Did you use to collect coins?
I didn’t use to collect anything.
I never used to collect anything.
Note: Be careful not to confuse used to with be/get used to +
noun/gerund which means “be/become accustomed to
something” as you have been doing it for some time.
I’m used to getting up early.
Many people can’t get used to this hectic life.
Have you got used to working late hours?
The Past Simple is used with such adverbials of time as
ago, last week (month, etc.), the other day («íà äíÿõ»), yesterday, the day before yesterday, just now.
The Past Progressive
I. The Past Progressive is an analytical form which is built up
by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Past Simple and
Participle I of the notional verb.
I was working. They were reading. It was raining.
was/were + V-ing (the 4th form of the verb)
The Affirmative form
The Interrogative form
I
he
she
it
I
was reading
Was
he
she
it
The Negative form
I
reading?
he
she
was not
(wasn’t)
reading
it
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Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû
The Affirmative form
The Interrogative form
we
you
you
were reading
Were
we
we
reading?
they
they
The Negative form
you
were not
(weren’t)
reading
they
I was reading a new
magazine.
Were you reading a new
magazine?
I wasn’t reading a new
magazine.
He was sleeping.
Was he sleeping?
He wasn’t sleeping.
They were talking
about sport.
What were they talking
about?
They weren’t talking about
sport.
The same auxiliary is used in the interrogative and negative forms.
Were you working? Was he reading?
We were not working. He was not reading.
II. The Past Progressive is used in the following cases:
1) to express an action which was going on at a given moment in the past. As a rule, there is no indication of a
given past moment. It is implied in the situation. Sometimes it is indicated with the help of another action in the
Past Simple or by an adverbial of time.
May came, the finals were approaching.
You were sleeping when I left.
At that very moment she was phoning the police.
When I came, he was listening to Dvorak’s Symphony No 9.
2) to express an action going on at a given period of time in
the past. The indication of the past period of time is understood from the context or is given in the sentence.
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— What were you doing in Paris? — I was trying to
find a publisher for my new book.
The house was old and the paint was peeling off it.
Disraeli once told an English bigot, “Listen, when my
ancestors were reading the Bible, yours were still
swinging from trees”.
3) to express an action generally characterizing the person
denoted by the subject, bringing out his (her) typical
traits. Often, always, constantly are found in such cases in
the sentence. Such sentences are emotionally coloured.
The child was always getting coughs and colds!
She was constantly suffering from a cut or a burn.
4) with verbs which are not usually used in the progressive
form when they change their meaning and are used to
characterize the person’s unusual behaviour at the given
past moment.
He was being kind to us and she was only being nice.
He was happy now that his wife was feeling better.
I was feeling a bit under the weather last night.
She looked as if she was not seeing or hearing anything that went on around her.
He was seeing Paris through the eyes of a film-maker.
5) in the subordinate clause of a complex sentence introduced by the conjunction while. (The Past Simple can be
used in these clauses as well). The Past Simple is normally used in the principal clause.
She sat still while he was playing the sonata.
While he stood there she was phoning her parents.
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The Past Perfect
I. The Past Perfect is an analytical form which is built up by
means of the auxiliary verb have in the Past Simple and
Participle II of the notional verb.
I had worked. We had met. She had done it.
The same auxiliary verb is used in the interrogative and
the negative forms.
Had you worked? They hadn’t come.
had + Participle II
The Affirmative form
I
we
you
they had
he
she
it
arrived
examined
passed
done
gone
written
cost
The Interrogative form
I
we
you
Had they
he
she
it
arrived?
examined?
passed?
done?
gone?
written?
cost?
The Negative form
I
we
you
they
he
she
it
arrived
examined
passed
had not
done
(hadn’t)
gone
written
cost
The police had arrived
before the robber
escaped.
Had the police arrived
before the robber
escaped?
The police hadn’t arrived
before the robber escaped.
I had done the work
by nine o’clock.
Had you done the work
by nine o’clock?
I hadn’t done the work
by nine o’clock.
II. The Past Perfect is mainly found in narration and in pasttime contexts.
1) The Past Perfect is used to express an action completed
before a given past moment, which may be indicated by
a phrase or by another past action.
They weren’t in the room, as he had supposed.
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She was no fool. She had read much in several languages, and she could talk of the books she had read
with good sense.
2) The Past Perfect serves to express an action which began
before a given past moment and continues into it or up
to it. This grammatical meaning is mainly expressed by
the Past Perfect Progressive. The Past Perfect is found
with the verbs not widely used in the progressive tense
forms (be, have, see, hear, know, understand, realize, like,
hate, love, believe, own, possess). This use is associated with
certain time indications: either a whole period of duration
of the action is indicated (for), or its starting point (since).
Oliver was his assistant and had been with him for
nearly fifteen years.
He examined the lock. In all the years he had lived in
New York he had never been robbed, had never
thought about locks.
He told me he had been badly ill since he returned
from abroad.
He mentioned that he had not played tennis for three
years.
Note: In clauses of time introduced by since and when the
Past Simple is commonly used, though the Past Perfect is quite possible.
He tried to remember how long it had been since he
had last seen her.
Many things had changed in the two-and-a-half-year
since he had left Harvard.
3) The Past Perfect is often used in combination with the
Past Progressive when both actions are viewed from the
same past moment. One action is completed before that
past implied moment while the other is still in progress.
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The sky had cleared and the moon was shining on the
snow.
She had done the work and was watching television.
Once the term had started, they were skimming through
books again.
4) The Past Perfect is found in the principal clause of
a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunctions scarcely… when, hardly…
when, nearly… when, no sooner… than, barely… when.
The action of the subordinate clause takes place when
the action of the principal clause is hardly completed yet.
Such sentences are emphatic in meaning and the word
order in them is inverted.
Hardly had I gone a hundred yards, when I noticed
a car behind me.
No sooner had she opened the door, than she saw
a stranger.
They had barely turned round the corner, when they
heard the sirens.
A bad storm was coming. This thought had no sooner
entered his mind, than heavy raindrops began to splash
against the window.
The Past Perfect Progressive
I. The Past Perfect Progressive is an analytical form which is
built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Past
Perfect and Participle I of the notional verb.
I had been working. He had been reading.
In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed
before the subject.
Had you been working? Had he been reading?
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In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary.
We had not been working. They had not been reading.
had been + V-ing (Participle I)
The Affirmative form
I
we
you
they
he
she
it
had (’d) been
doing
The Interrogative form
Had
I
we
you
they
he
she
it
been doing?
The Negative form
I
we
you
they
he
she
it
had not (hadn’t)
been doing
I had been doing this
work for a long time
when I decided to
have a break.
Had you been doing this
work for a long time when
you decided to have a
break?
I hadn’t been doing
this work for a long time
when I decided to have
a break.
At last he found the
keys he had been
looking for since
morning.
How long had he been
looking for his keys before
he found them?
He hadn’t been looking for his keys for a very
long time before he found
them.
II. The Past Perfect Progressive serves to express:
1) an action which began before a given past moment and
continued into it or up to it (the inclusive or the durative
type).
He had been saving money for the plane fare and intended to be present at the concert in Boston.
Allan asked the one urgent question that had been burning on his brain during the entire flight to Cleveland.
She suddenly realized that it was now completely dark
and that she had been walking for a long time.
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2) an action that was in progress just before a given past
moment and affects the past situation in some way.
She could tell he had been watching too many American cop films again.
At last, a policeman appeared on the scene. It was just
what Danny had been hoping for.
He rose from the chair on which he had been sitting.
It was the letter she had been expecting.
I dropped the pastry I had been eating and ran out of
the room.
3) parallel actions in the principal and in the subordinate
clause of time introduced by the conjunctions while and
since and such words as as long as, all time, during the
time.
Our friendship had been growing all the time we had
been working on the project.
The Future Tenses
The Future Simple
I. The Future Simple is an analytical form which is built up by
means of the auxiliary verbs shall and will and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to.
I shall see him tomorrow. He will visit them soon.
In present-day English there is a tendency to use will for
all the persons. The difference in the use of shall and will
disappears altogether in spoken English where the contracted
form ’ll is used with all the persons.
I’ll see him tomorrow. They’ll see him soon.
146
Will she help us?
Will they discuss the question next week?
They will discuss the question next
week.
phone you?
She will help us.
they
it
she
Shall I visit you tomorrow?
phone you
Will
be here?
phone you?
be here?
I’ll visit you tomorrow.
they
it
she
will (‘ll)
we
I
he
be here
Shall
he
phone you
be here
you
shall/ will (‘ll)
The Interrogative form
you
we
I
The Affirmative form
will not (won’t)
will not (won’t)
shall not (shan’t)
phone you
be here
phone you
be here
The Negative form
They won’t discuss the question next
week.
She won’t help us.
I shan’t (won’t) visit you tomorrow.
they
it
she
he
you
we
I
shall/will + the Infinitive
(without the particle “to”)
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
The auxiliary verbs shall and will are also used to build up
the interrogative and the negative forms.
Shall we see you tomorrow? Will they see him next
week? I shall not be here. He will not phone her.
II. The Future Simple is used only in present-time contexts to
express:
l) a single action that will be completed in the future, also
recurrent actions in the future.
It will be cold in the evening.
I shall/will come along as often as possible.
2) an action occupying a whole period of time in the future:
We hope you’ll live for many years happily.
Hopefully the sun will shine tomorrow — but in England you can never be sure.
There will be an early election this year.
My sister promises to do it for me, but I suspect it
won’t be this millennium.
3) recurrent actions in the future:
We shall meet and talk and make plans from time to
time.
The Future Progressive
I. The Future Progressive is an analytical form which is built
up by means of the auxiliary verb be in the Future Simple
and Participle I of the notional verb.
I shall be seeing him often now.
We shall be visiting them very soon.
148
Shall we be watching the news
at nine o’clock tonight?
Will the children be sleeping
when you come?
The children will be sleeping when
you come.
they
they
be watching?
be watching?
We’ll be watching the news at nine
o’clock tonight.
it
Will
it
be watching
she
will (‘ll)
she
we
he
Shall
he
be watching
I
you
shall (‘ll)/
will be
The Interrogative form
you
we
I
The Affirmative form
will not
(won’t)
will not
(won’t)
shall not
(shan’t)
be watching
be watching
The Negative form
The children won’t be sleeping when
you come.
We shan’t be watching the news
at nine o’clock tonight.
they
it
she
he
you
we
I
shall/will be + V-ing (Participle I)
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed
before the subject.
Shall I be seeing him often now?
Shall we be visiting them very soon?
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary.
II. The Future Progressive is used in the following cases:
1) To express an action in progress at a definite future moment or a period of time. The given future moment at
which the action takes place is usually indicated by an
adverbial modifier or is clear from the context or situation.
It will be too late. He will be sleeping.
In an hour I’ll be flying over the sea.
Without you I’ll be feeling blue the rest of my life.
2) To express an anticipated (a matter-of-course) action which
is supposed to take place in the future in the normal,
natural course of events.
I’ll call you back and let you know when I’ll be arriving.
I feel I shall be asking you the same question tomorrow.
She feels she’ll be suffering all her life.
Well, with some luck — I’ll be graduating next June.
Note: Even stative verbs can be used in this meaning.
She says she’ll be seeing you tomorrow.
Don’t worry! I’ll be knowing all about it very soon.
The Future Perfect
I. The Future Perfect is an analytical form which is built up
by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Future Simple
and Participle II of the notional verb.
I shall have read the book by that time.
He will have done it by that time.
150
Will they have got my fax by
morning?
written?
They’ll have got my fax by morning.
have
Will he have written the programme by the time the meeting begins?
they
it
she
done?
written?
done?
He’ll have written the programme
by the time the meeting begins.
written
Will
have
Shall I have read the magazine
by two o’clock?
have
we
I
I’ll have read the magazine by two
o’clock tomorrow.
they
it
she
will (‘ll)
Shall
he
done
written
done
he
have
you
shall (‘ll)/
will
The Interrogative form
you
we
I
The Affirmative form
(won’t)
will not
(won’t)
will not
(shan’t)
shall not
have
have
The Negative form
written
done
written
done
They won’t have got my fax by
morning.
He won’t have written the programme by the time the meeting
begins.
I shan’t (won’t) have read the
magazine by two o’clock.
they
it
she
he
you
we
I
shall/will have + done (Participle II)
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed
before the subject.
Will she have read the book by that time?
In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary.
She will not have read the book by that time.
(See the table on page 151.)
II. The Future Perfect is used to express an action completed
before a given future moment which is usually indicated by
an adverbial modifier of time.
You will have got my telegram before this letter reaches you.
I wonder how many specimens he will have collected
by the beginning of the tests.
Next year I will have lived for a quarter of a century
and as yet I have made no mark on the world.
It is used with such adverbs of time as: by that time, by
then, by now, by the end of the year, etc.
The Future Perfect Progressive
All the forms of the Future Perfect Progressive are formed
with the Future Perfect of the auxiliary verb be and Participle I of the notional verb.
I shall have been speaking for two hours before you
come.
The interrogative and negative forms are built up in the
usual way. The tense is hardly ever used, situations which require it very seldom arise. It denotes actions which began before a certain moment of time in the future and go on up to
that moment or into it.
I shall have been living here for five years next February.
152
We shall (will) have been living
in Moscow for ten years next
September.
have been
living?
have been
living?
Shall we have been living
in Moscow for ten years next
September?
they
they
she
it
Will
it
she
will (‘ll)
we
I
he
have been
living
Shall
he
have been
living
you
shall/
will (‘ll)
The Interrogative form
you
we
I
The Affirmative form
will not (won’t)
will not (won’t)
shall not (shan’t)
have been
living
have been
living
We shan’t (won’t) have been living
in Moscow for ten years next September.
they
it
she
he
you
we
I
The Negative form
shall/will have been + V-ing (Participle I)
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Other Means of Expressing Future Actions
in English
English is rich in means of expressing an action in the future actions owing to various modal meanings such as intention, willingness, readiness, obligation, assurance, expectation
and the like.
I. The Present Progressive is used to express an action in the
near future as definitely settled due to one’s previous decision.
You know, I’m leaving tonight.
She is coming to lunch on Thursday.
II. To be + infinitive (with to). In this combination to be to is
a modal verb. It serves to indicate previous arrangement
and obligation resulting from the previous arrangement.
I’ve had a letter from home. I am to go back at once.
Sometimes the meaning of obligation is so strong that
this combination expresses an order or an instruction.
You are not to talk like that in front of the child!
III. To be going to + infinitive. This form is in frequent use in
Modern English. It expresses a premeditated intention.
I am going to tell him what I think of him.
They are going to explain that tomorrow.
She’s going to have a baby.
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Reported Speech
Type of the
sentence
Affirmative
Imperative
General
question
Special
question
Direct Speech
Indirect (Reported) Speech
Ann says, “I am happy.”
Ann says (that) she is happy.
He says to us, “I like tennis.”
He tells us (that) he likes tennis.
She says, “I don’t know this
rule.”
She says (that) she doesn’t know
this rule.
They say, “Close the door,
please.”
They ask me to close the door.
Mary says to Tom, “Don’t close
the window.”
Mary tells Tom not to close
the window.
The officer orders the soldiers,
“Don’t talk.”
The officer orders the soldiers
not to talk.
The tourist asks me, “Do you
live in Moscow?”
The tourist asks me if I live
in Moscow.
He asks, “Is it raining now?”
He asks if (whether) it is raining
now.
The manager asks, “Are there
any people at the office?”
The manager asks if (whether)
there are any people at the office.
I ask them, “Where does Ben
live?”
I ask them where Ben lives.
They ask, “What’s the matter?”
They ask what the matter is.
We ask them, “When shall we
meet?”
We ask them when we shall
meet.
My friend asks, “Who called
you last night?”
My friend asks who called me
last night.
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*Verbs introducing reported speech:
add
advise
allow
describe
explain
complain
continue
inform
insist
note
observe
order
recommend
refuse
suggest
think
warn
wonder
offer
promise
protest
remark
reply
remind
The Sequence of Tenses
I. If the verb in the principal clause is in one of the present or
future tenses the verb in the subordinate clause may be in
any tense form required by the situation.
They will wonder where I
am now
was last night
will be soon
have been
II. The Sequence of Tenses is used when someone’s words are
reported. The rules of the Sequence of Tenses are mainly
observed in subordinate object, subject, predicative, appositive and adverbial clauses. After the past tense forms in the
principal clause we find a shift of tenses in the subordinate into the past. There are two possible cases:
1. The rules of the sequence of tenses are compulsory;
2. The rules of the sequence of tenses are optional.
1) The rules of the sequence of tenses are compulsory
when the action of the subordinate clause is viewed
from the past.
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a) If the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause, the Past
Simple or the Past Progressive is used in the object
clause no matter which past tense form is found in
the principal clause.
She didn’t know where she was.
He said that he lived in Rome.
They noticed that I was not listening.
They took the key when I was not looking.
b) If the action of the subordinate clause precedes that
of the principal clause, the Past Perfect or the Past
Perfect Progressive is used in the subordinate clause
no matter which past tense is found in the principal
clause.
She had a feeling that she had been deceived.
I knew you had left the city.
I knew well enough what she had been doing all
that time.
c) If the action of the subordinate clause refers to the
future, the Future-in-the Past (Simple or Progressive) or one of the other means of expressing a future action is used.
We hoped she would soon be better.
He was sure she would be thinking about him.
She said she was going to have a nap.
They explained that they were leaving the next day.
Ted believed in the American dream. That if you
wanted something badly enough and devoted your
heart and soul to it, you would ultimately succeed.
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2) The rules of the sequence of tenses are optional
(i. e. may be observed or not) when reference is made to
the actual present time or the actual future time. This
use is found in dialogues, newspapers and radio reports.
He said he doesn’t ever want to see you.
I said I’m making a salad for supper.
I wanted to know what day I’ll be leaving.
III. The rules of the Sequence of Tenses are not observed in
some quite logical cases:
1) when the verb of the subordinate clause expresses a universal truth or facts that still hold true.
My mother once told me that the East is where things
begin, where the sun rises, where the wind comes from.
My Granny used to tell me there are three things you
just can’t do in life. You can’t beat the phone company, you can’t make a waiter see you until he is ready
to see you and you can’t go back to your childhood.
At school in France the boys told me you can’t live with
forty-four degrees. And I’ve got a hundred and two.
Our Geography teacher told us at the last lesson that
there aren’t any unknown islands left on the earth.
2) with the modal verbs must, should, ought to, the rules of
the Sequence of Tenses are not observed either.
I wrote that I must see him.
He said she should be less choosy.
Two people advised me that I ought to see a doctor.
3) if we are reporting an immediate future event, we can
leave the verbs shall, will in the present tense:
Don’t leave. She said she will make some coffee.
He promised yesterday that he will decide the question
today.
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4) in reporting a narration the past tense does not change.
Also, if there is a concrete past date.
He said that he was born in Kiev and then the family
moved to Minsk.
She said she graduated from University in 2005.
5) the Past Simple in subordinate clauses of time introduced by the conjunctions when and since is not generally changed according to the rules of the Sequence of
Tenses into the Past Perfect Tense, though it is possible.
She said: “When I left school, he was already studying
at University.”
She said that when she left school, he was already
studying at University.
Mary said: “I haven’t met my boyfriend since we
parted.”
Mary said that she hadn’t met her boyfriend since
they (had) parted.
6) the Past Progressive doesn’t undergo any changes, it stays
as it is:
He remarked: “When I came in, she was singing.”
He remarked that when he came in, she was singing.
7) in clauses with Subjunctive Mood, as the use of tenses in
them is relative. All depends on whether the action of the
subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the main
clause.
He said, “If I were young again, I would be happy.”
He said that if he were young again, he would be happy.
She remarked, “Sally looks as if she were ill.”
She remarked that Sally looked as if she were ill.
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8) the expression used to does not undergo any changes.
Stuart said, “I used to play a lot of sport when I was
young.”
Stuart said that he used to play a lot of sport when he
was young.
Mind the changes
in the adverbial modifiers of place, time, etc.:
yesterday

the day before, the previous day
today
tomorrow
the day before yesterday
the day after tomorrow
last week
now
next week
this
these
ago
here











that day, the same day
the day after, the following day
two days before
in two days time
the week before, the previous week
then, immediately, at once
the week after, the following week
that
those
before
there
Voice
I. Voice is the form of the verb which shows whether the subject of the sentence is the doer of the action, expressed by
the verb, or whether it was acted upon. There are two voices in English — the Active Voice and the Passive Voice.
The Active Voice shows that the person or thing denoted
by the subject of the sentence is the agent (the doer) of the
action expressed by the predicate verb.
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It is common knowledge that the Passive Voice is more extensively used in English than in Russian. As a general rule, the
passive construction is used when there is no need to mention
the agent of the action because it is either easily understood
from the situation or context, or because it is not important.
Her flat is full of antique things that are never ever used.
Photography is not allowed at museums.
Her two brothers were wounded in the war.
The telegram was delivered on time.
II. The Passive Voice is an analytical form which is built up by
means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required form and
Participle II of the notional verb.
The Passive Voice
to be (in the required form) + Past Participle
Tense
Present
Simple
Past
Simple
Active Voice
The news
surprises me.
I
am surprised
by the news.
The news
surprises Nick.
Nick
is surprised
by the news.
The news
surprises us.
We
are surprised
by the news.
The news
surprised me.
I
was surprised
by the news.
The news
surprised us.
We
were surprised
by the news.
She
Present
Perfect
Passive Voice
has posted
The letter
the letter.
She
has posted
The letters
the letters.
He
will post
the letter.
He
is going to
post
the letter.
The letter
has been
posted
by her.
have been
posted
by her.
will be
posted
by him.
is going
to be posted
by him.
Future
The letter
161
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The Passive Voice in Progressive Tenses
Tense
Active Voice
Passive Voice
The doctor is examining
me (him, us) now.
I am being examined by
the doctor now.
He is being examined
now.
We are being examined
now.
When we moved to Moscow, they were building
a new metro station (new
metro stations) in the city.
When we moved to Moscow, a new metro station
was being built (new
metro stations were being
built) in the city.
Present Progressive
am
is
+ being +
Past Participle
are
Past Progressive
was
were
+ being +
Past Participle
The Passive Voice after Modal Verbs
V + be + Past Participle
Active Voice
I
He
You
She
He
Tom
They
You
can do
should do
ought to do
must do
has to do
is to do
may do
might do
Passive Voice
it.
it.
it.
it.
it.
it.
it.
it.
It
It
It
It
It
It
It
It
can be done
should be done
ought to be done
must be done
has to be done
is to be done
may be done
might be done
by me.
by him.
by you.
by her.
by him.
by Tom.
by them.
by you.
Remember: 1. Only one passive construction is possible with
the verbs explain, read, dictate, describe, point out, announce, mention, repeat.
The rule was explained to us.
The book was read to me.
The place was described to them.
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2. The verbs sell, wash, wear, bake, read are used in the Active Voice though the meaning is passive. Compare:
Detective stories sell
well.
This cloth washes and
wears well.
The pie is still baking.
Äåòåêòèâíûå ðàññêàçû
õîðîøî ïðîäàþòñÿ.
Ýòà òêàíü õîðîøî
ñòèðàåòñÿ è íîñèòñÿ.
Ïèðîã âñå åùå ïå÷åòñÿ.
The interrogative form is built up by placing the (first)
auxiliary verb before the subject of the sentence.
When was it done? Has the work been done?
When will the fax be sent?
Where is the school being built?
The negative form is built up by placing the particle not
after the (first) auxiliary.
The work was not done yesterday.
The fax hasn’t been sent yet.
No school is being built here.
(See the table on page 164.)
III. The Passive Voice in English is found with different types
of verbs (mostly transitive).
1) There are a number of verbs in English which take two
objects — a direct and an indirect object. These verbs
may have two passive constructions. The most frequently
used verbs of this kind are: to tell, to give, to offer, to
show, to pay, to live, to promise, to send, to teach, to allow, to ask, to answer, to forgive, to invite, to advise and
a few others.
A very good job was offered to me. I was offered a
good job.
English is taught to us. We are taught English.
163
The doctor
The patient
is being helped
has been helped
was helped
was being helped
had been helped
is going to be helped
will be helped
can be helped
should be helped
ought to be helped
must be helped
has to be helped
may be helped
might be helped
is helping
has helped
helped
was helping
had helped
is going to help
will help
can help
should help
ought to help
must help
has to help
may help
might help
the patient.
is helped
Passive Voice
helps
Active Voice
The Passive Voice in All the Tense Forms
by the doctor.
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
2) There are a great number of verbs in English that require a prepositional object. These verbs may also be
used in the Passive. The preposition retains its place after
the verb. This construction may be called the Prepositional Passive.
He is well spoken of as a man of science.
The doctor was sent for half an hour ago.
He was looked upon as their leader.
You’re being made a fool of.
3) Only one Passive construction is possible with verbs which
take two objects, direct and prepositional. Here belong
such verbs as to explain (something to somebody), to
point out, to announce, to dictate, to read, to describe, to
mention, to repeat, to suggest, to propose.
The difficulty was explained to her.
The mistake was pointed out to us.
A new plan was suggested to us.
The verdict was read aloud.
4) The active forms of the verbs sell, wash, peel, crease,
wear, bake, burn, read, cook, are used, though the meanings are passive:
Her solo album sells well.
This staff washes and wears well and doesn’t crease.
Dry leaves burn well.
This metal deforms under pressure.
The pie is baking. Tiles wash easily.
(Ñðàâíèòå â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå: «ïðîäàåòñÿ», «ïå÷åòñÿ», «ìíåòñÿ», «ñòèðàåòñÿ», «ìîåòñÿ» è ò. ä.)
165
*
should (would)
We
should (would)
I
would
shall (will)
He
will
We
shall (will)
I
He
were
We
He
was
are
We
I
is
am
He
I
Simple
— ôîðìû îòñóòñòâóþò.
Future in
the Past
Future
Past
Present
Tense
be asked
be asked
asked
asked
We
He
I
We
He
I
—
—
—
—
—
—
were
was
are
is
am
being
asked
being
asked
Progressive
We
He
I
We
He
I
We
should (would)
would
should (would)
shall (will)
will
shall (will)
have
has
have
I
He
have
has
have
We
He
I
Perfect
The Verb “ask” in All the Passive Forms
have been
asked
have been
asked
been asked
been asked
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Perfect
Progressive
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
5) There is a certain group of transitive verbs which are not
used in the Passive Voice. They are: to seem, to lack, to
become, to fit, to suit, to resemble. There are semantic
reasons for this, as these verbs don’t denote actions or
processes, but states.
Mary seems to know everything.
John resembles his father.
He has become a real professional.
Mood
Modality is a linguistic category which shows the relation
of the action or state expressed by the predicate verb to reality from the point of view of the speaker. Modality may be
expressed in English:
1. By modal words and phrases: maybe, probably, perhaps, possibly, obviously, evidently, to be sure.
2. By modal verbs: can, may, must, have to, should, would,
shall, will, ought to, be to, need, dare (to).
3. By mood-forms of the verb — the Direct and the Indirect
(Oblique) Moods.
Mood is the form of the verb which shows in what relation
to reality is the action expressed by the predicate verb. All
actions may be divided into real, unreal and problematic. Consequently there are in English: the direct moods — the Indicative and the Imperative; the indirect (oblique) moods — the
Subjunctive and the Conditional.
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The Direct Moods
The Indicative Mood is the most widely used mood in Modern English and is called a “fact” mood because it presents
actions as real facts. The verb in the indicative mood has the
category of tense, aspect and voice.
It’s fine weather today.
Now I understand that he was a terrific teacher.
The Imperative Mood is the mood of commands, requests,
warnings or wishes.
1. The imperative mood has only one tense form and one
number (the forms for the 2nd person singular and plural
are identical). It is formed with the help of the infinitive
without the particle “to”:
Be happy! Take it easy! Bless you!
Be picture perfect on that special day!
Watch out! Hold your tongue! Stay cool!
You (as the subject) is understood but generally not expressed in the imperative, unless it is emphatic:
Freeze! Dismiss! Relax!
Mind you! Don’t you be such a fault-finder!
Don’t you swear at me!
In the 1st and 3rd person the combination “let + infinitive”
is used:
Let me see what exactly this fax says.
Let’s come back to the story! Let’s stick together!
Let the punishment fit the crime.
The negative forms are:
Let us not argue, or Don’t let’s do anything silly!
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2. The emphatic imperative is formed by means of the auxiliary verb do, followed by the infinitive:
Do sit down! Do be honest! Do trust me!
3. The auxiliary verb do is used to make negative imperatives:
Don’t
Don’t
Don’t
Don’t
compromise yourself!
be difficult!
sign any papers without reading them!
panic! Don’t worry! Don’t be cheesy!
4. “Will you” or “would you” are very common after an imperative. “Will you” is the only form possible after a negative imperative:
Pay attention, will (would) you?
Don’t be late, will you?
Don’t answer back, will you?
In such cases the order turns into a kind of request.
The Indirect (Oblique) Moods
They represent actions in the speaker’s mind as something
desirable, supposed, doubtful, problematic or contrary to reality.
The Subjunctive Mood
The Subjunctive Mood represents actions as absolutely unreal:
I wish I were a child. (but I am not)
If he had followed his parents’ advice! (but he didn’t)
The Subjunctive Mood is a synthetical mood and has two
tenses: the present and the past.
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Historically the form of the Present Subjunctive coincides
with the Past Indefinite Indicative (is homonymous with it).
The verb “to be” generally has the form “were” for all persons
though there is a tendency now to use the form “was”.
The form of the Past Subjunctive coincides with the Past
Perfect Indicative of all verbs:
Present Subjunctive
If
I
he, she, it
we
you
they
Past Subjunctive
were
had been
knew
had known
had
had had
saw
had seen
If I were a student! — If I had been there then!
If we saw you more often! — If you had seen the film!
If she had more time! — If she had had time yesterday!
The tenses of the Oblique Moods are relative tenses. They
show whether the action of the verb in the oblique mood coincides in time with the action of the verb in the principal clause
or is prior to it (precedes it). And the verb in the main clause
may be in any tense form.
The Present Subjunctive expresses simultaneousness (simultaneous actions). The Past Subjunctive indicates priority (prior
actions).
1) Simultaneousness:
You look
You looked
You’ll look
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2) Priority:
You look
You looked
as if you had seen a ghost.
You’ll look
The Present and Past Subjunctive are used:
1. In simple sentences to express:
a) an unreal wish:
Oh, if it were so forever!
If I had thought about it before!
b) a possible, advisable, desirable action with modal verbs:
They might learn the news.
You had better leave now.
They could have waited for us.
2. In a subordinate clause of:
a) unreal condition:
If I were you, I would do my best.
The unreal condition can also be expressed by the phrase
“But for…”:
But for his help we wouldn’t have done the work.
b) unreal concession introduced by the conjunctions “even
though”, “even if”:
Even if I saw it with my own eyes I would never believe it.
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c) comparison or manner introduced by “as if”, “as though”:
He jumped at the offer as if it were his last chance.
There were times when I felt as if I were being spun
around in a washing machine, to tell you the truth.
d) in object clauses after expressions of wish:
We wish it were true. I wish you did (had done) me
a favour. We wished we might (could) help them.
e) in predicative clauses:
He feels as if he were going to die.
It looks as if it had snowed heavily all night.
f) in subject clauses after the expression “it is (high) time”:
It is high time we went to bed. It’s time you did it.
(Also: It is time for us to go to bed. It is time we should go
to bed.)
It’s time you thought about your future.
Isn’t it time they were here?
Unreal Actions and States after wish
I wish…
wish
I
wished
‘ll wish
Compare:
I
Simultaneous actions
Prior actions
were (was) free now.
had been free last week.
knew it.
saw the show.
I
had known it.
had seen the show.
Жаль, что я не свободен сейчас. Жаль, что я не был свободен
на прошлой неделе.
Я жалел, что не знал этого. Я жалел, что не знал этого раньше.
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We use wish + would (could):
a) to refer to general wishes for the future.
I wish it would stop raining.
We wish we could come to your party.
b) to talk about other people’s irritating habits. When we
speak about our annoying habits, could is used.
I wish you would stop bossing people around.
I wish I could stop eating so much chocolate.
The Conditional Mood
1. The Conditional Mood is an analytical mood. It has two
tenses — present and past.
The Present Conditional refers the action to the present or
future and is built up by means of the auxiliary verbs should
or would and the indefinite infinitive of the notional verb.
The Past Conditional refers the action to the past and is
formed with the help of the auxiliary verbs should or would
and the perfect infinitive.
Present Conditional
Past Conditional
I would (should) do
I would (should) have done
2. The Conditional Mood expresses an unreal consequence out
of some unreal condition. It can be used:
1) in a simple sentence with implied condition.
I would eat something delicious.
He would have never done it, I’m sure.
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2) in the principal clause of a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of unreal condition or concession.
We would be happy if you agreed.
Even if she came, it wouldn’t change anything.
3) in compound sentences after “or”, “otherwise”.
I hurry or I would stay.
Nobody told us, otherwise we would have called.
4) when the implied condition is expressed by the phrase
“but for…”.
But for you, I would be a nobody.
But for him. we would have never done it.
But for bad weather, the children would go for a walk.
Note: Modal verbs are used only in the form of the Present
Subjunctive to express that something is desirable, advisable, possible.
I could start my life anew if I had you!
You might be more courteous to the girl, Eric!
As modal verbs cannot have the Past Subjunctive, reference to the past is made by the use of the perfect infinitive:
You might have given us a hint!
She could have done it!
He ought to have foreseen the results, I guess.
The following set-phrases also have modal force in English:
had best, had rather, would sooner, would rather, would have,
had better.
You’d better not interfere.
I’d rather have tea.
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Mixed types of sentences
Time-reference of the actions in the main and in the subordinate clauses in a complex sentence may be different.
If the time of the action in the subordinate clause coincides
with the time of the action in the main clause, their relations
can be presented in the following way:
Present Subjunctive
Past Subjunctive


Present Conditional
Past Conditional
Conditional Sentences
Type of clause
Subordinate
clause
Main clause
I. A real condition
If I have money,
I’ll buy a computer.
Если у меня будут
деньги, я куплю
компьютер.
II. An unreal
condition
(present
or future)
If I had money,
I would buy
a computer.
Если бы у меня
были деньги, я бы
купил компьютер.
III. An unreal
condition
(past)
If I had had
money last year,
I would have
bought
a computer.
it would have
been great.
Если бы у меня
были деньги
в прошлом
году, я бы купил
компьютер.
If you had
done it,
IV. A mixed type
If you worked
hard, (вообще)
If you had
worked hard
last term,
(в прошлом)
Translation
you wouldn’t have
made so many
mistakes in the last
test. (в прошлом)
you would know
the answer now.
(сейчас, в настоящий момент)
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The condition may refer to the present or to no particular
time and the consequence to the past:
If he were not such a careless driver, he wouldn’t have
got into an accident.
If she knew Spanish, she would have found the way.
The unreal condition may refer to the past and the consequence to the present or future:
If you had read the book, you would know the answer.
If you had taken the medicine, you would be fine now.
The relations of the main and subordinate clauses in such
cases can be presented in the following way:
Present Subjunctive
Past Subjunctive




Present Conditional
Past Conditional
The Old Subjunctive Mood
It is a survival of the Old Subjunctive Mood. It denotes an
action referring to the present or future. It’s falling into disuse
and is very seldom used in Modern English. Though the form is
archaic, it can still be found in English in high prose, poetry,
official papers, some set-phrases (especially in the States).
The form is the plain stem of the verb for all persons.
Manners be hanged! Success attend you!
So be it! Everybody join us!
Far be it from me to tell you how to raise your child!
Also in curses:
Damn it! Confound it!
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Americans use it in subject clauses where the English use
the modal verb should.
I insist that you (should) be here.
It is necessary that you (should) go there.
Modal Verbs
I. According to their syntactical functions English verbs fall
into:
a) notional,
b) auxiliary,
c) semi-auxiliary.
a) The notional verb in its finite form serves as a simple verbal predicate in the sentence.
Marina teaches Latin.
These students are working diligently.
I have always been admiring this ballerina.
b) Auxiliary verbs are devoid of any lexical meaning and
help to build up analytical forms of other verbs.
We shall go there one day.
They have done all they can.
They will give her a chance, I’m sure.
c) Semi-auxiliary verbs are used to form compound predicates (nominal or modal). Here belong link verbs and
modal verbs.
She is (looks, seems, feels, …) smart.
It gets (becomes, grows, …) dark early in winter.
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I can hear you well.
You must keep it a secret.
He ought to join us.
II. The verbs can, may, must, have to, shall, should, will, would,
need, ought to, dare are called modal as they express modality alongside with moods and modal words and phrases.
Semantically modal verbs express neither actions nor states.
They only show the speaker’s attitude to the probability, improbability, necessity, advisability, desirability of the action
expressed by the main verb in the form of the infinitive (!),
which follows the modal verb.
Modal verbs are polysemantic. Each modal verb has more
than one meaning and can express different shades of modality (depending on a particular context). For instance, the verb
must can express duty, strong supposition, obligation, assurance, prohibition.
He must be here at nine o’clock, not later. (order)
He must be somewhere here, maybe in the lab. (supposition)
He mustn’t talk like that to the child. (prohibition)
The meanings of all modals are interrelated.
III Functionally modal verbs greatly differ from all other English verbs.
a) They are always followed by an infinitive of another verb,
forming a compound modal (verbal) predicate. The infinitive following the modal verb is used without the particle
“to” (except for the verbs ought to and be to).
b) Another peculiarity of modal verbs (except the verbs
have to, need to, be to) is that they lack some grammatical
forms. They don’t have any analytical forms; neither do
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they possess any participles, infinitives or gerunds; they
have no inflection -s for the third person singular. Modal
verbs have no imperative mood. They form the negative
and interrogative constructions without the auxiliary do.
Must we do it right now? Can (could) you help us?
You shouldn’t go there at all.
Although present and past forms can be identified, modal
verbs are not time-specific. With the verb can, for instance,
the present form can refer the action to the present or future
time.
I can speak Dutch. (present)
You can go to the concert if you like. (future)
The past form could may refer the action to the past, present or future.
I could drive when I was sixteen. (a real past action)
I could drive if you’re tired. (a present or future action)
I could pick you up tomorrow. (a future action)
c) Time reference is generally expressed through the form
of the infinitive following the modal verb. The reference
to the past is shown by the perfect form of the infinitive
(in the active or passive voice).
She must have left by now.
It must have been done long ago.
You should have written to your mother.
All this doesn’t mean that modal verbs are inferior to all
other verbs in the language. They belong to the main stock
of words of the English language and make it more rich and
colourful, expressing all the shades of our attitude towards reality.
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Can
I. The forms of the verb:
Can
Could
Could
(Present Simple
Indicative)
(Past Simple
Indicative)
(Present Subjunctive)
only indefinite infinitives follow
She can play chess
with me now.
She could play chess
when she was six.
all forms of the infinitive follow
She could play chess with me now.
She could be playing chess now.
She could have played chess with
me yesterday!
II. Can is used to express:
1. ability (physical, mental, learned skills).
Look, I can touch my toes. (present action)
I could touch my toes when I was younger. (past ability)
(hypothetical
I wish I could touch my toes.
present or fuI could touch my toes if I lost weight.
ture abilities)
He can drive (play chess, speak Chinese, etc.).
Love can move mountains.
Don’t think you cannot. Think you can.
Here’s a bit of advice from me. Take what you can
while you can. That’s my motto.
2. objective, logical possibility (or absence of it), depending
on circumstances (only with a simple infinitive).
Anyone can learn to use a word processor.
It can be true. It can’t be done.
You can get this book in any bookshop.
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A dog can be a very pleasant company on long country
walks.
3. asking for, giving, refusing permission (a simple infinitive is used).
Can (could) I borrow your pen?
You can join us.
No, you can’t watch television so late. (prohibition)
4. requests or refusing requests.
Can you give Katy a lift?
I can’t do that today.
I’m afraid I can’t babysit tomorrow.
5. doubt, uncertainty or disbelief (only in interrogative and
negative sentences!, corresponding to the Russian “íåóæåëè”, “íå ìîæåò áûòü”); all types of infinitives can follow.
— Can they really be here? — They can’t be here.
— Can they really be staying at this hotel? — It can’t
be so.
They can’t have been staying at this hotel for a month
already!
Note: two negations in the same sentence are usually avoided
by using words of negative meaning: to fail, to misunderstand, to misinterpret, to be unaware, to be unconscious, nobody, never, no, etc.
Can
Can
She
Can
he have failed to get there on time?
they still be unaware of the danger?
can’t have misunderstood you.
they have told nobody about it?
6. reproach (though may is more common in this meaning).
You could wait for us. They could have warned me.
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May
I. The forms of the verb:
May
Might
Might
(Present Simple
Indicative)
(Past Simple Indicative)
(Present Subjunctive)
only indefinite infinitives follow
all types of infinitives
He might help you.
He may know it.
He said that he might do it.
He might be working.
He might have done it.
II. It is used to express:
1. an objective or logical possibility (where it is often replaced by can). Only an indefinite infinitive can follow.
One may come across such things in everyday life.
He realises that it may be correct.
One day your dreams may all come true, one day the
sun will shine on you.
2. asking for permission (an indefinite infinitive follows it).
May I go now?
May I use your telephone?
May I came in.
Note: Might in present-time contexts expresses a very polite,
formal request.
Might I trouble you for the sugar?
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3. supposition mixed with doubt («ìîæåò áûòü», «âîçìîæíî»).
Different infinitives may follow it.
She may be at work now.
She may be working now.
She may have done the work.
She may have been doing the work for hours.
It is never too late to be what you might have been.
(George Eliot)
Note: Might expresses greater doubt.
We might catch the train. (there is almost no possibility to do it)
4. reproach, reprimand, mild recommendation (only might is
used).
You might give me a hand.
You might have given me a hand! It’s too late now.
You might as well wait for me.
5. Sometimes the verb may can weaken its lexical meaning
of possibility to a great extent. Practically it’s not translated, but formally is used in certain cases:
a) in simple sentences expressing wish.
May success attend you!
May you be happy in the life you’ve chosen!
b) in subject clauses after the words: possible, likely, probable (only in affirmative constructions).
It’s possible it may rain soon.
It’s probable they may refuse.
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c) in object clauses after expressions of hope, wish or fear
when the fulfilment of the wish is unlikely and depends on the circumstances.
I wish we might get a ticket for tomorrow.
We fear she may be late.
We fear that he might lose his way in the darkness.
d) in clauses of purpose.
Come nearer so that I may see you better. (present or
future action)
He shut the door so that she might not hear. (past action)
e) in clauses of concession (with reference to the present
or future).
Whenever you may come, you are always welcome.
Wherever he might travel, he was desperately homesick and lonely.
Even though I may go, I’ll always remember the good
old days in England.
Can and May (Comparison)
I. The forms:
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Can — Present Simple
May — Present Simple
Could — Past Simple
Might — Past Simple
Could — Present Subjunctive
Might — Present Subjunctive
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II. Meanings:
Can
Common meanings
May
1. ability (physical, mental)
—
—
2. objective, logical
possibility
3. permission, polite
request
+
“can” is more common.
+
synonyms (indefinite
infinitives)
objective, logical
possibility
permission, polite
request, very formal
4. doubt or disbelief
(negative and interrogative sentences) (different infinitives)
—
—
5. reproach
+
reproach, mild recommendation
“might” is more common.
(different infinitives)
—
—
supposition (only in
affirmative sentences)
Compare the following:
You just can’t count on September weather, can you?
It’s hot and sunny at the moment, but it might well
start snowing tomorrow.
You see, I may be old, but no one can pull the wool
over my eyes. No one at all.
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Must
I. The forms.
must
have to
(Present)
(Past and Future)
She says she must leave.
She said she had to leave.
She says she’ll have to leave.
Must is also used to express a very near future action.
I must stay in tonight and finish my essay. (rather
than will have to)
Must is not used with reference to the distant future.
probably
unlikely
are used instead.
evidently
certainly
most probably
They will probably come next week.
The weather is unlikely to change.
II. Must is used to express:
1. Duty, necessity, obligation (only an indefinite infinitive
follows).
I must go and make a phone call.
You must do it and that’s it.
You must be honest with her, you really must.
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2. Prohibition in negative sentences.
You mustn’t talk that way!
You mustn’t treat her like that.
3. Rules, laws, social and moral responsibility.
Schools must teach children such things.
You must drive on the left when you go to England.
We must go and see Sally, she’s in hospital.
4. Advice (to someone or to yourself).
You must see a doctor about your leg.
I must lose weight.
Things must change.
You must see that film, it’s terrific.
5. Supposition mixed with assurance, only in affirmative sentences (not in interrogative and negative!). All types of infinitives can follow (corresponds to the Russian «äîëæíî
áûòü», «î÷åâèäíî», «âåðîÿòíî»).
They
They
They
They
must
must
must
must
be here.
be waiting for us.
have been here for a week.
have been waiting for an hour.
In interrogative and negative sentences the verb “can” is
used.
She must be here. (Îíà, äîëæíî áûòü, çäåñü.)
Can she be here? (Íåóæåëè îíà çäåñü?)
She can’t be here! (He ìîæåò áûòü, ÷òî îíà çäåñü!)
Íå must have missed the bus.
Can he have missed the bus?
He can’t have missed the bus.
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Note: double negation is avoided with the help of some words
of negative lexical meaning: to fail, to misunderstand, to
misinterpret, to be unaware, to be unconscious, nobody,
never, no, etc.
They must have failed to find him.
She must have had no chance to meet them.
The boss must be unaware of the situation.
You must have misunderstood me.
Have To
This modal phrase can be used in all the three tenses: present, past and future.
have (has) to…
Present Simple
had to…
Past Simple
Present Subjunctive Mood
will (shall) have to…
Future Simple
The interrogative and negative forms are made up with the
help of the auxiliary verb do (did, shall, will).
Do (did, will) you have to …?
Like all the other modal verbs the verb have to is semiauxiliary. On the one hand it helps to form a compound modal
predicate in the sentence, on the other hand it has got a lexical meaning of its own expressing necessity, duty, obligation,
arising out of, or imposed by circumstances.
We use must/have to to describe an obligation where you
have no choice; to let you know what is allowed and what is
forbidden, prohibited, against the law, against the rules.
In England you must drive on the left.
In England you have to drive on the left.
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It corresponds to the Russian «âûíóæäåí», «ïðèõîäèòñÿ».
I hate to say goodbye but I have to go home. (necessity)
At least we don’t have to go to work tomorrow, thank
goodness. (absence of necessity)
The forms with got to (have got to) are very common spoken forms:
Sorry, I can’t stay. I’ve got to go out again.
— I don’t want to do this. — But the teacher says
we’ve got to.
Must and Have To
(Comparison)
In the present tense you have a choice between must and
have to. The difference in meaning is not great but the knowledge of it can be useful.
Choose must if you want to suggest that the obligation
comes from you.
Choose have to to suggest that the obligation comes from
somewhere else.
I must try to lose weight. (it’s my own idea)
I have to try to lose weight. (the doctor has told me to
lose weight)
You must leave at once! (this is an order from me,
I want you to leave)
You have to leave at once! (I don’t mind if you stay,
but I have just been given a telephone message for
you)
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Be To
This modal phrase has several meanings which are close to
the expressions of obligation. The chief meaning is that of prearranged necessity or mutual arrangement. It’s used in the present and past, never in the future; have to is used in this case.
Forms
am/is/are to
was/were to
shall/will/have to
Present Simple
Past Simple
Future Simple
I am to meet the delegation.
I was to meet the delegation.
I’ll have to meet the
delegation.
He is to make a report.
He was to make a report.
He will have to make
a report.
They are to arrive
tomorrow.
They were to arrive yesterday.
They will have to arrive
next week.
Meaning
1. Non-perfect and perfect infinitives are used after the past
tense of the modal verb to be to. A perfect infinitive after it
shows that certain plans and arrangements were made but
the action was not carried out. Compare:
She was to meet us. (Nothing shows that she didn’t
do it.)
She was to have met us. (The action had been planned
but it wasn’t carried out.)
2. Be to can also express an objective possibility (only with the
passive infinitive).
The book is to be got (had) in any shop. (It doesn’t
express any obligation, and corresponds to the Russian
«ìîæíî äîñòàòü».)
He is to be congratulated on his success.
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3. It can also express a command. In negative sentences it expresses strict prohibition.
You are to report to the Dean.
You are not to come here.
At the beginning of the war every man under forty
was to serve in the armed forces.
4. It also expresses something unavoidable, something which is
doomed or predestined (in Russian — «ñóæäåíî áûëî»).
It was to happen.
They were never to meet again.
5. In questions it means that you ask for instructions.
What am I to do? Who is to question him?
Am I to go there? Compare: Shall I…?
Will
Will is either tense auxiliary or modal. It has two forms:
will — would. As a modal verb will can express:
1. invitations, polite requests or offers referring to the present
or future.
Will you give me a hand?
Will they go to the theatre with us?
Will you have a cup of coffee?
2. volition, willingness, strong intention, determination.
I will fight for the right to live in freedom.
Bert rang me up at the office today. I will kill whoever gave him the number. I will work out, I promise.
If you will help us, it’ll be great. (in subordinate clauses of condition)
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3. insistence on undesirable habits (present or future).
He will keep losing his keys.
Never mind, these things will happen.
4. resistance with inanimate objects when something is broken
and isn’t working.
The orange won’t peel. The wound won’t heal.
The car won’t start.
He’s trying to open the jar, but the lid won’t come off.
I’ve explained the situation over and over again, but
she just won’t listen.
5. inevitability.
Whatever will be will be.
Truth will come out.
After every storm the sun will shine.
6. some assurance, prediction.
— Someone has come. — That will be Jane.
Friends will be friends.
Boys will be boys. And sometimes girls will be boys.
Would
Would can be a tense auxiliary, a mood auxiliary or a modal verb.
He said he would come soon. (a tense auxiliary)
If I were you, I would do the same. (a mood auxiliary)
She wouldn’t agree to retire, no matter how tired she
was. (a modal verb)
It would be fine if you would stop quarrelling. (a modal verb)
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As a modal verb it can express:
1. present or future permission, invitations.
Would you let me borrow the car?
Would you come to the party with me?
2. asking for information (things).
Would you carry this for me?
What would you like to drink?
3. undesirable past habits (recurrent actions).
He would lose his temper all the time.
4. recurrent, habitual actions (only in the past).
He would come and stay with us every Sunday.
5. assumption.
Someone is knocking. That would surely be Tom.
6. a wish, depending on somebody else.
I wish you would stop crying.
She would have left the house long ago if her father
would allow it. But he would not allow it.
Shall
It can be either tense auxiliary or modal. It has two forms:
shall — should. As a modal verb it can express:
1. promise (for the 2nd and 3rd person singular).
He shall get the prize.
Fragile objects shall not be accepted.
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2. compulsion, threat or warning (2nd and 3rd person singular).
You shall be punished.
She shall pay for it, she shall answer for her actions.
3. a suggestion, polite request, asking for instructions.
What shall I do next?
Shall we start? Shall we help you?
Let’s stay here, shall we?
Need
I. The Forms.
The verb need is regular in all tenses, and takes the construction TO NEED TO + VERB.
need to
needed to
shall/will need to
Present Simple
Past Simple
Future Simple
I need to go there.
I needed to go there.
I shall/will need to go there.
Do I need to go there?
Did you need to go
there?
Shall I
Need I go there?
(только в наст. вр.)
You needn’t go there.
need to go there?
Will you
You didn’t need to
go there.
You won’t need to go there.
He needs to do it now. I need to think it over.
Does he need to do it now?
He doesn’t need to do it now.
In the present tense only, there is an alternative form which
behaves like must or can, i. e., it doesn’t change, and it forms
the negative need not and the question form need I?
— Need I help you? — You needn’t do it.
— Need they stay here? — They needn’t stay here.
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Use need to for all other tenses:
I need to do it now. I did not need to do it.
Do you need to do it now? We don’t need to do it now.
You will need to do it. Would they need to do it? etc.
The past forms: did not need to (go) and need not have
(gone).
Need not have (gone) has a particular meaning: it says that
you did something which was not necessary (i. e. you wasted
your time!). Did not need to (go) says that it was not necessary
to do something, but it does not say whether in fact you did it
or not.
I needn’t have bought a French-English dictionary.
(But you bought one.)
I didn’t need to buy a French-English dictionary.
(Either you had it or there was no need to do it.)
Was it necessary?
Did she buy one?
needn’t have bought
No
Yes
didn’t need to buy
No
No
II. Need is used to express that something is necessary or useful to do. It is similar to must or have to.
You need to work much harder.
She needs to improve her handwriting.
Do I need to get a visa?
Do not need to or need not says that something is not necessary. It is similar to do not have to.
You don’t need to wear glasses all the time.
He can go now: he does not need to wait.
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The difference between you don’t need to and you needn’t
is very slight and it is better to use the regular form (don’t
need to, Do I need to…?). You will most often hear the irregular form in the following situations:
1. as a response to the question Must I…? or Do I have to…?
Must I do it right away? — No, you needn’t do it now;
leave it until tomorrow if you like.
2. to say that it is useless to try to do something.
You needn’t imagine that I don’t know what you have
been doing.
3. to say that something is not expected or not possible.
You needn’t give me a lift on your scooter — I’m much
too heavy anyway.
Should
Should may be either an auxiliary or a modal verb.
I. When should is used as tense or mood auxiliary it is not
translated since it has no lexical meaning of its own.
She said we should go there next year. (tense auxiliary)
If I had such a chance, I should take it. (mood auxiliary)
II. As a modal verb should expresses duty, obligation often
weakened to the meaning of advice, warning, reproach, rebuke.
You should help him. (advice, recommendation)
You should do your best. (obligation, duty)
You should have given up this idea long ago. (reproach,
rebuke)
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You should nurse your dreams and protect them
through tough times. (advice)
You should look after your money, and your money
will look after you.
They say you should be careful what you wish for,
because you might just get it.
“There’s a school of thought,” I said, “that parents
shouldn’t criticize children. They should encourage instead. You know, people rise to other people’s expectations. And when you criticize, it just means you’re
expecting failure.”
Note: In emotional speech should can express indignation,
astonishment, regret after the words why, what, how,
who(m), I’m sorry:
Why should I go there?
How should I know? (ñ êàêîé ñòàòè?)
Different infinitives can follow.
You should be friendly to people. (the reference is
made to the present, future or to no particular time)
You should be working now, not polishing your nails!
(the reference is made to the present moment)
Children should be learning, not earning.
You should have done it. (the reference is made to the
past)
The positive construction with a perfect infinitive after should
shows that the action was desirable but wasn’t carried out.
You should have come. (but you didn’t)
Now, you have become the person you should have
always been.
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The negative construction with the perfect infinitive shows
that the action which took place in the past was not desirable.
You shouldn’t have come. (but you did)
III. In certain cases the modal verb should weakens its lexical
meaning to such a great extent that it’s practically lost;
nevertheless it is used in the following cases traditionally
called “The Suppositional Mood”:
1. in subject clauses introduced by the anticipatory it after
the words: necessary, desirable, advisable, recommended,
surprising.
It is advisable you should make up with your parents.
Note 1: After affirmative constructions like it is possible, it is
likely, it is probable, may + infinitive is also used.
It is likely that it may snow soon.
The suppositional mood is used in negative and interrogative constructions.
Is it possible that one should not know the results?
Note 2: After the expression it is (high, about) time...
It is (high, about) time we should have a snack.
2. in object clauses.
a) after expressions of order, recommendation or suggestion (insist, suggest, propose, order, demand, arrange).
She ordered that everybody should leave the room.
b) after expressions of fear when the object clause is introduced by the conjunction lest («÷òîáû íå...») or so
that («òàê ÷òîáû...»).
We feared lest they should get lost.
I’m so much afraid that I should be refused.
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3. in adverbial clauses of:
a) purpose, introduced by lest («÷òîáû íå…»).
Let’s talk it over lest there should be any misunderstanding.
May (might) + an indefinite infinitive can also be used:
Come nearer that I may hear you well.
b) concession after the conjunctions though, whatever,
whoever, whenever, etc. with reference to the future.
However hard it should rain, we shall go.
Whatever he should say, I will not change my mind.
Whenever you should come, you are most welcome.
c) condition.
If you should see her, say a big hello to her.
More emphatic:
Should you see her, say a big hello to her.
Inversion is possible with the verb should.
Should you change your mind, no one will blame you.
Ought to
It comes originally from the verb owe, and still carries
the idea that we owe some moral obligation to other people
and to ourselves.
I really ought to go and have my eyes tested. (I owe it
to myself, I haven’t done my duty.)
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Ben really ought to see his parents more often. (he
rarely sees them)
They ought to ban smoking in public places. (the obligation comes from outside)
I. It has only one form for the present tense and unlike all
other modals is always followed by the infinitive with the
particle to. Time reference is expressed through the form of
the infinitive.
You ought to do it. (present tense)
You ought to have done it. (past action which was desirable but wasn’t carried out)
II. Like the modal verb should ought to expresses advice, social and moral responsibility.
You
You
She
You
ought to
oughtn’t
ought to
ought to
see a doctor.
to smoke so much.
look after her children better.
ask for your money back.
III. Should and ought to are very close in meaning. Unlike
must/have to which express obligation where you have no
choice, should and ought to describe a sort of obligation
where you have a choice:
You shouldn’t carry a lot of money with you.
People oughtn’t to leave their bags unattended.
You should help old people.
He ought to take up some sport.
In the above illustrations, we are free to do or not to do
what we are advised.
Still there is some very slight difference between them.
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Should suggests an obligation more moral and binding than
ought to and therefore offers stronger advice and conveys
greater certainty in prediction.
Ought to often suggests that the action is unlikely to be
fulfilled. Compare:
You should go. (this is absolute)
You ought to go. (But I know that you don’t want to
go, so it’s up to you to decide.)
Dare (To)
Like the verb need the verb dare is a regular verb which
has the pattern dare (to) do something. However, in the present tense there is an alternative form in negative sentences.
Compare:
I daren’t do it instead of the regular I don’t dare to
do it.
Note: In negative sentences the particle to is usually not used
after dare.
She daren’t go there alone.
Don’t you dare throw it away.
Forms
dare (to)
dared (to)
shall/will dare (to)
Present Simple
Past Simple
Future Simple
Nobody dares to tell the
truth.
Nobody dared (to) tell the
truth.
Who dares to look at it?
Who dared (to) look at it?
Nobody will dare (to)
tell the truth.
Who will dare to look
at it?
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Positive
Negative (no particle “to”)
We dared to come.
We didn’t dare do it.
Note also the fixed expression I daresay … when you are
saying that you believe that something could be true:
I daresay you are feeling tired after your long journey.
The Modal Phrases
Had Better, Would Rather
Had better has a similar meaning to should but stronger.
We use it to offer advice. We mean, “If you don’t do this,
there will be à bad consequence or result.” We often use it to
give someone a warning. (Don’t use it when you are talking to
a person in a position of authority. It can be insulting.)
You’d better budget your time carefully.
You’d better give it a second thought.
You’d better stay in bed not to make your cold get
worse.
Would rather means “prefer”, it’s a way to compare two
choices or more alternatives. In the negative would rather
not is often a polite way to say, “I don’t want to do that”.
Molly would rather live alone.
What would you rather do?
I’d rather (would rather) + Past Simple is used when we
want to say what we want someone (or something) else to
do in the present or future.
I’d rather you didn’t behave in such a way.
I’d rather the show started a little earlier.
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I’d rather + Past Perfect is used when we want to say
what we wanted to happen in the past.
I’d rather you hadn’t gone there.
I’d rather they had gone out more often.
All the means of expressing modality can be presented in
the following table. They are placed in order of “strength”.
Someone is sitting in the garden. I wonder who that is?
Perhaps it’s Pam.
Certain
It is Pam.
It will be Pam.
It must be Pam.
It should be Pam.
It may be Pam.
It might be Pam.
It could be Pam.
It ought to be Pam.
It couldn’t be Pam.
It can’t be Pam.
It won’t be Pam.
Uncertain
Certain
I think it’s Pam.
I don’t think it’s Pam.
It is not Pam.
The Verbals
(The Non-Finite Forms of the Verb)
I. The Verbals — the Infinitive, the Gerund and the Participle
are also called the Non-Finite Forms of the Verb. Unlike the
finite forms of the verb which always have a subject with
which they agree in number and person, the verbals are not
restricted in number and person by any grammatical subject.
This is for you (her, us, them) to decide.
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II. The verbals cannot express predication by themselves; they
can be only part of predicate in combination with finite
forms of the verb.
They began talking loudly.
I must ask you to leave.
She seems to know everything.
III. In common with the finite forms of the verb all the verbals have tense and voice distinctions. What is traditionally
called “tenses of the finite forms” differs greatly from the
tenses of the verbals. The tenses of the finite forms indicate the time of the action. The tenses of the verbals express relative time indication; they usually show whether
the action expressed by the verbal:
a) coincides with the action of the finite form of the verb (in
the present, past or future)
I am glad to see you again. (the actions are simultaneous)
b) or is prior to the action of the finite form of the verb (in
the present, past or future).
I am glad to have seen you. (the perfect infinitive indicates priority)
The Infinitive
I. Due to its historical origin and development the Infinitive
has noun and verb characteristics.
The noun characteristics of the Infinitive are displayed in its
syntactical functions in the sentence. It can function:
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1. as the subject of the sentence.
To travel means to enlarge your horizons.
To make the world better has always been his aim
in life.
2. as an object.
Will you teach me to dance?
Never forget to say “thank you”.
I cannot afford to panic.
It gives me great comfort to think of you.
3. as part of predicate (predicative).
To forgive is to understand all.
A witty limerick is very difficult to write.
4. as an attribute.
There is a problem to solve.
There are so many good books to read.
II. The Infinitive has the following verb characteristics.
1. Aspect.
2. Tense.
Common
Continuous
to write
to have written
to be writing
to have been writing
a) Indefinite
b) Perfect
to write
to have written
She seems to write only detective novels.
He seems to be writing a new book.
They seem to have done the work.
They seem to have been doing it for so long.
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a) The indefinite infinitive shows that the action expressed
by the infinitive is simultaneous with the action of the
finite form of the verb in the sentence.
He helped us (to) do the work.
After the verbs to expect, to hope, to intend, to warn, also
after modal verbs (to have to, to be to), the indefinite infinitive may also refer to à future action:
What am I to do now?
She has to catch a train.
b) The perfect infinitive shows that the action expressed by
the infinitive precedes the action indicated by the finite
form of the verb.
I’m sorry to have been of so little help.
After the modal verbs should, could, ought to, might, to be
to, the perfect infinitive is used to show that the action considered desirable or planned was not carried out.
You should have phoned me at once.
I ought to have known it.
After the past tense of the verbs hope, intend, expect, the
perfect infinitive is used to indicate that the action was not
carried out. Compare:
I intended to finish the book soon. (maybe I did it)
I intended to have finished the book soon. (but I didn’t)
3. Voice.
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Active
Passive
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to have written
to be written
to have been written
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Both forms can be used in some cases. Compare:
They are not to blame (= to be blamed). There is a lot
to discuss (= to be discussed). The house is to let (= to
be let). This is a book to read (= to be read). The question has to be decided. The room ought to have been
cleaned.
The Forms of the Infinitive
Active
Passive
Simple
to write
to be written
Perfect
to have written
to have been written
Progressive
to be writing
—
Perfect Progressive
to have been writing
—
III. In Modern English the infinitive is usually preceded by the
particle “to”. The position of “to” may change the meaning
of the utterance. Compare the following:
“True”, she said. “But you could have tried.”
He had tried. Not to ring her, but to not ring her.
Sometimes it can be divided by different words of adverbial character. The so called “Split Infinitive” («ðàñùåïëåííûé
èíôèíèòèâ») is used for the sake of emphasis.
He came to fully realise the danger.
It appeared to both excite and relax him.
But then, nobody seems to really care.
Then Dad yelled at everybody to just shut up.
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IV. The infinitive is used without the particle “to”:
1. after the auxiliary verbs
do, does, shall, will, should,
would
2. after the modal verbs
(exept ought to, be to,
have to) and modal
phrases
— Do you speak French? — I don’t know it.
— Shall I help them? — They will do it themselves.
— What should I do? — We would call you if we
could.
My sister can play football.
What must I do?
You’d better leave now.
We cannot but refuse him.
3. after the verbs of sense
perception to hear, to see,
to feel, to notice, to watch
Somebody heard him say that.
Nobody saw them leave.
We noticed her turn pale.
She watched the plane land.
But: if the verbs are in the Passive Voice the infinitive is used with the particle “to”.
He was heard to say that.
They were seen to leave.
She was made to do it.
4. after the verbs of compulsion let and make
Let us discuss the problem.
We let them decide the question.
I’ll make you understand it.
You can’t make me do such a thing.
Remember:
The Verb let isn’t used in the passive voice, use the verb allow instead.
They were allowed to decide the question.
5. In questions starting with
Why? («почему бы не..?»)
Why do it? Why risk it?
Why not go to a pub?
Why not tell us the whole story?
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The Functions of the Infinitive in the Sentence
The infinitive can be used in the sentence:
1. As subject.
To get out of difficulty, go through it.
To learn, to desire, to know, to feel, to think, to act —
is what I want in Life.
To be forewarned is to be forearmed.
Just to be alive is a grand thing. (Agatha Christie)
Also as subject in sentences with the anticipatory “it”.
It was natural to invite her to the party.
It gives me pleasure to think of you.
2. As predicative (part of a compound nominal predicate).
The main problem is to get the money.
What I want is to be healthy, wealthy and wise.
The purpose of knowledge is to make you wiser and
stronger.
The best way to cheer yourself up is to cheer someone
else up.
Also as part of a predicative:
The book is hard to read.
This child is easy to teach.
He isn’t easy to do business with.
The situation is going to be tough to deal with.
3. As part of a compound verbal predicate:
a) modal.
You must speak out. You can trust us. They should
think about it.
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b) aspective with verbs denoting the beginning, the end
or the duration of an action: to start, to begin, to continue, to cease, used to, would + infinitive, etc.
She began to speak perfect English.
Soon I came to know her too.
We used to listen to lectures at the University.
c) after the verbs of modal character seem, appear, happen,
chance, turn out, prove.
They seem to know everything.
She happened to be passing the hotel.
4. As an object.
a) to the following verbs:
agree, arrange, ask, decide, expect, fail, forget, hope, intend, learn, like, love, manage, mean, offer, plan, pretend,
promise, propose, refuse, regret, try, want, wish and some
others.
We decided to sleep on it. (Óòðî âå÷åðà ìóäðåíåå.)
We managed to see him at last.
She hoped to succeed in life.
I promise to support you.
They arranged to meet at the club.
b) to an adjective (or a participle):
(un)able, afraid, anxious, ashamed, astonished, careful,
delighted, determined, free, fortunate, frightened, furious,
glad, happy, helpless, lucky, pleased, ready, right, sorry,
surprised, thankful, useless.
We are anxious to see them.
I’m lucky to know the news.
I am sorry to have given you so much trouble.
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c) after a number of transitive verbs in the Active Voice
followed by an object expressed by a noun or a pronoun:
to advise, to allow, to ask, to beg, to intend, to invite,
to know, to like, to love, to persuade, to press, to realize,
to recommend, to tell, to think, to trust, to understand, to
want, to warn, to wish.
I persuaded her to change the decision.
He taught Mary to play chess.
5. As an attribute (to nouns, indefinite pronouns, etc.).
The infinitive in the function of an attribute immediately
follows its head-noun.
It was a day to remember.
Here are some instructions to follow.
Who was the first to think of it?
He is not a man to be easily frightened.
She wants to choose someone to spend the rest of her
days with.
The will to live is the strongest force in the world.
We never seem to have a moment to spare these days.
She isn’t a person to throw everything she possessed
to the wind.
6. As an adverbial modifier:
a) of purpose.
He went to England to improve his English.
My sun sets to rise again. (Robert Browning)
We stopped to consult the map.
She is studying to be a teacher.
I left the flat to get some fresh air.
She used the remote control to switch on the television.
Use the Internet to find the source of this information.
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b) of degree or result (enough, too).
She is clever enough to realize it.
I’m too tired to argue with you.
c) of unexpected consequence.
I awoke one morning to find myself famous.
He went out into the street to find himself alone.
I opened the door of the pub to discover that the place
was packed with people.
She got back to Oxford to find a note from her boyfriend.
7. As parenthesis (parenthetically):
to begin with, to be (quite) frank, to be sure, to put it
mildly, to make things worse, to say the least, to tell the
truth, to crown it all, to top it all, needless to say; to make
a long story short, to be exact, strange to say, to say nothing
of, to be honest.
To be quite frank, I don’t like him at all.
He was, strange to say, an ordinary chap.
To tell the truth, there were times when I felt as if
I were being spun around in a washing machine.
The Complex Object
The term comes from the classical “Accusativus cum Infinitivo” and is commonly known in grammar as “The Complex
Object”.
I. Some transitive verbs are followed by an object (expressed
by a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective
case) with an infinitive following it.
I want my friends (them) to stay with me.
Doctors want us to just stop overeating.
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The two elements are closely connected and form syntactically a complex object. The relation between the noun (or pronoun) and the infinitive is that of the “secondary subject” and
“secondary predicate” of the sentence.
II. The “Accusative with the Infinitive” is used after:
1. verbs of liking or disliking, such as to want, to wish, to
desire, to like, to hate, etc.
I want you to get to the point.
Do you wish me to interfere?
We can’t bear you to speak about it.
Mrs. Forester wants me to modernize her cottage.
2. verbs of mental perception such as to expect, to know, to
believe, to consider.
We knew her to be an expert on the matter.
They expect Linda to succeed.
The scientists consider the event to be a phenomenon.
3. verbs of sense perception to hear, to see, to feel, to notice, to
observe, to watch.
She did not hear Paula come in, so soft was her step.
No one noticed him leave the room.
I’ve never seen her look so beautiful.
4. verbs of compulsion make, let, have, get to.
I’ll get you to do it.
“Who made you agree to this?”
She will let the children take a dog.
Let me do it in my own way.
Nobody will get me to do it.
Television commercials try to make you buy without
thinking.
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When the verb make is in the Passive Voice, the infinitive is used with the particle “to”. Let has no Passive. Use allow or permit instead of it. Compare:
They let us stay. We were allowed to stay.
We are made to learn spelling rules by heart.
The “Accusative with the Infinitive” is rendered in Russian
by means of a subordinate object clause.
I want you to do it. — ß õî÷ó, ÷òîáû òû ýòî ñäåëàë.
5. When the verbs to see, to hear have the meaning of “to
know” — a subordinate clause should be used.
I hear (know) that he is a good writer.
We see (know) that you are right.
The For-to-Infinitive Construction
In a number of cases the preposition for introduces a construction in which a noun (in the common case) or a pronoun
(in the objective case) is followed by an infinitive.
It is necessary for us to be reasonable.
The relation between the components of the construction is
that of the secondary subject and secondary predicate.
It’s better for me to leave. (= that I should leave).
Compare the two sentences:
We are sorry to leave you so soon.
(the subject of the infinitive is
the subject of the sentence)
We are sorry for them to leave us so soon.
(the subject of the infinitive is introduced by “for”)
The For-to-infinitives can be used in the same functions in
the sentence as simple infinitives.
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The Gerund
The gerund originates from the Old English verbal noun
and the present participle; hence its double nature and its
noun and verb characteristics.
The noun features of the Gerund are realized in its ability to function as the subject, object (direct or prepositional),
predicative of the sentence. The nominal character of the Gerund is evident when it is used as an attribute or an adverbial
modifier; in these cases it is always preceded by a preposition,
which is a formal mark of the noun.
The Verb Characteristics
of the Gerund
I. The Gerund has tense forms — indefinite and perfect.
doing — having done
publishing — having published
hearing — having heard
The tenses of the Gerund denote relative time correlation.
1. The indefinite gerund shows that the action expressed
by it is simultaneous with the action of the finite form of
the verb in the sentence.
Excuse me for giving you so much trouble.
He was proud of winning so often.
It may also refer the action to the future after the verbs
to intend, to insist, to object, to suggest, also after the nouns
hope, intention, plan, prospect, suggestion, etc.
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2. The perfect gerund shows that its action is prior to that
of the finite verb.
Excuse me for having given you so much trouble.
He was proud of having won the game.
In Modern English the perfect gerund is generally avoided
after:
a) the conjunctions on (upon), before, after.
After graduating from University my brother started
working.
He produced his papers on being stopped by a policeman.
b) the verbs to forget, to remember, to thank, to deny, to
excuse, to regret.
She forgot telling him about it.
Excuse me for entering without knocking.
I don’t remember ever seeing him.
They regret letting you go there alone.
II. The Gerund of transitive verbs can express voice.
The Forms of the Gerund
Active
Passive
Indefinite
doing
being done
Perfect
having done
having been done
As the passive voice is of later development, we still find
in Modern English instances when the active form of the Gerund is passive in meaning. Such constructions are survivals of
the time when one and the same form was used with both
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active and passive meanings. The Gerund is always used in the
active form (with passive meaning) after the verbs to want, to
require, to need, to deserve, also after the adjective worth.
The
The
The
The
grass needs cutting.
camera wanted adjusting.
child deserves praising.
film is worth seeing.
The Functions of the Gerund in the Sentence
1. The Subject.
Dieting is very popular now.
No progressing is regressing.
Travelling broadens your mind (if you have the mind).
Living there would slowly drive me crazy.
Using a computer all the time can cause eyestrain.
Finally meeting you, getting to know you, being with
you all these months has been the best thing that’s
ever happened to me.
The subject expressed by a gerund may follow the predicate in the construction there is no, also after it’s no …
There is no concealing the truth.
It’s no use worrying about them.
As usual, there’s no arguing with you, boss.
There is no accounting for the tastes of the rich.
2. The Predicative (part of a compound nominal predicate).
The biggest problem in life is choosing.
His main occupation is playing the computer.
Creating is inventing, experimenting, growing, taking
risks, breaking rules, making mistakes, and having fun.
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3. Part of a compound aspective or modal predicate (after the
verbs denoting the beginning, the duration or the end of the
action such as to begin, to start, to burst out, to go on, to
keep (on), to stop, to finish, to give up, also after the verbs
which have modal meaning, such as to intend, to try, to attempt, can’t help).
Stop spreading the news! Go on working!
The child burst out crying. I can’t help admiring you!
Oh, please, stop asking me for definitions. I feel like
a walking dictionary.
4. An object (prepositional or non-prepositional).
Avoid making rash promises.
I enjoy socializing with friends.
We’re looking forward to meeting you.
Thanks for having me on such short notice.
I am tired of listening to your “ifs” and “nots”.
Are you fond of watching animals in the wild?
His friends accused him of being disloyal.
Also after the verbs: need, require, want, deserve.
His suit needed cleaning and his brown moccasins
needed throwing away.
5. An attribute (always with a preposition, mostly of) after quite
a number of nouns.
Water has a wonderful way of calming.
Lately he had developed a nervous habit of pushing
back his hair quickly.
Who will take the trouble of telling me what’s up?
What’s the most effective method of foreign language
teaching?
Patience is the art of hoping. Art is a way of learning
things.
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6. An adverbial modifier (preceded by different prepositions) of:
a) time (after before, on, upon, at, in, since);
After removing the checkbook from the drawer, she
wrote out a check.
Before entering the house, wipe your feet.
b) cause, reason (after because of, owing to, for fear of,
for);
For fear of looking funny I kept silent.
c) manner or attending circumstances (after by, without);
Why do you speak to people without looking at them?
She kept her body in trim by going to a gym class
daily.
They left the theatre without waiting for the end of
the show.
It was not like my mother to come without calling me
first.
d) concession (after in spite of);
In spite of being busy, he accepted us.
e) condition (after in case).
In case of being late, let us know.
Complexes with the Gerund (Comparison)
I. Sometimes the Gerund is preceded by a possessive or an
objective pronoun or a noun in the common or in the possessive case. It’s mostly found in fiction style.
I appreciated his (him) meeting me at the station.
She mentioned Mike’s (Mike) telephoning last night.
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In such constructions the relation between the noun (or
pronoun) and the Gerund is that of the secondary subject and
secondary predicate. Such complexes may function in the sentence as a complex subject, a predicative, an object, an attribute
or an adverbial modifier.
However, such verbs as keep, have, get, leave, find, want,
catch, and verbs of sense perception cannot take a following
possessive noun phrase.
I’m sorry to keep you waiting.
We walked out and left him sitting there.
I won’t have you spoiling your career.
She saw him glancing at her.
When both the objective and possessive forms are permitted, the possessive option focuses attention on the action described in the ing-clause. In contrast, the use of the objective
form emphasizes the person doing the action:
I appreciate your being there.
You don’t mind my calling you, do you?
She could hear me putting on my clothes in the dark.
We couldn’t picture you walking so far.
II. In Modern English in informal speech there is a tendency
to use the noun in the common case and the personal pronouns in the objective case.
I appreciated him meeting me at the station.
I don’t see any point in me coming if it’s just you doing business. I might as well stay at home.
She mentioned Mike telephoning last night.
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The Infinitive and the Gerund
(Comparison)
I. The Gerund is of a more general, abstract character than
the Infinitive.
Caroline enjoys going to parties. (a general, permanent
action)
Linda wants to go to the party tonight. (a single action
on a certain occasion)
II. Some verbs (like, love, enjoy, hate, prefer, would like) can
be followed by either the Gerund or the Infinitive with no
difference (or a slight one) in meaning.
— Do you watch TV much? — Well, I like watching/
to watch shows. (no difference)
It’s started snowing/to snow. (no difference)
After the continuous form of a verb, only the Infinitive is
used. For example:
It’s beginning to get dark.
III. Some verbs can be followed by either the Gerund or
the Infinitive, but with an important change in meaning.
1. to remember/to forget
Gerund: past action or event
I don’t remember ever seeing you.
I’ll never forget flying over the Alps for the first time.
Infinitive: present or future action or event
Don’t forget to feed the cat, will you?
Did you remember to post that letter while you were
out?
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2. to regret
Gerund: past action or event
He regrets stealing the money.
I’ll always regret not going to university.
Infinitive: future (present) action or event
I regret to say I lost my temper with him.
We regret to inform you that you are not accepted.
Mr. Pockney regrets to tell you that he can’t see you.
3. to stop
Compare the two sentences:
They stopped chattering at last. (the Gerund is part of
a compound aspective predicate and the phrase means
“to finish an action which was in process” — «îíè
ïåðåñòàëè ðàçãîâàðèâàòü»)
They stopped to have a chat. (the infinitive is an adverbial modifier of purpose, it means “to interrupt one
action to do something else” — «îíè îñòàíîâèëèñü,
÷òîáû ïîãîâîðèòü»).
4. to need
Gerund:
The windows need cleaning. (Passive meaning: need to
be cleaned)
Infinitive:
I need to call at the post-office. (Active meaning)
5. to try
Gerund:
Try phoning Tracey — she might be at home. (It’s not
a difficult thing to do — you just do it and wait to see
what the result is.)
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Infinitive:
Try to phone Tracey — she might be at home. (The
action is difficult and you have to try hard.)
6. to go on
Gerund:
They went on working. (the Gerund is part of an aspective predicate)
Infinitive:
He went on to finish his speech. (the Infinitive is an
adverbial modifier of purpose)
Semantically they express different actions.
The Verbal Noun and the Gerund
Verbal nouns originate from verbs: to come — the coming,
comings; to go — the going, goings, etc.
Like nouns, verbal nouns have all the features of nouns:
both numbers, articles, they can be modified by attributes. The
Gerund doesn’t have any of those characteristics.
Mrs. Lambros did most of the crying.
Below, in a shadowy clearing, stood Snape.
At the core of the Internet is a sharing of information.
The detective watched suspiciously the comings and
goings into the house late at night.
Compare the following:
The loud ticking of the clock woke me up. (verbal noun)
The clock started ticking all of a sudden. (gerund, part
of a predicate)
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Participle I
I. There are two participles in English: Participle I (the Present Participle) and Participle II (the Past Participle).
Participle I has tense distinctions.
Indefinite (non-perfect) — doing, learning, walking, etc.
Perfect — having done, having learned, having walked,
etc.
The tense forms of the participle like those of the infinitive
and the gerund express relative time indication. The non-perfect form of Participle I shows that the action of Participle I is
simultaneous with the action of the finite form of the verb (in
the present, past or future).
I see (saw, will see) some students hurrying to the
University early in the morning.
He heard the rain beating against the window.
Mike spent the morning sorting out the mail.
Participle I non-perfect can express an action of a general
character in the present, past or future.
Finally we found the path leading to the cottage.
There is a veranda running round the house.
Participle I non-perfect is rendered into Russian by «äåéñòâèòåëüíîå ïðè÷àñòèå íàñòîÿùåãî âðåìåíè» or by «äååïðè÷àñòèå íåñîâåðøåííîãî âèäà» («âåäóùàÿ», «îïîÿñûâàþùàÿ»).
Participle I non-perfect of terminative verbs (ïðåäåëüíûå
ãëàãîëû) such as to arrive, to enter, to close, to open, to pass,
to cross, etc., used in the function of an adverbial modifier of
time usually indicates that the action of Participle I is prior to
the action of the predicate. But as the actions closely follow
one another the perfect Participle I is not used.
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Arriving at the office and passing into the room, he
saw visitors waiting for him.
In such cases Participle I is rendered into Russian by «äååïðè÷àñòèå ñîâåðøåííîãî âèäà» («ïðèáûâ», «âîéäÿ»).
Participle I non-perfect after the conjunctions when and
while always expresses simultaneousness.
While walking downtown, she examined the windowshops.
II. The perfect form of Participle I shows that the action of
the participle precedes (is prior to) the action of the finite
form of the verb in the sentence.
Having run into difficulties, I count on your help and
understanding.
Having received an urgent message, he booked a ticket
for Madrid.
Participle I perfect is rendered into Russian by «äååïðè÷àñòèå ñîâåðøåííîãî âèäà» («ïîïàâ», «ïîëó÷èâ»).
III. The Participle of a transitive verb has voice: active and
passive.
Participle I
Active
Passive
Transitive Verbs
non-perfect
doing
being done
perfect
having done
having been done
Intransitive Verbs
non-perfect
coming
—
perfect
having come
—
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IV. The Functions of Participle I in the Sentence.
The First Participle can be used as:
1. an attribute (sometimes losing its verbal character and
becoming a mere adjective) in the phrases like:
the falling waters, the setting sun, the whispering
leaves
Participle I in this function can be either in pre- or postposition to the noun which it modifies.
We got a paper announcing his will.
The singing, dancing, laughing people were everywhere.
The falling leaves lay thick under our feet.
The leaves falling on the ground reminded us of the
coming winter.
Note: Participle I in the function of an attribute can’t express
priority, a subordinate clause should be used. Compare:
Students, studying (èçó÷àþùèå) a foreign language,
have to work hard. (the actions are simultaneous)
Students, who studied at our faculty, are working in
different educational establishments now. (the actions
are not simultaneous)
Students, who had studied at our faculty, came to meet
their teachers. (to express a prior action a subordinate
clause is used in this case too)
2. an adverbial modifier of time, cause, reason, manner or
attending (attendant) circumstances, of unreal comparison, concession.
Coming home, I had a surprise. (time)
Not knowing the language, I misunderstood the taxidriver. (cause)
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Being conservative, even old-fashioned, Henry did not
trust computers. (reason)
I stood looking around, breathing the air. (manner)
He spoke as if trying to make me believe him. (unreal
comparison)
Ben came nearer, though still refusing to take part in
the game. (concession)
I spent the day babysitting. (manner)
3. Participle I non-perfect of verbs expressing motion (to run,
to dance, to pour, etc.) combined with the verb to come in
the past tense forms a special type of a compound verbal predicate. The lexical meaning of the verb to come is
greatly weakened and it functions as an auxiliary verb.
Participle I is the notional part of the predicate, denoting
the action of the subject.
Everything came rushing back to me.
Little Lizzy came running down the stairs.
The rain came pouring down.
The wind came whirling from the mountains.
4. part of a complex object with verbs expressing physical
or mental perception.
I felt shame drenching me like hot water.
He found her looking through old photographs.
The cat watched the mouse eating cheese.
With verbs of physical perception the passive form is possible as well:
He was seen playing golf in the afternoon.
The waves could be heard beating against the cliffs.
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The Nominative Absolute Participle
Construction
Sometimes the participle has a subject of its own expressed
by a noun in the common case or by a personal pronoun in the
nominative case. Such constructions are called “The Nominative Absolute”.
The children enjoyed the party in the garden, the
weather being warm and sunny.
The storm having damaged our cottage, we had to
move to a new one.
Although this construction is formally independent of the
sentence, it is logically connected with it and can function as
an adverbial modifier of time, cause, condition, manner or attending circumstances:
The visit being over, they walked back home. (time)
The house door being open, she went in. (cause, reason)
Weather permitting, we shall start tomorrow. (condition)
My eyes being tired, I put aside the book. (reason)
She sat on a white terrace chair, her eyes immediately
focusing on the pool. (attending circumstances)
Very often the participle is omitted (especially of the verb
to be).
Dinner (being) over, we went for a stroll.
The sea rough and choppy, I missed my usual swim
that day.
He sat down, relaxing in front of the fire, his mind at
ease.
This construction is usually synonymous to a subordinate
clause. It’s rendered in Russian by means of a subordinate adverbial clause. It’s used mainly in literary style.
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Participle II
I. It is used to build up analytical verb forms of:
a) all the perfect tenses:
We have never lost touch with them.
It took him a second to realize what had happened.
b) all the tenses of the passive voice.
I am told it’s wrong. (was told, etc.)
II. Participle II has only one form, which has a passive meaning.
As a non-finite form of the verb, Participle II can function in the sentence as:
1. an attribute (in pre- or post-position to the noun which it
modifies).
a faded rose — a rose pinned on the dress
a fallen tree — a tree fallen by the storm
a grown-up man — a man grown-up in poverty
Forgotten memories rushed back to her with force and
clarity.
2. part of the complex object after the verb to have (to get).
This construction means that:
a) something is done or made by someone else for the
benefit of the person denoted by the subject of the sentence.
I’ve had my bathroom tiled.
She must have her eyes tested.
Get this prescription made at the chemist’s.
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I had a computer connected to the Internet.
As soon as I get the photos developed, I’ll send them
to you.
Now tell me, honestly, do you think I ought to have
my face lifted?
b) something is done against your will, quite unexpectedly.
He had his car stolen.
My neighbour had her window-pane broken yesterday.
We had our dog killed in the accident.
3. different adverbial modifiers.
Defeated, he did not look or feel discouraged. (reason,
concession)
The child sat huddled in the armchair. (manner)
Changed into an evening frock, she looked gorgeous.
(reason, time)
Finished with his breakfast, he started looking through
the newspapers. (time)
She screamed as if badly hurt. (unreal comparison)
Driven by the necessity, he took a loan from the bank.
(cause, reason)
4. a predicative.
My heart is broken. You look rested.
In this function Participle II describes or gives information
about the subject of the sentence like an adjective. Past participles are used as adjectives in many common, everyday expressions like:
230
27. be prepared (for)
28. be qualified (for)
29. be related (to)
30. be satisfied (with)
31. be scared (of, by)
34. be terrified (of, by)
35. be tired (of, from)
36. be worried (about)
15. be finished (with)
16. be frightened (of, by)
17. be gone (from)
18. be hurt
19. be interested (in)
20. be involved (in)
21. be located in
22. be lost
23. be made of (from)
24. be married (to)
3. be broken
4. be closed
5. be composed of
6. be crowded (with)
7. be devoted (to)
8. be disappointed (in, with)
9. be divorced (from)
10. be done (with)
11. be drunk (on)
12. be engaged (to)
33. be spoiled
32. be shut
26. be pleased (with)
14. be exhausted (from)
2. be bored (with, by)
25. be mistaken
13. be excited (about)
1. be acquainted (with)
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Appendix
Table 1
The Functions of Verbals
Functions
Infinitive
Gerund
Participle I
Participle II
Subject
+
+
only as part of it
only as part of it
Object
+
+
only as part of a
Complex Object
only as part of a
Complex Object
Attribute
+
+
only non–perfect
— nominal
+
+
—
—
— verbal aspective
+
+
—
—
— verbal modal
+
—
—
—
— of time
—
+
+
+
— of cause
—
+
+
—
— of purpose
+
+
—
—
— of manner
—
+
+
—
— of attendant
circumstances
—
+
+
—
— of condition
—
+
only as part of it
+
— of concession
—
+
+
+
— of comparison
+
—
+
+
Part of a compound predicate:
Adverbial modifiers:
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Table 2
The Verbals in Different Adverbial Functions
Phrases
Adverbial modifiers of
in
on
upon
at
Gerund
before
time
after
while
when
when
Participle I
Participle II
with
for
for fear of
Gerund
cause
owing to
without
in
Gerund
manner
by
as
with
without
for
so as
in order
Participle II
Gerund
attendant circumstances
Gerund
purpose
Infinitive
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Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû
Phrases
without
unless
if
in spite of
Adverbial modifiers of
Gerund
Participle I, II
condition
Participle II
Gerund
concession
though
Participle I, II
as if
Participle I, II
comparison
as though
Infinitive
so… as
such … as
Infinitive
result
Syntax
The word “Syntax” comes from Old Greek, where it meant
«âîåííûé ñòðîé». In Old Greek grammar schools the term
was transferred to Grammar to stress the importance of word
order in the sentence.
The sentence is a unit of speech which expresses a complete thought, and has a correct grammatical form and intonation. Every sentence has modality, which shows the speaker’s
attitude towards reality.
Sentences are classified on two principles: according to the
aim of communication and according to their structure.
The Simple Sentence
Types of Sentences According
to the Aim of Communication
According to the aim of communication sentences may be
declarative, interrogative and imperative.
I. Declarative sentences express statements, facts in the affirmative or in the negative form. The word order in declarative sentences is very strict. The subject usually precedes the
predicate. If the verb is transitive, the direct object immediately follows the verb. If there are two objects — direct
and indirect — the indirect object is placed before the direct.
She gave her children love and care.
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II. Interrogative sentences ask for some information. There are
the following types of interrogative sentences in English:
1) A general question. It asks whether the statement is positive or negative and requires an affirmative or a negative
answer.
— Is it cold today? — Yes, it is.
— Do you like cold weather? — No, I don’t.
2) A special question. It may refer to any word in the sentence and it begins with an interrogative word (who?
what? which? when? where? why?)
When and where do you meet?
Why is she so angry with you?
A special question to the subject (what? who? which?)
doesn’t require any auxiliary verb, both in present and past
tenses.
What makes (made) you so sad?
Who knows (knew) the answer?
Which of them helps (helped) you?
3) An alternative question. It means choice.
Is Dan in or out?
Do you learn French or Spanish?
4) A disjunctive question (a question tag). It is a very short
question which follows the statement and repeats its
meaning. If the statement is affirmative, the question is
negative; if the statement is negative, the question is affirmative.
You are happy, aren’t you? You aren’t happy, are you?
He never smokes, does he? She smokes, doesn’t she?
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Question tags are often used in conversations to invite
agreement.
I’m lucky, aren’t I? I am not lucky, am I?
He is bright, isn’t he? He isn’t bright, is he?
We use they to refer to nobody, somebody, everybody, no one.
Nobody called, did they?
Everybody knows it, don’t they?
III. Imperative sentences express commands, requests and invitations. The imperative mood of the verb is formed with
the help of the infinitive without the particle “to”.
Calm down! Relax!
Take charge of your health!
The imperative mood for the first and for the third persons is formed with the help of the verb “let”.
Let me (us, them) explain it. Let him (her) decide it.
In negative sentences the auxiliary verb “do” is used.
Don’t be so noisy! Let’s not do it. Or: Don’t let’s do it.
Will you or would you are the most common ways to make
question tags after an imperative sentence.
Take care, will (would) you?
Will you is the only possible form after a negative imperative.
Don’t be late, will you? Don’t interfere, will you?
Any of the three kinds of sentences mentioned above may
become exclamatory. Exclamatory sentences express strong
feelings such as surprise, joy, annoyance, grief. They begin
with the exclamatory words what and how.
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Exclamatory Sentences
What, Such, So
Countable nouns
Singular — A/AN
Uncountable nouns
Plural — no article
No article, no plural
What a brilliant idea
(it is)!
What brilliant ideas (they
are)!
What fantastic news
(it is)!
What a fine day!
What fine days!
What a great man
(he is)!
What great men (they
are)!
What fine weather it is
(we are having today)!
What useful advice!
What a lazy child!
What lazy children!
What great progress!
What a strange person!
What strange people!
What strong coffee!
What cold water!
This is such a good
song!
These are such good
songs!
This is such good music!
It’s such a beautiful
fish!
They are such beautiful
fish!
It’s such good paper!
It’s such a thick newspaper!
They are such thick newspapers!
It’s such tasty fish!
Such — So
Such + Noun
So + Adjective
It was such a nice morning!
The morning was so nice!
She is such a bossy woman.
The woman is so bossy.
We had such a lovely time at the
party.
The time we had at the party was so
lovely.
I have such good friends.
My friends are so good.
They’ve made such great progress.
Their progress is so great.
But: There were so few people on the streets. There are so many things to do
in this life. There is so little time left and so much to do.
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Types of Sentences
According to Their Structure
According to their structure sentences may be divided into
simple, compound and complex.
A simple sentence can be extended or unextended. A sentence, which consists only of a subject and a predicate is called
unextended.
Life is wonderful. Time is short.
They met. We had a talk.
A sentence which has some secondary parts is called extended.
Last night we went for a walk in the centre of Moscow.
A compound sentence consists of two or more coordinated
simple sentences.
The night was warm, and we walked to the sea.
It was late, and I was tired.
A complex sentence consists of a principal (independent)
clause and of one or more subordinate (dependent) clauses.
Nobody knows when she’ll come back.
How I wish it were true and I hadn’t imagined it all!
Although it was hard work, I enjoyed the job.
The Main Members of the Sentence
A sentence may have the main and the secondary members.
The main members of the sentence are: the Subject and the
Predicate.
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The Subject
The Subject of the sentence is the topic which is being
discussed. It may denote living-being (people and animals), objects, notions, different phenomena.
1) The Subject may be expressed by personal pronouns, nouns,
indefinite pronouns, infinitives, gerunds, substantivized parts
of speech.
We all hope for the best.
A doctor should be competent. Something is wrong.
To know you is a privilege. Travelling broadens your
mind.
The unknown is always interesting.
2) Clauses with be, arise, come, seem, exist, used to be, etc.
(verbs chiefly denoting existence, appearance, or motion) often have an anticipatory subject, the so-called existential
there, in the subject position. The real subject comes later in
the clause.
Once upon a time there lived a king.
There were people in the hall.
There was a star in the sky.
There is no news today. There came the bell.
There arose a strong wind.
Existential there has a unique syntactic role; there is no
other word in English which behaves in the same way. It is
often described as an anticipatory (or empty) subject. Syntactically, existential there behaves as a grammatical subject:
it is placed before the verb in declarative clauses and can be
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used in question tags; but the real subject comes later in the
sentence.
There is a piano in the hall, isn’t there?
There are two ways of tackling it, aren’t there?
There is some time left, isn’t there?
3) It is frequently used as a semantically empty (dummy) subject, particularly in speaking about the weather, about time,
or about distance.
It’s raining (snowing, freezing, windy, cloudy, hot, humid, etc.).
It was not as cold as the weatherman had promised.
It’s nine o’clock. It was ten miles to the nearest town.
It’s June the fifth. It’s me, sir. It seems interesting.
It is widely used in impersonal sentences where there is no
obvious subject.
It’s so nice to meet you.
It’s interesting there are so many people on the streets.
It won’t be fair!
It was a shame we missed the bus.
4) They, you, we, one can also be used as impersonal subjects.
They is used to refer to unknown people who have power, information, authority which we do not have.
They are the people who rule our lives but who do not
understand us.
I hear they’re going to raise taxes again.
Even if you earn a bit of money, they always find a
way to take it off you.
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This use of they gave rise to the expression them and us to
describe those who have the power (them) and the ordinary
people (us) who suffer.
One and you are frequently used when the speaker is not
thinking of anyone in particular.
One cannot put back the clock.
One is never too old to learn.
You can never tell what will happen next.
How to make a cake. First you beat two eggs in a
bowl, then you add some salt and sugar.
We is used to mean all of us — the speaker, and the audience.
We’re going to have some stormy rains.
We’ve got to fight for our rights.
Compare:
They can tell us what to do but they can’t tell us what
to think.
The Predicate
The Predicate of the sentence is what is said about the
subject. According to its meaning the predicate may be either verbal or nominal.
Predicate
Verbal
(We study)
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1) The Verbal Predicate denotes an action and is expressed by
a finite verb in a simple or a compound tense form.
Verbal Predicate


Simple
Compound
He works
(is working,
has been working)

Modal
She can
(may, should, must…)
work hard.

Aspective
He began
(started, finished, etc.)
to work.
Simple verbal predicates can be expressed by such phraseological units as: to have a look, to make a mistake, to have
a good time, to play a trick, to give a lift, to make a date, etc.
Can you give me a lift to the hospital?
I’d like to have a look at the menu.
He made a long speech in Parliament.
2) The Nominal Predicate expresses facts, states, qualities,
characteristics (it cannot denote an action).
Nominal Predicate

a link verb
the nominal part
(a predicative)
The Nominal Predicate consists of a link verb and a nominal
part (a predicative), thus it is always compound in structure.
My program is very tight.
We are students. It is cold today.
She became a student.
They seemed happy. He feels lonely.
Now you appear a different person.
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The main link verbs are:
1. link verbs of being: be, look, feel, taste, smell, sound;
2. link verbs of becoming: get, grow, become, turn, prove;
3. link verbs of remaining: remain, keep, continue, go on;
4. link verbs of seeming: seem, appear.
The use of various link verbs helps to express different
shades of meaning and makes our speech more colourful. Compare:
She is happy. — She looks (feels, appears, seems, becomes…) happy.
Some notional verbs may function as link verbs in different
contexts. Compare:
We came late. — My dream came true.
He went home. — He went crazy.
She ran to the park. — The well ran dry in summer.
They stayed at the office. — They stayed cool in court.
The second part of the nominal predicate is called a predicative and can be expressed by a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a numeral, an infinitive and a gerund.
They are artists and they are young.
London turned out windy and foggy.
His lecture was both logical and psychological.
The fault is mine. He is only eighteen.
Our aim is to master English and to become good
teachers.
The most difficult thing in life is choosing.
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The most common predicative adjectives are:
able
difficult
ready
sure
right
different
hard
aware
likely
good
nice
true
wrong
bad
fine
funny
afraid
dead
happy
full
glad
possible
impossible
unable
important
necessary
clear
small
unlikely
better
Remember that an adverb is used to modify a verbal predicate, while an adjective is used as the second part
of the nominal predicate, i. e. predicative.
Compare:
He works slowly. — He is slow.
Speak seriously. — This is serious.
3) The Double Predicate. This type of predicate is a combination of two predicates — of a verbal predicate and of
a nominal predicate.
The river had frozen solid in the night.



The river had frozen. It was solid.
Take it easy.
 

Take it. Stay (be) easy.
The pizza was served hot.



The pizza was served. It was hot.
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The double Predicate is getting more and more widely
used in Modern English, especially in colloquial and newspaper styles. It gives information in a short and expressive way.
Phrases like: “easy come, easy go”, “take it easy”, “sitting pretty”, “smb likes it hot”, “to serve smb right”, etc. have become
the norm in the language.
God, I love it when I get the answer right, and everyone looks impressed.
These guys like talking big, it makes them feel good.
I’m travelling light. Just me and my bag.
4) There are different types of mixed compound predicates:
modal-nominal, phrasal-nominal, modal-phrasal, nominalmodal-phrasal.
It must be a dream.
He was to become a national hero.
They ceased to be partners last year.
He began to be on his own at the age of sixteen.
We had to begin living all over again.
You ought to stop doing nothing.
It’s time she should again begin feeling safe.
You ought to start to be more courteous to each other,
friends.
Word Order. Inversion
Due to its historical development the English language has
lost nearly all case inflections, expressing the relations of the
members of the sentence. To compensate this, English has developed a rather fixed word order, strictly indicating the syn246
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tactical functions of the words in the sentence. Generally the
subject precedes the predicate verb. (Except sentences with
“there is/was…”)
Word Order
in English Declarative Sentences
An Adverbial Modifier of…
Subject
Predicate
Object
place
manner
time
Mr. Grant
got
a message
from America
by e-mail
yesterday.
I
found
a job
in a shop
through
Internet
last year.
by car
on Sunday.
—
at the moment.
We
went
She
is reading
—
to the theatre
some books
in the library
But: There is nothing new under the moon. There are many good things in this life.
(сказуемое) (подлежащее)
But in some instances the traditional word order is changed
and the predicate verb is placed before the subject. This linguistic phenomenon is called “inversion”. Inversion may be
either full (the whole predicate is put before the subject) or
partial (the first element of the predicate precedes the subject).
Inversion can be required either by grammatical or stylistical reasons.
Grammatical inversion is obligatory in interrogative sentences, in which the auxiliary or the modal verb should be
placed before the subject.
Is that all right? Will that do? Do you like it?
Has he phoned? Can you help us? Must we do it?
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Emphatic inversion helps to make our speech more expressive. It is possible:
1. if the sentence opens with some emotional adverbial modifier, placed at the head of the sentence like: not for the
world, not for love or money, not for the life of me, not
for anything, in vain, so, vainly, little, never (again), at no
time, on no account, under no circumstances, not until, in
no way, (how) little, nowhere. Such words and phrases have
either negative or restrictive meaning and the inversion is
partial.
Not for the world would I change places with her!
Nowhere else in this wide world have I seen such
beauties as on this island.
Never again will I believe you!
In no way are you to speak about such matters when
there are children around!
But: if the predicate is a simple verbal one, the auxiliary “do”
in the required form should be used.
In vain did he try to find out the truth, they wouldn’t
tell.
So little did we know that there was practically no
hope to find her.
2. if there are constructions like: hardly … when, scarcely...
when, no sooner… than, in the principal clause of a complex
sentence with a subordinate clause of time. The inversion is
partial.
Hardly had the private detective finished his examination, when the local policed arrived.
No sooner had he uttered the words, than she began
laughing.
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3. if a long adverbial phrase is placed at the beginning of the
sentence.
Far away in the dark, gloomy wood stood a small house.
High in the mountains stands a castle, the home of
Count Dracula.
4. if the adverbs here and there, now and then, such are at
the beginning of the sentence and are followed by a noun
(full inversion).
Such is the order of things.
Here comes my boyfriend.
Then came the turning point of the match.
But: if the subject is a pronoun, the inversion is partial.
Here he comes. There she goes. Then it came.
5. if such adverbs of place as away, up, down, in, out, off…
are stressed.
Away went the car, up flew the elevator (full inversion takes place if the subject is a noun, but if the
subject is a personal pronoun, partial inversion takes
place).
Away it went. Up it flew. Down they crashed.
6. if an auxiliary or a modal verb is repeated to apply the preceding statement to a new subject.
I should have done it. — So should I.
I don’t know a thing about it. — Neither do I.
But:
there is no inversion if the statement refers to the
same subject.
— You look upset. — So I am. — You like it. — So I do.
— Aye, he’s a coward. — So he is.
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7. Inversion is regular in subordinate clauses of condition, the
conjunction “if” is omitted, and the chance to fulfil the action is very small (problematic) or is entirely lost.
Should you meet her, ask her to call me.
Had I known it before, I would have been more careful.
Had it been true, we would have trusted them.
8. Cleft Sentences.
In Modern English there are quite a number of cleft sentences. A clause can be clefted, i. e. divided into two parts,
each with its own verb. There are two main types of clefting:
-it-clefts and -wh-clefts. Both types of clefts are used to bring
particular elements into focus.
It was there and then that our paths crossed.
It is in autumn that the garden is at its best.
It is not the gay coat that makes the gentleman.
What he is is a genius.
What worries us all was their silence.
Depending on what element of the sentence the speaker
wants to emphasize, a sentence can be transformed into different cleft sentences.
It was Frank who reached
Texas by plane.
Frank reached Texas
It was Texas that Frank

by plane.
reached by plane.
It was by plane that Frank

reached Texas.

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Here is another example.
They split up
for that particular
reason last year.
It was they who split up for
 that particular reason last
year.
It was for that particular
 reason that they split up last
year.
It was last year that they
 split up for that particular
reason.
There are also demonstrative cleft sentences of the type:
That’s how I see it. That’s what we thought.
This is how the car starts. That’s where we all live.
Agreement
of the Predicate with the Subject
in the English Language
In Modern English the predicate-verb agrees with the
subject in number and person. When subjects and predicates
match each other in person and in number, we say that they
“agree” and this grammatical phenomenon is called agreement.
I am a future teacher. You are all my friends.
The doctor has just come. They teach English.
One should observe some rules of agreement which present
special difficulties.
1. Two or more homogeneous noun-subjects, pronoun-subjects,
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ed by “and” or asyndetically require the use of the predicate-verb in the plural.
She and I have always been great friends.
Radio and television have changed social habits.
My saying what I want and my insisting on it make
her angry.
Red tape and tough competition are in the way of
many businesses.
Note: When two nouns denote one person or thing, the predicate-verb is in the singular.
The Dean and Lexicology lecturer is Mrs. Popova.
Bread and butter is a wholesome food.
Whisky and soda was his favourite drink.
A black and white cat is sitting at the door.
The repetition of the determiner shows that two different
persons or things are meant.
My schoolmate and my cousin have just dropped in.
The bacon and the eggs are in the fridge.
A black and a white cat are sitting under the bush.
2. After several infinitives functioning as subjects, the singular
form of the predicate is used.
To succeed, to rise in the world, to become financially independent was her greatest ambition.
3. There is a strong tendency to use the singular form of the
predicate-verb preceding the homogeneous subjects, especially with the introductory “where”, “here” or “there”.
Where is my coat and hat?
There was plough-land and pasture there.
Here comes Mrs. Graham and her husband.
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In case of different person or number of the subjects the
predicate agrees with the one that stands next to it.
There was lobster and different vegetables to it.
There go your sons and their teacher.
4. When homogenous subject are connected by means of the
conjunctions “either… or”, “neither… nor”, “not only but”,
the predicate-verb is in the singular when the subjects
are in the singular and of the same person.
Neither the clock nor the weathermaster has ever been
right.
The predicate agrees with the subject next to it if the homogeneous subjects are of different person or number.
Not only the Earth but also the other planets move
round the sun.
Either James or I am to do it.
5. The predicate-verb is in the singular when two singular
subjects of the same person are connected by “as well as”.
My wife as well as her friend is ready to help you.
But it agrees with the subject that comes first if the homogeneous subjects are of different person or number. Compare:
The students as well as the teacher were present at
the meeting.
The teacher as well as the students was in the room.
6. Words joined to the subjects by means of “with”, “together
with”, “including”, “in addition to” do not affect the form
of the predicate-verb.
A cab with two passengers has stopped dead.
The children together with their tutor were invited to
enter the hall.
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7. Nouns which occur only in the plural form require the verb
in the plural. The commonest are: arms (= weapons), clothes,
contents, customs, earnings, savings, belongings, lodgings (also
called digs), premises, headquarters, remains, odds, outskirts,
regards, stairs, eaves, memoirs, victuals, slops, preserves.
Her clothes are the latest fashion.
The customs were opened all round the clock.
Here belong names of objects which have two inseparable
parts: binoculars, braces, knickers, scales, tongs, tweezers, scissors, glasses, bifocals, spectacles, pants, pyjamas, shorts, tights,
trousers, jeans.
These tights were produced in Italy.
Where are my glasses? Are the scales electronic?
8. Nouns which are always singular agree with the verb in the
singular form: advice, news, money, information, weather,
rubbish, work, foliage, leafage, linen, furniture, equipment,
luggage, baggage, clutter, litter, rubbish, crockery, cutlery,
hardware, software, kitchenware. Also names of diseases:
measles, mumps, diabetes.
Measles is an infectious disease.
Diabetes is a serious disease.
The news is shocking. Money makes money.
My linen is made of cotton.
My baggage is gone.
The information is too good to believe.
9. Names of multitude denoting people and animals (police, people, militia, the clergy, the rich, the French, the cavalry, poultry, cattle) are used with the predicate-verb in the plural.
The police are downstairs and they want to see you.
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There were 120 people in the lecture hall.
Only the rich have such things as yachts, villas and
planes.
The cattle are up in the fields.
10. If the subject is expressed by a collective noun representing
a limited group of people, the predicate is either a singular
or a plural verb. This depends on whether the subject is
thought of as a unity of people or a collection of individuals considered separately. Here belong the nouns: association, audience, band, board, cast, class, club, clan, college,
committee, community, company, crowd, crew, department,
electorate, mafia, enemy, family, firm, generation, government, gang, group, jury, orchestra, population, press, public,
school, staff, team, university.
Their staff is well-trained and efficient.
The staff are going to raise that question again.
His family are great musicians. His family is big.
The company were entering the hall by different doors.
I don’t care what your company is like.
My class is small. My class are unruly today.
Here belong also the names of such organizations as the
Bank of England, the BBC, British Gas, the Post Office, British
Rail, IBM, Sony. Compare:
Bank of London is a reliable bank.
Are Bank of London going to sue Luke?
The Post Office is on that street.
The Post Office have always got an excuse for the late
delivery of post.
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11. The subject expressed by a definite, indefinite or negative pronoun usually agrees with the singular form of the
predicate-verb.
Either/neither/each of the alternatives is acceptable.
Every bush and every tree was in blossom.
Every cloud has a silver lining.
Neither of them is wanted on the phone.
No one is absent today.
12. The negative pronoun “none” and the interrogative pronouns “who” and “what” are now treated in both ways
depending upon the number of persons or things the reference is made to.
None of the problems have/has been solved yet.
Who is this man? Who are with him?
13. The form of the predicate-verb in a clause beginning with
a relative pronoun (who, which, that, what) agrees with its
antecedent.
How is it, papa, that you, who are so clever with everybody else, are not a bit clever with me.
“Except myself,” retorted Soames, “who am also in a
damnable position.”
Anyhow, she has what amounts to a high Cambridge
degree.
He showed me the letters which were of no importance to them.
14. The predicate-verb in the emphatic construction “it is
(was)… that” agrees with the pronoun “it”, and thus is always singular.
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It is the children we live for.
It was they who started all this.
15. The subject in the plural expressed by the nouns denoting
measure of value, time, weight, distance, etc. agrees with
the predicate in the singular when the whole amount is
meant.
Six shillings a week doesn’t keep body and soul together very unitedly.
The twenty minutes is up.
Thirty miles is not a great distance in these days of
rapid travel.
16. In combinations of quantitive words (a lot of, lots of, plenty
of, quantity, majority, succession, portion, part, bulk, mass,
series, a great/good deal of, handful, etc.) with nouns, the
number of the latter defines the number of the whole combination.
Plenty of cheese is imported from Holland.
Plenty of cheeses are on display in the shop-window.
Note: The same combinations with the nouns “number”, “majority” and “variety” are usually regarded as singular,
when used with the definite article, and as plural, with
the indefinite one.
The number of books in this library is great.
A number of books were on sale.
A (the) majority of students are here today.
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17. If the subject is expressed by a word-group beginning with
“many a” the predicate-verb is in the singular.
Many an officer has arrived.
Many a time have I seen it.
18. When the plural form of the subject is used as the title
of a book or the name of a newspaper or a magazine, the
predicate-verb is in the singular.
“The Prince and the Pauper” was written by M. Twain.
“Gulliver’s Travels” is full of satire.
“New Times” is a political journal.
The Beatles is my favourite group.
“Windows” is an operative system.
19. If the subject is expressed by a word-group denoting such
arithmetic calculations as addition, subtraction and division, the predicate-verb is singular; with multiplication it is
either singular or plural.
But:
Two plus two is four.
Twice seven make/makes fourteen.
20. Subjects expressed by fractions require the singular of the
predicate-verb to denote a total amount and the plural
form to consider individuals.
Two-thirds of the work is done.
Two-thirds of the party members are present.
21. The subject plural in form but singular in meaning takes
a predicate-verb in the singular.
a) when it is applied to the names of games: dominoes,
draughts, checkers (Amer.), cards, ninepins, billiards.
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Checkers is not only a child’s game, after all.
The word “dominoes” comes from the Latin word “dominus”, meaning “master”.
b) when it denotes metonymic and metaphoric names of
persons with pejorative connotation (a butter-fingers —
ðîòîçåé, ðàñòÿïà; a sawbones — õèðóðã; a fat-chops —
òîëñòîùåêèé ÷åëîâåê; a fat-guts — òîëñòÿê; a lazybones — ëåíòÿé).
This sawbones was disliked by his wretched patients.
Note: The plural form of these nouns is the same as the singular.
These lazy-bones are not ready again.
c) when it is expressed by the words: news — íîâîñòü,
pains — ñòðàäàíèå, means — ñðåäñòâî (pl.: means),
summons — ïîâåñòêà (pl.: summons).
Athens is the capital of Greece.
The summons was almost magical.
Some nouns ending in -s are rather often construed as
the singular, but the usage wavers. Here are some of them:
works — çàâîä, headquarters — øòàá, gallons — âèñåëèöà,
barracks — êàçàðìà, amends — êîìïåíñàöèÿ, odds — ðàçëè÷èå, Doctor’s Commons — àññîöèàöèÿ ïî ãðàæäàíñêèì äåëàì,
mumps — ñâèíêà, measles — êîðü, shambles — áîéíÿ, forfeits — ôàíòû.
The new gas-works has/have been employing more
and more workers.
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22. Names of sciences: linguistics, economics, physics, ethics,
etc. are singular, but when these words denote qualities,
practical application, course of action or activities, they are
constructed as plural (phonetics as “pronunciation”, acoustics (of the room), statistics as “figures”, tactics as “methods”, etc.)
At present, so much is known about sound systems of
the world’s languages that systematic phonetics is now
a reality.
His ethics have always been and will remain militant
ethics.
Statistics is the study of probability. (a branch of study)
Statistics are often misleading. (sets of figures)
Politics doesn’t interest me. What are your leader’s
politics? (political views)
23. Is percent singular or plural?
It depends. The percentage is always singular:
The percentage of young voters has risen.
A percentage is singular if the object of the preposition is
singular:
A percentage of the work is finished.
A percentage is plural if the object of the preposition is
plural:
A percentage of the reports are finished.
The same rules apply when using percent:
Sixty percent of the men are wearing hats.
Sixty percent of the work is done.
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The Secondary Members
of the Sentence
The secondary members of the sentence are: the Object,
the Attribute, the Adverbial Modifier.
The Object
The object denotes a person or thing on which the action of
the predicate is directed.
There may be direct, indirect and prepositional objects. If
there is only one object in the sentence it is always direct.
The indirect object can’t be single in the sentence. It is always
used with the direct object and comes between the verb and
the direct object.
Give us (an indirect object) a definite answer (a direct
object).
Tell me (an indirect object) your secret (a direct object).
Sometimes the indirect object can be preceded by the prepositions “to” and “for”. If you can transform the sentence and
use one of the objects without the preposition, it means that
you have an indirect object in the sentence.
I gave the key to him. — I gave him the key.
She bought a toy for the kid. — She bought the kid
a toy.
The prepositional object which is always preceded by
a preposition can not be transformed in such a way (after
the verbs read, explain, do, dictate, introduce, refer).
Explain it to me. Do it for her. Introduce her to us.
Read the tale to the child. Dictate the text to them.
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The Attribute
The attribute qualifies the nouns (pronouns) of the sentence. It may be expressed by an adjective, a noun, a gerund, a participle, an infinitive and stands before or after the
word it modifies. An attribute to a pronoun always follows it.
His eyes were childhood blue.
What is the most effective method of foreign language
teaching?
We met on a Sunday morning.
They watched the rising sun.
I have some work to do. I can tell you something new.
The Adverbial Modifier
A modifier is a word or a word group that describes, limits,
or qualifies another word or a word group in a sentence. Thus
they can help to make a sentence vivid, emphatic and lively.
The balloons rose slowly, hobbling and weaving toward
the fast-racing clouds.
The adverbial modifier characterises an action, state or
quality of the sentence, denoting the time, place, manner, degree of the action. It is expressed by adverbs and nouns with
prepositions. With verbs of motion the adverbial modifier of
place comes immediately after the verb. If there are two or
more adverbial modifiers, the usual order is place, manner,
time. The adverbial modifier of time can be put at the beginning of the sentence.
They lived there happily all their lives.
Last night I had a strange dream.
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The place of such adverbial modifiers of indefinite time as
never, usually, often, seldom, yet, just is before the notional verb or after the auxiliary or modal verb.
She always comes on time. Is she often late?
You must never complain. One can never tell.
Misplaced modifiers
Placing modifiers well means not only creating a particular
effect but also connecting the modifier to its headword — the
word or phrase which it modifies. If it doesn’t clearly point
to its headword, the modifier is misplaced like in the following
examples.
A letter was addressed to the house next door. By mistake the mailman delivered it to us.
A miscombined sentence:
By mistake the mailman delivered a letter addressed to
the house next door to us.
In this case, the house next door gets between the modifier,
to us, and its headword, delivered. The result is a mystifying
sentence. To clear up the mystery, to us should be put right
after its headword:
By mistake the mailman delivered to us…
Here is another example:
A born crapshooter Sadowski almost won five hundred
dollars that night.
Did he win anything at all then? The headword of almost
seems to be won and a gambler who has almost won may
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actually have lost everything. If Sadowski did win, the true
headword of almost is five hundred dollars:
…Sadowski won almost five hundred dollars that night.
Dangling Modifiers
A modifier dangles when its headword is missing. As it always needs a headword, it will attach itself to a false headword if the true one is not in the sentence.
Speaking before a crowd of people for the first time,
my knees shook.
This sentence seems to say that knees were speaking. Such
a mistake results from the miscombination of two sentences:
I was speaking…
My knees shook.
These two sentences have different subjects: I and my
knees. While combining them, you must normally keep both of
the subjects:
when I was speaking…, my knees shook
When you combine two sentences, you can drop out one of
the subjects only if they coincide:
I was speaking…
I was nervous.
Speaking…, I was nervous.
Here is another example:
While waiting for a bus, a passing car splashed mud all
over my skirt.
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The right sentence is:
While I was waiting for a bus, a passing car splashed
mud all over my skirt.
The Composite Sentence
A composite sentence consists of two or more sentences
(clauses) joined together. The relationship between the clauses
may have the character of coordination or of subordination.
Accordingly, there are compound and complex sentences.
The Compound Sentence
A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses which
are syntactically independent of each other as they are equal
in rank. They are usually joined either asyndetically (without
a connective conjunction) or syndetically (with a conjunction).
Compare:
It was a dark night, the stars were bright in the sky.
It was a dark night and the stars were bright in the sky.
Conjunctions connect words, phrases and clauses — “to
conjoin” means “to join together”. Coordinating conjunctions
(and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet, still, otherwise, therefore, etc.)
and correlative conjunctions (both — and, either — or, neither — nor, not only — but also) connect equal clauses.
Max hated his job, but he couldn’t afford to quit.
Wanda wanted not only fame and riches, but she also
dreamt of love.
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The Complex Sentence
A complex sentence is a composition of two (or more clauses), one of which is the main (principal) clause and the other is the subordinate clause.
Subordinate clauses are joined to the main ones by means
of conjunctions, conjunctive words, asyndetically and by means
of the sequence of tenses. Conjunctions differ from conjunctive
words in the following: they are not members of either the
principal or the subordinate clause while the conjunctive words
play some function in the subordinate clause. Compare the following:
He said (that) he had seen the show.
He said that was a mistake.
Here is a list of the commonest conjunctions:
after
e. g. I felt much better after I had a rest.
although (or though)
e. g. Although the weather was bad, we went for
a walk.
The commoner form in speaking is even though,
which stresses the contrast:
e. g. We went for a walk even though the weather was
bad.
as (= when)
e. g. He turned pale as he saw a policeman.
as (= because)
e. g. As you know what to do, I’d better not interfere.
as far as
e. g. As far as I know, they are decent people.
as long as
e. g. You can stay with us as long as you like.
as long as
(= provided that)
e. g. You can stay here as long as you don’t make
a noise.
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Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû
as soon as
e. g. As soon as he came, the briefing began.
as if (as though)
e. g. He looked as if he had won a million dollars.
because
e. g. Many people study English because they need it
for their jobs.
In speaking, because is often replaced by that’s
why:
e. g. I was tired. That’s why I went to bed early.
Instead of: I went to bed early because I was
tired.
before
e. g. Before you leave, tell me one thing.
considering (that)
e. g. Your English is fluent, considering (that) you only
started a year ago.
if (whether)
e. g. a. If I were you, I’d wait.
b. I wonder if she’ll come.
in case
e. g. Take your key in case you come late.
now (that)
e. g. What are you planning to do now (that) you got
your diploma?
once (= after or
as soon as)
e. g. Stick to your promise once you’ve given it.
since (= time)
e. g. We haven’t met since we left school.
since (= because)
e. g. Since you will not help me, I must do it myself.
so that (= in order that,
i. e., purpose)
e. g. Get an early night, so that you’ll be fresh in the
morning.
so + adj. (result)
e. g. They were so quiet, that nobody noticed them.
that
e. g. I know that it is true.
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Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû
unless
a) Unless means “if… not”
e. g. We’re going to have a picnic unless it rains/if it
doesn’t rain.
b) Unless and if… not are similar but not identical.
When an unreal condition comes before the principal clause, unless cannot be used.
e. g. If I had done it in time, things would be much
better now.
c) Don’t use unless when you talk about a feeling
which would result from something not happening.
e. g. Frederick will be upset if you don’t invite him to
the party.
She’ll be very surprised if you refuse the offer.
until (or till)
e. g. We’ll have to wait until (till) somebody turns up.
when
e. g. Call me when you come to Paris.
whenever
(= every time)
e. g. She goes to London whenever she has a chance.
where
e. g. The old man hid the money where nobody would
think of looking.
while
e. g. Please don’t interrupt me while I’m speaking.
While means during the time that… The word
during is a preposition. … while I am at work but
during working hours; while the programme is going on but during the programme.
Types of Subordinate Clauses
Subordinate clauses may perform different functions within
complex sentences. These types of clauses fall into three main
kinds: nominal clauses (functioning as nouns in various syntactical positions), adverbial clauses and attributive clauses.
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I. Nominal Clauses
Nominal clauses can be:
1. Subject clauses which function as subjects and may be introduced by the conjunctions and conjunctive words that,
if, whether, who, what, which, when, why, how and some
others.
That your prediction may come true is highly problematic.
Whether to join them or refuse is a dilemma to us.
What I need now is a cup of strong coffee.
Compare the examples with the empty subject it.
It was a great relief that they had passed the interview.
The real subject is: “That they had passed the interview”.
2. Predicative clauses which function as parts of compound
nominal predicates — predicatives.
The truth is (that) he doesn’t get on with his workmate.
The problem was how to cross the river.
The alternative is to take a loan from the bank or to
lose everything.
3. Object clauses which modify verbs and adjectives.
They thought that it was a great idea.
I wish we were friends.
Danny offered his hand to signal that their quarrel
was finally at an end.
He hated it when they finished their work and he had
to leave her.
I like it when it’s raining.
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Henry was reading over what he had composed that
day.
He demanded that his salary be doubled, and that his
name be put on the door as a partner.
II. Adverbial Clauses
Adverbial clauses function as adverbial modifiers to verbs
and adjectives in the main clause. There may be adverbial
clauses of:
1. time introduced by the conjunctions when, while, as, till,
until, before, after, since, as soon as, now that, once, hardly… when, scarcely… when, barely… when, no sooner…
than.
When the police arrived, they were not very interested.
He was having a pleasant dream when the phone
awoke him.
Remember, Nancy, the work must be finished before I return. Let’s wait till the rain stops.
She wept bitterly as she told (was telling) her story.
I listen to music while I’m driving.
Now that you are a great girl of fourteen, you must
learn to sit at your work, instead of running around.
Once she had bought some furniture, the room had
become a comfortable place to live.
It always rains after I’ve washed my car.
You’ve been causing trouble ever since you arrived.
No sooner had I started work than the phone rang.
2. place introduced by the conjunctions where, wherever, everywhere (that).
My next visit was to the bank, where I asked to see
the manager.
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He just wants to understand where things went wrong.
Wherever little Ben goes, he takes the teddy bear with
him.
Everywhere I went, people were suspicious.
3. condition (real or unreal) introduced by the conjunctions:
if, unless, once, in case, as long as, and some others.
If I complain, nobody listens.
If you run into difficulties, turn to the police.
If you will wait for me for a moment, I’ll be right
back.
Unless we interfere, she’ll make a fatal mistake by
marrying that hippie.
We are meeting at seven, in case you’ve forgotten.
If you gave him a penny for his thought, you would
get some change.
You can live in our house as long as you keep it tidy.
4. comparison introduced by the conjunctions: as, like, as if,
as though, as… as, so… as.
We don’t have hot summers like they do in the south.
He was as clever as most of his classmates.
He covered the page with his hand as though I was
(were) trying to steal a military secret from him.
5. concession introduced by the conjunctions though, although, even if, even though, and wh-pronouns ending in
-ever.
Though he hadn’t stopped working all day, he wasn’t
tired.
Whoever may come, they are most welcome.
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6. cause or reason introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, so, lest, considering and some others.
English spelling is notoriously difficult, largely because
it hasn’t changed in the way the pronunciation has
over the centuries.
He enjoyed talking to her because she was so well informed: she was a news buff.
Since it was Saturday, he stayed in bed an extra hour.
Since you are on your feet, hand me down a tin of
peaches, will you?
Considering that you received no help, your results
are very good.
As no news came, they sent an e-mail again.
7. purpose introduced by the conjunctions that, so that, lest,
so as, so, in order that, for fear that.
Speak louder so that we may hear you.
Express your thoughts clearly lest there (should) be
any misunderstanding.
Now they live in the country so as to be closer to Nature.
Take this money for fear you are short of cash.
8. consequence introduced by the conjunctions that, so…
that, such… that.
He had worked like a slave all his life so that his children could study.
Such was the state of things that they didn’t know
what to do.
9. manner introduced by the conjunctions as, the way.
She looks exactly as her mother did at sixteen.
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He runs his business the way his father had taught
him to do.
Why can’t I live my life the way I want to live it?
10. comment and truth (parenthetical clauses) such as:
As you know, we are facing a lot of problems now.
To tell you the truth, the game is not worth the candle.
If you ask me (as far as I can tell), you have no chance
of winning the case.
To put it another way, why should I interfere?
III. Attributive Clauses
Attributive clauses are introduced by conjunctive pronouns who (whom), whose, which, that. As they refer to
some word in the main clause, they are called relative pronouns. The word they refer to is called their antecedent.
Who (whom), whose, that are used with names of persons.
Whose, which, that are used with names of things.
Attributive clauses fall into two types: defining and
non-defining.
A defining relative clause is closely connected with its antecedent, and can’t be omitted, as without it the meaning of
the principle clause won’t be complete or will have quite a
different meaning. Defining relative clauses are not separated
from principal clauses by commas.
She is not a girl who cries easily.
This senator is a guy who I used to lend my clothes to.
A non-defining relative clause usually gives additional information about the antecedent, but still it may be left out
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defining relative clauses are separated from principal clauses
by commas.
My friend, who is a heavy smoker, has a lot of problems with his health.
The work, which is being presented today, is a masterpiece.
Victor was going on a tour in Europe, which his impresario had arranged.
Compare also the following sentences:
Cars which cause pollution should be banned. (a defining relative clause; some cars should be banned because they cause pollution).
Cars, which cause pollution, should be banned. (a nondefining relative clause; all cars should be banned because they cause pollution).
Compound-Complex Sentences
A sentence can have more than one main clause and more
than one subordinate clause.
I feel tired if I stay up, but I can’t fall sleep if I go
to bed.
The two main clauses (I feel tired, I can’t sleep) are linked
by and. They both have a subordinate clause of condition.
Compare also the following sentences:
Brian said that although it was hard work, he enjoyed
the job, because it was interesting and well-paid.
The American realized that the painting was a masterpiece, and he hoped that he would be able to buy it as
soon as it was finished.
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Punctuation
Trends in English Punctuation
You need punctuation marks to separate sentences, to set
off parts of sentences and to increase the effect of individual
words.
Punctuation more and more rejects formal rules, which
generally reflect past time practice and are rather conservative; they do not often report prevailing current usage.
Today magazines and newspapers (the media influencing
the practice of punctuation basically) employ about half as
many points (marks of punctuation) as they did fifty years ago.
Since today the average sentence is shorter than the sentence
of half a century ago, it requires fewer points.
The two general principles governing the use of punctuation are:
1. that if it does not clarify the text, it should be omitted.
2. that in the choice and placing of punctuation marks the
sole aim should be to bring out more clearly the author’s
thought, as well as to make the reader’s task easier.
Most modern style manuals essentially agree that punctuation must be bound to communication, not to rules. Compare
the following pairs of sentences.
1. He doesn’t walk normally. (He walks in a strange way).
He doesn’t walk, normally. (Usually he doesn’t walk).
2. She left me to talk to the Dean. (I had to talk to the Dean).
She left me, to talk to the Dean. (She wanted to talk to the
Dean).
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3. She is a pretty intelligent girl (= fairly intelligent).
She is a pretty, intelligent girl (she is both pretty ad intelligent).
4. Fred thinks (that) I know that Nelly is abroad.
Fred thinks, I know, that Nelly is abroad.
5. Women who drive carelessly are a danger to other road users. (Those women who…)
Women, who drive carelessly, are a danger to other road users. (= all women drive carelessly).
Punctuation marks are very important in the given above
examples as they help to remove ambiguity, i. e. to make sure
that your words mean only one thing.
Two kinds of pointing practice are nowadays in use in the
English language: conservative (formal) punctuation, which
prefers to use all the marks; and liberal (informal) punctuation,
which prefers to omit all the marks not definitely required.
Actually, most experienced writers strike a medium: they try
to punctuate flexibly, while most people exercise the informal
options according to their taste or personal style.
For example, you could punctuate the following sentence in
different ways:
Mr. Pockney, the scientific advisor to the board, has
come.
Mr. Pockney (the scientific advisor to the board) has
come.
Mr. Pockney — the scientific advisor to the board —
has come.
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The following punctuation marks (points) are used in Modern English:
Symbol
Names
.
the full stop (the period)
?
the question mark
!
the exclamation point (mark)
:
the colon
;
the semicolon
,
the comma
…
suspension period or the ellipsis
–
the dash
-
the hyphen
()
(round) brackets (parenthesis)
[]
(square) brackets
“”
(double) quotation marks
‘’
single quotation marks (inverted commas)
All the names of punctuation marks are used as technical
terms in linguistics.
The Period
(or a Full Stop) (.)
It is used to mark:
1. the end of a declarative sentence, a mild command, or an indirect question:
Learning a foreign language is a step-by-step process.
Please send me the report. I wonder who they are.
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2. the end of some abbreviations:
Dr. Boyle
3 p. m.
350 B. C.
U. S. A.
Mrs. Dingdong
But not in names of organizations:
NATO, IBM, CBS, BBC, CNN, FBI.
The Question Mark
(or an Interrogation Point) (?)
Use it at the end of a direct question (not an indirect one).
Who can refuse the chance of a lifetime?
But: I wonder who wrote that book.
One or more question marks may sometimes be used in
a single sentence to emphasize each of the separate questions.
Will Stella marry John? or will Bess? or will anyone?
William Dunbar, who was born in 1465 (?) and who
died in 1530 (?), ranks next to Robert Burns in Scotland’s literary history.
The Exclamation Mark
(Point) (!)
Use it to mark the end of an exclamatory sentence, phrase,
or clause.
What a great day it was! Get lost!
What a mess! What a shame!
How lucky you are! We won!
Use it also in addressing someone or in exclamations:
Father, Father! Open the door!
Oh no! Oh, my God! Great!
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The Comma (,)
The Comma is the most abused, and the least emphatic of
the internal marks of punctuation, representing the shortest
pause in the utterance. The function of a comma is to slow the
reader down. Commas can influence the meaning of your sentence. Compare the following:
Although I wanted to kill Max, I controlled myself.
Although I wanted to kill, Max, I controlled myself.
In the first sentence Max is the person I wanted to kill; in
the second I am talking to Max about my desire to kill someone else. The comma controls the meaning.
Use a comma:
1. to separate two independent clauses joined by the conjunctions and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet, either… or, neither… nor.
They hoped to meet, so they went out eagerly.
“Discovering truths and winning arguments are different matters, for one depends on logic and the other on
rhetoric.”
(Arthur Shopenhauer)
Shakespeare wrote plays, and he also acted on the
stage.
Do not use a comma when both of the clauses are short.
He wrote plays and he also acted.
No comma is used if the subject of the second clause is
omitted.
He wrote plays and acted on the stage.
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2. when the if, when, after, before, while, as, since clauses come
before the main ones, a comma is used. If they follow the
main clause, there is no comma.
If it rains tomorrow, I’m going to stay home.
I’m going to stay home if it rains tomorrow.
As he was thirsty, he drank some water.
He drank some water because he was thirsty.
Follow the pattern:
(TIME) CLAUSE + COMMA + MAIN CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE + NO COMMA + (TIME) CLAUSE
3. to set off non-restrictive clauses and phrases. A non-restrictive clause gives some additional information about the word
which it modifies and is not essential for completing the
meaning of the sentence.
Compare the following:
A man who smiles is a man worth while.
(Restrictive, no commas).
My smiling uncle, whom everybody trusts, cheerfully
cuts salaries at his office.
(Non-restrictive, commas).
Women who eat garlic need to be beautiful.
(Restrictive, no commas).
Women, who generally possess educated taste-buds,
rarely eat too much garlic.
(Non-restrictive, commas).
4. to separate two or more words or phrases.
Sally, Beth, and Cathy were reading in the library.
The cat purred, stretched, and leaped from the chair.
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Modern practice is to omit the comma before the and or or
connecting the last two items of a series. So, either use it or
omit it, as you choose. Option:
À, Â, Ñ, and D
or À, Â, Ñ and D.
5. to separate coordinate adjectives, each of which modifies the
noun individually. Adjectives are coordinate if the word and
can be used between them.
The three diamond rings in the shop-window were very
beautiful.
(No comma — you cannot say three and diamond).
Compare the following phrases:
A large, spacious house.
A cold, dark night.
A large brick house.
A cold spring night.
6. to set off absolute phrases (in any part of the sentence), appositions, parenthetical expressions, words like nevertheless,
however, therefore, moreover, besides, consequently, actually, also after yes, indeed, surely, well (mild interjections).
Mr. Burton, our personnel manager, is out now.
The question settled, everyone left,
Also, we noticed that he was pale and excited.
His position, nevertheless, seemed shaky.
Well, I must leave now. Yes, that’s true.
7. to set off words used in direct addresses.
Friends, lend me your help.
8. to set off words or phrases expressing contrast.
Children should be seen, not heard.
I have called you to make peace, but not to quarrel again.
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9. with names, letter greetings, dates, addresses to separate
them from any titles or academic degrees used after them.
Dear Matilda, …
Cordially, …
Sincerely,
Jorge Dean, M. A.
Barbara Cane, M. D.
No comma is used between the name of the month and the
day, between a street number and the name of the street.
July 12, 1996
15 Amsterdam Avenue
In a sentence the comma will be used in the following
manner:
The president was born April 8, 1872, at 1224 Elm
Street, Cleveland, Ohio.
10. to set off a direct quotation.
The chairman asked, “How many of you are in favour
of this project?”
11. to separate a declarative clause from a tag question.
Jack is to get a promotion, isn’t he?
The plane will arrive on time, will it not?
Everyone has to answer for his actions, don’t they?
Misusing Commas
Do not use a comma to join two independent clauses. Add
a conjunction after the comma or replace the comma with
a semicolon or a period.
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The men in the shipping department will not follow instructions, they repeatedly make serious errors. (Incorrect — comma should not be used without a coordinate
conjunction.)
Three options:
a) Use a coordinate conjunction after the comma:
The men in the shipping department will not follow instructions, and they repeatedly make serious errors.
(Correct).
b) Use a semicolon between the two independent clauses:
The men in the shipping department will not follow
instructions; they repeatedly make serious errors. (Correct).
c) Punctuate the two independent clauses as two simple sentences:
The men in the shipping department will not follow
instructions. They repeatedly make serious errors. (Correct).
But:
“I came, I saw, I conquered.”
These clauses are very short and similar in length and
structure. The commas here are used deliberately to produce
a certain stylistic effect.
The Semicolon (;)
The semicolon is used to separate more definitely than the
comma, but not so decisively as the period. Use it:
1. to separate independent clauses that are related in meaning. Very often the second clause begins with a conjunctive
adverb.
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Some people give; others take.
The 7.30 is my regular train; but I seldom make it.
Shakespeare’s plays are nearly four hundred years old;
nevertheless, they will speak to us.
2. to divide sentences complete in themselves, when one or
more of them already contain commas.
Robinson Crusoe lived all alone; he satisfied his wants
by hunting and fishing; he never saw any human being for a very long time, and consequently suffered
much from loneliness.
There were three new delegates at the meeting: Ms.
Barbara Smith from Red Bank, New Jersey; Ms. Beth
Waters from Pocumtuck, Massachusetts; and Mr. James
Papson from Freeport, Maine.
3. in a complex sentence when the subordinate clause is introduced by a special question.
He moved restlessly, sighed; what was the use?
This was Ralph who came to claim her; but why
couldn’t she feel anything?
The Colon (:)
The colon is used:
1. to introduce a series, a list, an example, or an explanation to
something just mentioned.
Passengers may have one of four beverages: coffee,
tea, milk, or soda.
I went to the market and bought the following: a dozen eggs, a pound of cheese, a bottle of soda-water and
a bag of potatoes.
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Do not use a colon before a list when the items follow
a preposition (such as of), or a form of the verb be.
Three ways of travelling are flying, driving, and walking.
John’s breakfast consists of toast, cheese, marmalade
and some tea.
2. to separate clauses not joined by a conjunction when the
second clause gives the explanation of what is said before,
or gives the choice of what was offered before.
“When angry, count four: when very angry, swear.”
(Mark Twain)
Which was more important: what she truly was, or
what he thought she was?
3. to introduce a long or formal quotation.
Dr. Jucovy, a
ment, ‘People
consume more
‘Why do some
noted psychiatrist, writes: “The stateare stout because they eat more and
calories’ no longer suffices. Now we ask,
individuals eat more?’ ”
4. to follow the salutation in a formal letter.
Dear Mr. Watson:
Dear Sir:
5. to separate clock times, when the time is shown in numerals.
8:40
6:30
11:15
The plane should arrive in Milan at 4:30 p. m.
The Dash (–)
The dash has the force of a strong comma, but it marks
breaks in the continuity and achieves more definite effects of
suspense and abruptness than the comma.
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Use the dash:
1. to mark a sharp or sudden turn in the thought or structure
of a sentence.
King Midas — little realizing what he was doing —
asked for the golden touch.
Such interruptions are not grammatically part of the
sentence, but are closely related to it.
“Women who write always have one eye on the page
and the other on some man except the Countess
Haan — Haan, who has only one eye.”
(H. Heine)
My slight acquaintance with Linda — I had met her
just once — made me hesitate to phone her.
2. to set off a word, phrase, or clause summarizing what has
been said before.
The strikers included plumbers, electricians, carpenters,
truck drivers, miners — all kinds of workers.
There are two ways of rearing chickens — the natural
and the artificial.
“He seemed to have a notion that there was some sort
of esoteric cookery book full of literary recipes which
you had only to follow attentively to become a Dickens, a Henry James, a Flaubert ‘according to taste,’ as
the authors of recipes say”.
(Aldous Huxley)
3. to set off a word or words intended to effect suspense, climax, or anticlimax.
He who laughs — lasts.
Freshman themes generally have an introduction,
a body, a climax — and an anticlimax.
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4. to mark an unfinished sentence.
“Heroes do not write epics. Heroes —”
“What do they do?”
“They die.”
Use your dashes sparingly; do not use the dash instead of
a comma.
Too many dashes distract the reader and make your writing
seem breathless. The dashed sentence is not “wrong”; it is irritating and ineffective.
The Parenthesis
(round brackets or curves)
Use the brackets:
to enclose supplementary or explanatory material relatively
distant from the centre of communication, which, however, offers a side comment, or helps to clarify a point. A whole sentence, or several sentences may be in parenthesis.
Among those attending the concert were Peter Mengis,
Roberta Green (the composer), and Henry Grant.
Note: A comma may follow the closing parenthesis, but
shouldn’t precede the opening parenthesis.
The road seemed endless (it was ten miles long, actually), but we were in no mood for statistics.
Handle parenthesis with care. Excessive parenthetical style
can become irritating and obscure. If commas seem to do as
well as the parentheses in realizing your meaning, prefer the
commas.
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The Brackets
The brackets enclose information entirely independent of
the sentence — usually comments, corrections, criticisms, or
directions inserted by someone other than the writer himself.
Use the brackets:
1. to correct or call attention to an error in the text:
“Shakespeare was born in 1563 [1564 is the correct
date] and died in 1616.”
2. to insert a clarifying detail, or explanation.
“The Allied invasion of Brittany [Normandy] began on
June 6, 1944.”
“The trouble with Harry [Henry James] seems to be
that he has learned to swim without ever going near
the water.”
Note: Do not use brackets when inserting comments into your
own writing. Use parentheses or dashes.
The asking price for the clock — $ 500.000 — has not
deterred some collectors from attending the auction.
The Quotation Marks
The quotation marks “-” always in pairs, break sharply the
continuity of the writer’s thought. They are a shorthand way
of saying quote — unquote.
1. Use double quotation marks “-” to enclose any words, phrases or short passages quoted from speech, writing, or printed
matter.
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At his press conference yesterday, the president said
that his talk with Russian Ambassador had been ‘‘fruitful”.
“An agnostic,” writes Clarence Darrow, “is a doubter.”
2. Use double quotation marks to set off common words and
phrases that you don’t take at face value.
When a man and woman decide to live together without being married, are they “living in sin”?
But use underlining to set off a word you refer to as a word:
The word freedom means different things to different
people.
3. Use double quotation marks to set off certain titles of magazines or newspapers and for the title of an essay, short story, a poem, a song, a speech, or a chapter in a book.
4. Do not use quotation marks for emphasis as they can actually weaken a statement.
Joe’s restaurant serves “good” pie.
The implication is that they say it’s good, but I know
better.
Single Quotation Marks
1. Use them (‘ ’) to enclose a quotation within a quotation.
At the beginning of the class, Professor Baker asked,
“When does Thoreau speak of ‘quiet desperation’ and
what does he mean by this phrase?”
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2. Use them to enclose a title when it is part of another title
or is mentioned within a quotation:
“Frost’s ‘Mending Wall’,” said Professor Ainsley, “is
a gently disarming poem.”
Punctuating Quotations
To punctuate quotations, you must often use quotation
marks with other punctuation marks.
Here are the guidelines.
1. Use a comma or a colon to introduce a quotation.
Frank said, “Let’s buy some beer and a pizza.”
Most writers use a comma to introduce quoted speech and
a colon to introduce quoted writing. But you need neither
a comma nor a colon to introduce a quoted word or a phrase.
The doctor said that Tenster “might not live”.
The president said the talks were “encouraging”.
2. Use a comma to mark the end of a quoted sentence that is
followed by an identifying tag.
“It’s time to eat,” said John.
But do not use a comma if the quoted sentence ends in
a question mark or an exclamation point:
“What’s the evidence?” the scientist asks.
“Get out!” he screamed.
All these examples show, that even after a full stop the tag
begins with a small letter, not a capital one.
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3. Use a pair of commas to set off a tag that interrupts a quoted sentence, whether spoken or written.
“I have noticed,” Benwick Branch declared, “that no
one else arrives at work on time.”
The second part of the quotation does not begin with a capital letter because it doesn’t begin a new sentence.
4. Use a period to mark the end of a quoted statement that is
not followed by a tag.
John said, “I’m hungry.”
A comma or a period at the end of a quotation should be
put inside the closing quotation mark.
5. When you use a semicolon or a colon at the end of a quotation, put it outside the closing quotation mark.
The senator announced, “I will not seek reelection”;
then he left the room.
The new contract has “new benefits for women”: payment for overtime, maternity leave, and seniority privileges.
6. When you use a question mark or an exclamation point at the
end of a quotation, put it inside the closing quotation mark
only if it belongs to the quotation; otherwise, put it outside.
Who wrote, “What’s in a name?”
A new idea about the universe always prompts the scientist to ask, “What’s the evidence for it?”
Suddenly he screamed, “Get out!”
But: Yet the congressman simply dismissed the charge as “unimportant”!
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Ellipsis Dots (…)
1. Use three spaced dots:
to signal the omission of a word or words from the
middle of a quoted space; to signal hesitation or halting speech in dialogue: “I… don’t know what to say,”
he whispered.
2. Use four spaced dots:
a) to show that you are omitting the end of a quoted space
(the fourth dot comes before the closing quotation mark).
b) to show that you have omitted one or more whole spaces.
3. Use an entire line of spaced dots to signal that a line (or
more) of poetry has been omitted.
The Slash (/)
1. Use a slash to introduce alternative words:
Every writer needs to know at least something about
his/her audience.
2. Use a slash to mark off lines of poetry when you run them
on as if they were prose.
The Hyphen (-)
It is essentially a combining mark. It fuses parts into a new
whole, expresses a unit idea.
Use a hyphen:
1. to divide a long word at the end of a line:
enor-mous, mid-dle, mi-cro-scope.
The word should be divided at the end of a syllable.
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2. to show that two or three words are being used as a single
grammatical unit.
around-the-world voyage, out-of-date notions, beadyeyed poker players, never-to-be-forgotten experience,
forget-me-nots, the go-between
3. to form a compound noun or a compound modifier.
scholar-athletes, well-known, English-speaking, LatinAmerican (music)
Not all compounds require a hyphen. Some are written as
one word (wildlife, playhouse, storytelling), some as two separate words (social security, police officer).
4. to join a prefix to a proper noun or proper adjective.
anti-American, post-Renaissance
Do not use a hyphen when you join a prefix to an uncapitalized word: poster, deemphasizer, nonprofit.
5. in a number which is written as two words, provided it is
below one hundred.
Thirty-five applicants have requested interviews.
Two-thirds of the trees had been cut.
Do not attach a hyphen to the word for any number over
ninety-nine.
Some books now cost over two hundred dollars.
Eight thousand spectators watched the game.
The Apostrophe (’)
1. Use an apostrophe to mark the omission of letters in a contraction.
I’ve, isn’t, doesn’t, won’t, it’s
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2. Use an apostrophe to help form the possessive of some nouns
and pronouns:
a) if the noun is singular, add the apostrophe and -s:
girl’s, anyone’s, game’s, nobody’s
The final s may be omitted in a singular proper noun ending in -s:
Keats’, Charles’, Bess’, Denis’
But in current usage ’s is generally used like in:
Burns’s poems, Brams’s music, St. James's park
b) if the noun is plural and ends in -s, add just the apostrophe:
boys’ toys, the Jones’ house, workers’ demands
c) if the noun is plural but doesn’t end in -s, add the apostrophe and -s:
men’s clubs, women’s magazines, children’s department
d) to indicate joint possession, add the apostrophe, and the
-s if necessary, to the second of the two nouns:
Paul and Edith’s wedding anniversary, Ilf and Petrov’s
novels
e) if the noun is compound, add the apostrophe and the -s if
necessary, to the last word:
mother-in-law’s invitation, commander in chief’s report
3. In general, do not use an apostrophe with nouns naming inanimate things:
the front door of the house, the surface of the painting
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4. Do not use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun. Many
writers confuse the contraction it’s with the possessive pronoun its. If you have trouble keeping them straight, try remembering this:
Use its like his; use it’s like he’s.
his success
he’s successful
its success
it’s successful
5. Use it to help form the plural of a figure, a letter, or a word
treated as a word:
three 7’s
the 1920’s
two b’s
five but’s
Capitalization
1. Capitalize the first word of a sentence.
2. Capitalize the first words in proper nouns, such as names of
persons, places, firms, special events:
General Grant, Alaska, DuPont, Christmas, New Year,
Easter
3. Capitalize the first and the last word of a title, whatever
they are, and all the words in between except articles, prepositions, and conjunctions.
“Gone with the Wind” “A Month by the Lake”
4. Capitalize the pronoun I whenever it occurs.
Abbreviations (ab)
They often occur in informal writing, but in formal writing
they are less often.
Follow the guidelines:
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1. use ab. for most titles accompanying a name:
Ms. Elizabeth Fish
Dr. Martha Jenny Peters
But: Miss Jenny Gind.
2. use the full titles when referring to religious, governmental,
and military leaders:
Senator Margaret Chase Smith
The Honorable Hugh Carey, Governor of New York
General George C. Marshall
3. you may use ab. in referring to well-known firms and other
organizations:
NBC, IBM, NASA, ADIDAS, CNN, BBC
4. use ab. in terms that help to specify a date or a time of day
(units of measurement if the amounts are in numerals):
350 B.C.
A. D. 1776
8:30 A.M.
2:15 P.M.
5. do not use ab. in formal writing for the days of the week
and the months of the year:
Sunday, Tuesday, August, April
6. Do not use ab. in formal writing for the names of most geographical entities:
New England
The Snake River
Lake Avenue
but
U. S.
Mt. McKinley
St. Louis
In formal writing most terms should be spelled out in full.
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Numbers
1. Spell out a number when it begins a sentence, don’t give it in
figures.
Five orchestras performed.
Eighty-five dignitaries attended the opening ceremony.
2. Spell out a number that can be written in one or two words.
The firemen worked without relief for twenty-four hours.
The stadium can hold eighty thousand spectators.
Use numerals if spelling out a number would require
more than two words.
She has a herd of 350 cows.
The stadium holds 85,000 spectators.
3. Use numerals for addresses, dates, exact times of day, exact
sums of money, exact measurements such as miles per hour,
scores of games, mathematical rations, fractions and page
numbers.
22 East Main Street
October 7, 1997
44 B. C.
11:15 AM
$ 4.36
$ 3,5 million
65 mph
by a score of 5 to 4
a ratio of 2 to 1
7/8
page 102
However, when a time of day or a sum of money is given
as a round figure, spell it out:
Uncle Ben always gets up at six.
He used to earn two dollars for ten hours of work.
With ten cents in his pocket, everything seemed possible.
Supplement
Glossary
of Grammatical Terms
Absolute adjectives: have no comparative or superlative forms
because they express a quality you either have or you don’t.
(full, perfect, pregnant, dead, middle, round, square, wooden,
medical, unique)
abstract noun: names, concepts, qualities, actions, or states.
(peace, health, life, love, freedom, haste, time, inertia)
active voice: use of the verb so that the subject acts directly,
as opposed to passive voice. (active: I smacked him. passive:
He was smacked by me.)
adjective: a descriptive word; always modifies a noun or a pronoun. (green, white, simple, easy, pretty, hard, fast, lovely,
fine)
adverb: a descriptive word; always modifies a verb, adjective,
or another adverb or a clause. (quickly, often, sadly, always,
seldom, definitely)
agreement: subjects and verbs must agree in person and in
number. This means that the subject and verb must go together. (I laugh, Ted laughs.) This just means that you must
use a singular verb if you’re referring to a singular noun,
and a plural verb if you’re referring to a plural noun.
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antecedent: the specific noun that a pronoun replaces and to
which it refers. The two must agree in person, number, and
gender. (Fred used his words as nobody else did. Everyone
has to answer for his actions, don’t they?)
apostrophe: a punctuation mark that shows ownership (Anne’s
puppy) or forms a contraction (don’t, wouldn’t, it’s)
appositive: a noun, pronoun or a phrase set off by commas,
that interrupts the sentence and gives further explanation.
(Ralph, my boss, was late again.)
article: short word that functions as an attribute (determiner)
to a noun to indicate which one. The is the definite article;
a, (an) is an indefinite article. Used only with noun or substantivized parts of speech.
auxiliary (helping) verb: a verb that combines with the base
form (the infinitive) to build up a verb phrase and to determine tense. The primary auxiliaries are do, have and
be. Modal auxiliaries are can, may, must, have to, to be to,
should, ought to, need, dare to.
cardinal numeral (number): a number that answers the question how many? (seven, fifty, one hundred)
case: category that describes the function of a noun or a pronoun: subject, object, or possessive (ownership). Nouns have
the Common Case and the Possessive Case. Pronouns have
the Nominative case (he) and the Objective case (him).
clause: a group of words that have a subject and a predicate. Independent clauses may stand alone as a sentence.
(I worked today.) Dependent clauses cannot stand alone.
(While I was walking downtown, I met Alice.)
collective noun: think of it as a “group” noun. (committee, jury,
team, staff, government, crew, family) Treated as singular
when you think of it as a whole, a unit; plural — when you
regard them as individuals.
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colon: a punctuation mark that signals a list to follow, or an
explanation. (Three things are needed: a bat, a ball, and
a glove.)
comma: a punctuation mark used to break up the sentence, to
make the reader pause.
concrete noun: names, people, places, things; may be common
or proper.
conjunction: a word that joins words, phrases or clauses together. Common conjunctions are and, but, because, yet, or,
as, after, before, since, until.
continuous: six tenses formed by using the -ing form of
the verb. Used to express a progressive action, either at the
given moment (present, past, future), or at a period of time;
also some planned actions.
correlative conjunction: called a seesaw conjunction, because it
connects equal parts of a sentence together like a see-saw.
Common correlative conjunctions are: not only-but also, neither-nor, either-or, both-and.
dangling modifier: a word, phrase, or clause that cannot logically modify the sentence element to which it is syntactically related. A modifier dangles when its headword is
missing. As it always needs a headword, it will attach itself
to a false headword if the true one is not in the sentence.
(False: Speaking (modifier) before a crowd of people for the
first time, my knees shook. This sentence seems to say that
knees were shaking. Correct: When I was speaking…, my
knees shook.)
ellipsis: an omission, signalled by three dots. Used in quotations, when part of the quote is left out. (He wrote that a
man is always attempting … to prove himself.) Another kind
of ellipsis is the omission of a word when the meaning is
understood. (the shoe I bought instead of shoe that I bought)
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faulty comparison: an error of clarity. When making a comparison, be sure to compare verb to verb or noun to noun.
finite verb: a verb that can join with a subject to form a
predicate to make the sentence complete. (I live. She lives.
They live.)
future: a tense used to describe events that haven’t happened
yet. Think of it as the “tomorrow” tense. (I will eat turkey
tomorrow.)
future perfect: a tense used to show that an action will be
finished before a specified time in the future. (I will have
finished the project by next Tuesday.)
gender: applies to nouns and pronouns; specifies whether the
antecedent is male, female or neuter. God, he (masculine);
goddess, she (feminine); godliness, it (neuter) — according
to its sex.
gerund: -ing form of the verb (verbal) used as a noun, attribute, an adverbial, or part of the predicate. (Dancing is fun.
I enjoy dancing. My hobby is dancing.)
hyphen: a punctuation mark used to form compound words.
(blue-green, well-read, out-of-date)
idiom: a peculiarity of the language; no rules apply. Idioms include figurative language (raining cats and dogs; a black
sheep in the family)
imperative mood: the form of the verb expressing a command
or urging an action. Used to boss people around or to give
directions. (Go now! Freeze! Dismiss! Stay cool!)
indefinite pronoun: does not refer to a specific noun. Include:
some, any, much, many, every, each, either, little, few, none,
plenty, etc.
indicative mood: the form of a verb expressing a fact, a question, or voicing an opinion or statement. Most sentences
are indicative.
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indirect object: substitute for a prepositional phrase. Receiver
of the direct object. (Give me the cup. Direct object = cup;
indirect object = me) It almost always precedes the direct
object; it is usually the personal recipient of verbs of giving,
showing, telling and the like.
indirect question: a sentence pattern in which a question is
the basis of a subordinate clause. The verb follows the subject in indirect questions. (Everyone wonders what the matter is. Nobody knows what his name is.)
infinitive: the principle representative of the verb-lexeme as
a whole, the most general name to it. It occupies a unique
position in the language — it serves as the derivative base
for all the other regular forms of the verb. The infinitive
has the category of tense (indefinite, perfect) and voice (active, passive), and can perform different functions in the
sentence. (to be — to have been, to live — to be living — to
have been living)
inflection: changes in word forms to indicate person, number,
gender and case in nouns and pronouns; comparative and
superlative forms in adjectives and adverbs; person, tense,
voice, and mood in verbs.
intensifier: a modifier that increases the emphasis of the word
or words that it modifies. (It isn’t that easy. It’s the best car
available.)
interjection: a grammatically independent word or group of
words expressing an exclamation of surprise, shock, fear,
dismay, or the like. (My word, what are you doing? Ouch!
Big Deal! Crikey!)
interrogative pronoun: or question pronoun, is used simply
to ask a question. (What? Which? Who? When? Where?
Why?)
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intransitive verb: the distinction between intransitive and
transitive verbs is made in the dictionary: vt or vi. An intransitive verb doesn’t need a direct object to complete its
meaning. (I walked.) A transitive verb takes a direct object.
(She saw the film.)
irregular verb: a verb with a past tense and past participle
that does not follow the usual -ed or -d pattern, but forms
them in other ways: seesaw-seen; bring-brought-brought; gowent-gone, let-let-let.
linking conjunction: or subordinate conjunction, links a subordinate clause to the rest of the sentence. (after, before,
while, since, until, till, if, as soon as, unless)
linking verb: doesn’t express an action, but a state of being.
(be, get, become, grow, seem, look, remain, feel, small, taste,
sound)
misplaced modifier: a word, phrase, or clause that is placed incorrectly in the sentence, so that it appears to modify the
wrong word. Confusion ensues. (The traveller paid for the
motel room and opened the door with a credit card. — with
a credit card should follow paid or room.)
modifier: a word, phrase, or clause that acts as an attribute and
qualifies the meaning of another word, phrase, or clause.
mood: is the form of the verb which shows the speaker’s attitude toward the idea expressed by the verb. See imperative
mood, indicative mood, subjunctive and conditional mood.
morphology: part of Grammar studying different words (parts
of speech) and their morphemes, which are the smallest
meaning-carrying units.
nominative case: see case.
noun: names a person, place, object, concept, and the like.
They function as subjects, objects, attributes, predicatives
and appositives.
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number: the form of a noun, pronoun, demonstrative pronoun
or verb that indicates whether it is singular or plural. (oakoaks, I-we, you-they, buy-buys, this-these, that-those)
object: the object of a verb has action performed to it. (He hit
the ball. She called me.)
objective case: see case.
ordinal numeral (number): the form of a number that expresses order or sequence (first, twenty-third, two hundredth, a millionth)
parallel construction: when you make a list, express the elements in the list in similar form, whether they be nouns,
phrases, or clauses. Also, when using seesaw (coordinating)
conjunctions, express the elements on either side of the
conjunction in similar form.
participle: a verbal with properties of both an adjective and
a verb. Like an adjective, a participle can modify a noun
or pronoun; like a verb, it has present and past tenses and
can take an object. The present participle usually ends in
-ing, the past participle in -ed, d, — en, or an irregular
form. The present participle is active, the past participle is
passive. (Reeling, Spinks hit the canvas. The torn page was
a clue.) With auxiliary verbs, present participles form the
progressive tenses. (I am making, I had been making, I will
have been making). Past participles form the perfect tenses
(I have made, I had made, I will have made). Further, past
participles, with auxiliary verbs, are used to form the passive voice (I am beaten, I was beaten).
parts of speech: the eight grammatical categories into which
words can be grouped depending on how they function in
a sentence. Many words act as different parts of speech in
different sentences. The parts of speech are nouns, verbs,
adjectives, pronouns, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions,
and interjections.
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past perfect: a tense used in a sentence that already has the
simple past, to express an action that happened earlier. (He
confessed that he had made a serious mistake.)
person: the relation between a subject and its corresponding verb, indicating whether the subject is speaking
about itself (first person I or we), being spoken to (second
person you), or being spoken about (third person he, she,
it, or they). Be has several forms depending on the person
(am, is, and are in the present tense plus was and were in
the past). Other verbs change form in the present tense indicative with a thirdperson singular subject (I fall, you fall,
she falls, we fall, they fall). Personal pronouns also change
form as subjects, objects, and possessives. (I-me-my-mine;
he-him-his-his; they-them-their-theirs)
phrase: a group of words that can function as a single unit.
The four main kinds of phrases are prepositional phrases,
infinitive phrases, participial phrases, and gerund phrases.
plural: more than one, as opposed to singular, which is only
one. Applies to nouns, pronouns, and verbs.
predicate: the actual or implied finite verb and related -words in
a sentence. The predicate expresses what the subject does,
experiences, or is.
prefix: an addition (often derived from a Latin preposition or
negative) to the beginning of a root word to alter its meaning (preview, undress).
preposition: a part of speech that indicates the position of a
noun or pronoun in space or time and links it to other sentence elements. (He was at the top of the ladder before
the other contestants had climbed to the fourth ring.) See
phrase.
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present perfect: a tense used to express a completed action
connected with the present through its result; an action that
started in the past and continues into the present. (I have
lost my mittens; She has been here for hours.)
pronoun: a word that stands in for a noun. There are several
classes of pronouns: personal (she, it); relative (that, which);
interrogative or question (what, which); indefinite (both,
each, any, many); demonstrative (these, those); reflexive or
mirror (itself, yourself, themselves).
redundancy: saying the same thing twice; needless repetition.
(close proximity)
reflexive pronoun: or mirror pronoun, is used to spin the action back at the subject (He did it himself), or for emphasis
(The candidate himself wrote the speech).
relative clause: a subordinate, or dependent, clause that is introduced by a relative pronoun (which, that, who, what).
A relative clause always acts as an attribute.
relative pronoun: introduces a relative clause. Examples: which,
that, who. Indefinite relative pronouns have no antecedent
(what, which, whatever, whomever).
restrictive element: a word, phrase, or clause that limits the
essential meaning of the sentence element; it modifies or
provides necessary identifying information about it. The
restrictive element is not set off from the element that it
modifies with commas, dashes, or parentheses. (The tree
that I hit was an oak. The oak at the side of the road was
a hazard.)
sentence: a group of words containing a subject and a finite
verb and expressing a complete thought. In writing, a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period,
a question mark, or an exclamation point. A sentence may
be declarative and make a statement (The sun rose.), inter306
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rogative and ask a question (Did the sun rise?), exclamatory
and indicate surprise or other strong emotion (How beautiful
the dawn is!), or imperative and express a command (Get up
earlier tomorrow.) Besides having these functions, sentences
are classified grammatically. A simple sentence is a single
and independent clause without dependent clauses. (I left
the house.) Its subject, predicate, or both may be compound.
(Sears and Roebuck founded a mail-order house and a chain
of stores.) A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses linked with a coordinating conjunction,
a correlative conjunction, or a semicolon. (I did not wish to
go, but she did. I did not wish to go; she did.) A complex
sentence contains an independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses. (After he had cleaned up the kitchen,
Tom fell asleep in front of the television.) A compoundcomplex sentence contains at least two independent clauses
and one or more dependent clauses. (We had hoped to go
climbing, but the trip was postponed because she sprained
her ankle.) See also clause, semicolon: a punctuation mark
used to separate two independent clauses. (I ran; I fell.)
singular: used to describe nouns and pronouns when there is
only one of them (bus, it) as opposed to plural, more than
one. Also used to describe the verb form that matches the
singular noun or pronoun (bus moves it flies).
split infinitive: the often awkward intrusion of some words
between to and the base form of the verb in an infinitive
construction (to better serve rather than to serve better, to
really like rather than to like really).
subject: the main member of the sentence that indicates who
or what a sentence is about.
subjunctive mood: the form of a verb used to express a wish,
a request, or a condition that does not exist. The contraryto-fact subjunctive using were is the most common. (If
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I were president, I would change things.) The dependent
that clause expressing a command, demand, necessity, request, requirement, or suggestion is also common. (I asked
that he come.) The subjunctive also survives in many timehonoured expressions. (Be that as it may. Long live the
Queen!)
subordinate clause: or dependent clause, can’t stand alone as
a sentence. It will be introduced by a linking, or subordinate conjunction (after, while, if) or a relative pronoun
(which, that, who).
subordinating conjunction: introduces a subordinate, or dependent, clause. Examples of subordinating conjunctions: after,
if, while.
substantive: a word, phrase, or a clause that functions as
a noun, (an individual, the rich, a go, a must, a stay-athome; No more “I love yousl”)
suffix: an addition to the end of a word that alters the word’s
meaning or part of speech — as in migrate (verb) and migration (noun) or late (adjective or adverb) and lateness
(noun).
syntax: part of grammar dealing with the arrangement of
words in a sentence in order to reveal the relation of each
to the whole and each to the other, the word order; different types of sentences: compound, complex, compoundcomplex.
tense: the verb forms that indicate the time at which an action takes place or a condition exists. The tenses are basically present, past, and future. Verbs have simple (I love),
perfect (I have loved), progressive (I am loving), and perfect
progressive (I have been loving) forms that show tense and,
used in sequences, show the time relationships of actions
and events.
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transitive verb: takes a direct object (She met me) as opposed
to an intransitive verb, which doesn’t (She swam).
verb: a word or group of words that expresses what action
the subject takes or receives, what the subject is, or what
the subject’s state of being is. Verbs change form to show
tense, number, voice, and mood. A transitive verb takes an
object or has passive forms. (Edison invented the incandescent bulb. The incandescent bulb was invented by Edison.)
An intransitive verb does not take an object. (The bulb
glowed.) Linking verbs join a subject and its complement.
(Edison was pleased.) Depending upon its use in a sentence,
a verb may sometimes belong to all three groups. (Evans
grew oranges (transitive). The oranges grew well (intransitive). The oranges grew ripe (linking).)
verbal: the three kinds of verbals are infinitives, gerunds, and
participles. They can have different functions in the sentence. (Running is excellent exercise (gerund, subject). We
went to the track to run (infinitive, adverbial modifier).
A running well never dries (participle, attribute).]
Punctuation Practice
Ex. 1. Insert commas where necessary in the following sentences.
1. Bob was usually a quiet man but he screamed upon entering
the room.
2. Hugh tried to breathe to keep from fainting and to remember his first aid.
3. When he stopped playing tennis it was dark outside.
4. Before leaving we heard the man sneeze.
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5. The nimble fat and furry raccoon began to poke at the water balloon.
6. The man’s white cotton shirt was balled up in the corner.
7. He was a handsome brilliant scholar.
8. Bananas that are green taste tart.
9. Bananas which grow in the tropics do not need refrigeration.
10. Now then let’s get down to work.
11. On the other hand error can lead to revelation.
12. What the candidate promised in fact is impossible to achieve.
13. Bye I must be going.
14. Mrs. Honey my favourite teacher is wearing a wig.
15. Ralph the president of the student council is a future programmer.
16. S. Fitzgerald said “The very rich are different from you
and me.” “Yes” Hemingway replied
17. For him to think meant to act.
18. You should keep one eye open however safe you feel. Indeed some of us keep both eyes open others of us moreover wish for a third eye.
Ex. 2. In the following sentences, replace the inappropriate commas
with semicolon.
1. It is hard to form just ideas, wayward notions, however,
come without being called.
2. A small group of people arrive: I recognise Martin Parrot,
the director, Wolfgang Reinhardt, the supervising producer,
and George Amy, the caller.
3. He is a man, hence, he is fallible. She is a woman, therefore
she will fool him.
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4. “Man can have only a certain number of teeth, hair,
and ideas: there comes a time when he necessarily loses his
teeth, hair, ideas.”
(Voltaire)
5. All power corrupts, moreover absolute power corrupts absolutely.
Ex. 3. In the following sentences, replace the inappropriate punctuation
marks with colons.
1. A salad needs three things, a miser for the vinegar, a spendthrift for the oil, and a madman for the tossing.
2. There are three kinds of women — the beautiful, the intellectual, and the majority.
3. Intelligently enough, he attributed his error to a single
cause-stupidity.
4. Dear Sir;
I have read your letter, a courtesy you apparently did not
vouchsafe mine.
Yours truly,
Jojo Jones
5. There are two methods of curing the mischiefs of faction;
the one, by removing its causes; the other, by controlling
the effects.
Ex. 4. Abbreviate the following words.
1. anno domini; 2. bachelor of arts; 3. ante meridiem; 4. Doctor; 5. logarithm; 6. private first class; 7. radio aircraft discovery
and recognition; 8. tuberculosis; 9. South Dakota; 10. videlicet;
11. square inch; 12. gill; 13. barrel; 14. Puerto Rico; 15. hundredweight; 16. ton; 17. January; 18. Monday; 19. northwest
(compass direction); 20. Celsius; 21. District Columbia.
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Ex. 5. Place the apostrophe, or the apostrophe s, wherever required.
(Below are given the nominative forms of those nouns to be
converted into the possessive).
1. Smith Brothers Cough Drops; 2. Newton Law; 3. earth
surface; 4. geese cackling; 5. hero welcome; 6. Prince of Wales
horse; 7. James novels; 8. Queen Elizabeth II coronation;
9. Achilles heel; 10. anybody else word; 11. princess gown;
12. princesses gowns; 13. Xerxes triumph; 14. heres how;
15. at 6s and 7s; 16. Mississippi has four s s; 17. six î clock;
18. youll; 19. theyd; 20. whos.
Ex. 6. Use an initial capital letter for the words requiring capitalization.
1. the anglo-saxon language was the language of our saxon
forefathers in england, though they never gave it that name,
they called it english. thus king alfred speaks of translating
“from book-latin into English”; abbot aelfric was requested
by eathelward “to translate the book of genesis from latin into english”; and bishop leofric, speaking of the manuscript (the “exeter manuscript”) he gave to exeter cathedral,
calls it “a great english book.”
2. the city of nome, alaska, acquired its name through error,
there was a small prospectors’ settlement known as anvil city
on the seward peninsula in Alaska, a Washington clerk, in
drawing a map, did not know its name, and wrote “name?”
at that place on the map. one of his superiors took the word
for “nome” and that name still stands.
3. “stories in the modern manner”, edited by philip rahv and
william phillips, was published by avon books. Perhaps the
best story in it is gide’s “theseus”.
4. it is the grace of god that urges missionaries to suffer the
most disheartening privations for their faith, this grace
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moved saint isaac jogues to say (when he came to canada),
“i felt as if it were a christmas day for me, and that i was
to be born again to a new life, to a life in him.”
Ex. 7. Punctuate the following story.
a witty doctor
henry was from the united states and he had come to london for a holiday
one day he was not feeling well so he went to the clerk at
the desk of his hotel and said i want to see a doctor can you
give me the name of a good one
the clerk looked in a book and then said Dr Kenneth Gray
61010
henry said thank you very much is he expensive
well the clerk answered he always charges his patients two
pounds for their first visit to him and one and a half for later visits
henry decided to save 50 p so when he went to see the
doctor he said i have come again doctor
for a few seconds the doctor looked at his face carefully
without saying anything then he nodded and said oh yes he
examined him and then said everythings going as it should do
just continue with the medicine i gave you last time
Ex. 8. Punctuate the following story.
peter judd joined the army when he was eighteen and for
several months he was taught how to be a good soldier he did
quite well in everything except shooting
one day he and his friends were practising their shooting
and all of them were doing quite well except peter after he
had shot at the target nine times and had not hit it once the
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officer who was trying to teach the young soldiers to shoot
said you re quite hopeless peter don t waste your last bullet
too go behind that wall and shoot yourself with it
peter felt ashamed he went behind the wall and a few seconds later the officer and the other young soldiers heard the
sound of a shot
heavens the officer said has that silly man really shot himself
he ran behind the wall anxiously but peter was all right i
m sorry sir he said but i missed again
Ex. 9. Punctuate the following passage.
Billy Wifflamoo, the Final Chapter
Billy had several more visits from the aliens sometimes
they ate snacks on his Buick sometimes they played music and
danced One alien in particular became Billy’s friend The alien
taught Billy some good tricks a foolproof method for shooting foul shots a lip smacking recipe for tadpoles and a way to
make his eyes change color at will.
Later in life Billy found himself married with two small
children living in a peaceful suburb He said that he couldn’t
be happier
You miss the aliens said his wife one night putting the children to bed
She was right His Buick had gone to the scrap heap and
the aliens once his friends did not appear anymore sometimes it made Billy sad but he threw himself into his work as
an accountant for a chain of dry cleaners and occasionally he
made a little money making bets on his foul-shooting Although
he lived a sedate quiet life he always treasured the days of
snacking on the Buick with the aliens.
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Ex. 10. Punctuate and paragraph the following, putting in capitals
where necessary.
When columbus returned from america he was much honoured by the king and queen of spain and was entertained at
many banquets naturally he excited the envy of many people
who thought that the honour columbus received was due to
them on account of their position one day when the great
explorer was at a dinner in company with some nobles the
latter began to disparage his achievement and to say any one
of us could have done the same after all there was nothing
wonderful in merely sailing westward until land appeared columbus overhearing their talk resolved to silence then he took
up an egg and challenged them to make it stand on one end
the egg was accordingly passed round the table all tried but
no one succeeded columbus then took the egg broke it slightly
at one end and so made it stand upright the nobles exclaimed
that it was easy we could have done that yes said columbus it
was easy to do but it was first necessary to think of it this
silenced his detractors who began to understand how foolish
they were.
Ex. 11. Punctuate and paragraph the following.
Don quixote is the work of cervantes who composed the
book while he was in prison in this book the writer laughs at
the foolish ideas about knights fairies dragons and sorcerers
which prevailed in the middle ages don quixote was a madman
who imagined himself called upon to go out into the world as a
knight errant and to set right the wrongs of people in distress
he rode on a wretched horse called rozinante and accompanied by his servant sancho panza and in trying to right these
wrongs he often made matters a great deal worse by his interference once he even went so far as to attack some windmills
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supposing that they were giants people who undertake acts of
self sacrifice or of kindness which are not necessary or which
lie out of their path have ever since been called quixotic people and such actions quixotic actions.
Seven Easy Ways to Look Bad
Some grammar mistakes can cause the most distress to the
listener or reader. When someone else makes them, it drives
people crazy. Here are the most frequent ones, in order of degree of irritation caused.
1. Writing to instead of too; your instead of you’re; it’s instead of its.
Is it sloppiness, or is it ignorance? To is a preposition
that indicates direction: I went to the dentist. Your and its are
ownership pronouns; use them to indicate possession or ownership: Your slip is showing. You’re and it’s are contractions,
shortened versions of you are and it is. To say You’re slip is
showing would be to say You are slip is showing, which would
sound incorrect English.
2. Writing or saying Between you and I.
This is quite common and quite irritating. Remember the
trick of dealing with subject and object pronouns: do them one
at a time. Between you. Correct. Between I. Incorrect. Since
you would say between me, say between you and me. Me is
the object of the preposition. The reason this error causes the
listeners such distress is that saying I instead of me is a sorry
attempt to sound stately, or official, or erudite.
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3. Mixing up lie and lay, raise and rise.
This error drives some people crazy, but isn’t hard to explain. Lie never takes an object; lie means to rest or recline:
I need to lie down. The books are lying on the floor. The principal forms of lie are: lie, lay, lain, lying. Lay always takes an
object, and means to put down, to place: He laid the books on
the floor. He will lay himself on a bed of nails. Ask yourself,
“Lay what?” In the sentences above, the answer would be the
book, and himself. If there is no answer, use lie. The principal
parts for lay are: lay, laid, laid, laying.
Raise, rise. Raise means lift or move something upward. In
the case of children, it means bring up or rear. As a transitive verb, it takes a direct object — someone raises something:
The guests raised their glasses in good cheer. Rise means go
upward. It is not followed by a direct object; something rises
by itself: She saw the steam rise from the pan just as the soup
bubbled into a bull.
4. Mixing up
Use bring
that book to
the speaker:
bring it with
bring and take.
to indicate movement toward the speaker: Bring
me. Use take to indicate movement away from
Take that book with you when you go. Not: I’ll
me.
5. Writing their instead of there.
There indicates location, it’s an adverbial modifier of place.
Their is a possessive pronoun, used as an attribute to the noun.
(They went there. Their house is in the country.)
6. Mixing up good and well.
Good is an adjective and can be used in the sentence as an
attribute or as a predicative (part of the nominal predicate).
Well is an adverb and modifies a verbal predicate, expressing an action. Compare: Gabriel is a good host and cooks quite
well. It’s a good job and I’m going to do it well.
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7. Mixing up bad and badly.
Bad is an adjective, used to modify a noun, an adjective
or to follow a linking verb such as be, look, smell, taste, feel,
or seem. Badly is an adverb, used to modify a verb. Compare:
The guests felt bad because the dinner was so badly prepared.
She looks bad as she slept badly last night.
The List of Irregular Verbs
Infinitive
Past
Past Participle
A
abide
abode, abided
abode, abided/abidden
arise
arose
arisen
awake
awoke, awaked
awaked, awoke
B
be
was/were
been
bear
bore
borne, born
beat
beat
beaten, (beat)
become
became
become
befall
befell
befallen
beget
begot, begat
begotten
begin
began
begun
behold
beheld
beheld
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Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû
Infinitive
Past
Past Participle
bend
bent, bended
bent, bended
bereave
bereft
bereft, bereaved
beseech
besought
besought
beset
beset
beset
bet
bet, betted
bet, betted
betake
betook
betaken
bethink
bethought
bethought
bid
bade, bid, bad
bidden, bid
bind
bound
bound
bite
bit
bitten, bit
bleed
bled
bled
blend
blended, blent
blended/blent
bless
blessed, blest
blessed, blest
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
breed
bred
bred
bring
brought
brought
broadcast
broadcast, broadcasted
broadcast, broadcasted
build
built
built
burn
burnt, burned
burnt, burned
burst
burst
burst
buy
bought
bought
319
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû
Infinitive
Past
Past Participle
C
cast
cast
cast
catch
caught
caught
chide
chid
chidden, chid
choose
chose
chosen
cleave
clove, cleft, cleaved
cloven, cleft, clove, cleaved
cling
clung
clung
clothe
clothed, clad
clothed, clad
come
came
come
cost
cost
cost
creep
crept
crept
crow
crowed, crew
crowed
cut
cut
cut
D
dare
dared
dared
deal
dealt
dealt
dig
dug
dug
do
did
done
dive
dived
dived
draw
drew
drawn
dream
dreamt, dreamed
dreamt, dreamed
drink
drank
drunk
drive
drove
driven
dwell
dwelt (ed)
dwelt (ed)
320
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû
Infinitive
Past
Past Participle
E
eat
ate
eaten
F
fall
fell
fallen
feed
fed
fed
feel
felt
felt
fight
fought
fought
find
found
found
fit
fit
fit
flee
fled
fled
fling
flung
flung
fly
flew
flown
forbear
forbore
forborne
forbid
forbade, forbad
forbidden
forecast
forecast, forcasted
forecast, forcasted
foreknow
foreknew
foreknown
foresee
foresaw
foreseen
foretell
foretold
foretold
forget
forgot
forgotten
forgive
forgave
forgiven
forsake
forsook
forsaken
forswear
forswore
forsworn
freeze
froze
frozen
321
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû
Infinitive
Past
Past Participle
G
gainsay
gainsaid
gainsaid
get
got
got, gotten (U. S.)
gild
gilded, gilt
gilded, gilt
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grind
ground
ground
grow
grew
grown
H
hamstring
hamstrung, hamstringed
hamstrung, hamstringed
hang
hung, hanged
hung, hanged
hang
hanged
hanged
have
had
had
hear
heard
heard
heave
heaved, hove
heaved, hove
hew
hewed
hewn, hewed
hide
hid
hidden, hid
hit
hit
hit
hold
held
held
hurt
hurt
hurt
I
inlay
322
inlaid
inlaid
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû
Infinitive
Past
Past Participle
K
keep
kept
kept
kneel
knelt (ed)
knelt (ed)
knit
knitted, knit
knitted, knit
know
knew
known
L
lay
laid
laid
lead
led
led
lean
leant, leaned
leant, leaned
leap
leapt, leaped
leapt, leaped
learn
learnt, learned
learnt, learned
leave
left
left
lend
lent
lent
let
let
let
lie
lay
lain
lie
lied
lied
light
lit
lit
light
lighted
lighted
lose
lost
lost
M
make
made
made
mean
meant
meant
meet
met
met
323
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû
Infinitive
Past
Past Participle
melt
melted
melted, molten
miscast
miscast
miscast
misdeal
misdealt
misdealt
misgive
misgave
misgiven
mislay
mislaid
mislaid
mislead
misled
misled
misspell
misspellt
misspellt
misspend
misspent
misspent
mistake
mistook
mistaken
misunderstand
misunderstood
misunderstood
mow
mowed
mown
O
outbid
outbid
outbid
outdo
outdid
outdone
outgrow
outgrew
outgrown
outride
outrode
outridden
outrun
outran
outrun
outshine
outshone
outshone
overbear
overbore
overborne
overcome
overcame
overcome
overdo
overdid
overdone
overhang
overhung
overhung
overhear
overheard
overheard
324
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû
Infinitive
Past
Past Participle
overlay
overlaid
overlaid
overleap
overleapt, overleaped
overleapt, overleaped
override
overrode
overridden
overrun
overran
overrun
oversee
oversaw
overseen
overshoot
overshot
overshot
oversleep
overslept
overslept
overtake
overtook
overtaken
overthrow
overthrew
overthrown
P
partake
partook
partaken
pay
paid
paid
prove
proved
proved
put
put
put
Q
quit
quitted, quit
quitted, quit
R
read
read
read
rebind
rebound
rebound
rebuild
rebuilt
rebuilt
recast
recast
recast
redo
redid
redone
325
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû
Infinitive
Past
Past Participle
relay
relaid
relaid
remake
remade
remade
rend
rent
rent
repay
repaid
repaid
rerun
reran
rerun
reset
reset
reset
retell
retold
retold
rewrite
rewrote
rewritten
rid
rid, ridded
rid, ridded
ride
rode
ridden
ring
rang
rung
rise
rose
risen
rive
lived
riven, rived
run
ran
run
S
saw
sawed
sawn, sawed
say
said
said
see
saw
seen
seek
sought
sought
sell
sold
sold
send
sent
sent
set
set
set
sew
sewed
sewn, sewed
326
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû
Infinitive
Past
Past Participle
shake
shook
shaken
shave
shaved
shaved, shaven
shear
sheared/shore
shorn, sheared
shed
shed
shed
shine
shone
shone
shoe
shod
shod
shoot
shot
shot
show
showed
shown, showed
shrink
shrank
shrunk, shrunken
shrive
shrove
shriven
shut
shut
shut
sing
sang
sung
sink
sank
sunk, sunken
sit
sat
sat
slay
slew
slain
sleep
slept
slept
slide
slid
slid, slidden
sling
slung
slung
slink
slunk
slunk
slit
slit
slit
smell
smelt, smelled
smelt, smelled
smite
smote
smitten
sow
sowed
sown, sowed
327
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû
Infinitive
Past
Past Participle
speak
spoke.
spoken
speed
sped
sped
spell
spelt, spelled
spelt, spelled
spend
spent
spent
spill
spilt, spilled
spilt, spilled
spin
spun/span
spun
spit
spit/spat
spit/spat
split
split
split
spoil
spoilt, spoiled
spoilt, spoiled
spread
spread
spread
spring
sprang
sprung
stand
stood
stood
stave
staved, stove
staved, stove
steal
stole
stolen
stick
stuck
stuck
sting
stung
stung
stink
stank
stunk
strew
strewed
strewn, strewed
stride
strode, strided
stridden
strike
struck
struck, stricken
string
strung
strung
strive
strove
striven
sunburn
sunburnt, sunburned
sunburnt, sunburned
328
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Ïðîäîëæåíèå òàáëèöû
Infinitive
Past
Past Participle
swear
swore
sworn
sweep
swept
swept
swell
swelled
swollen, swelled
swim
swam
swum
swing
swung
swung
T
take
took
taken
teach
taught
taught
tear
tore
torn
tell
told
told
think
thought
thought
thrive
throve, thrived
thriven, thrived
throw
threw
thrown
thrust
thrust
thrust
tread
trod
trodden
U
unbend
undent
unbent
unbind
unbound
unbound
underbid
underbid
underbidden, underbid
undergo
underwent
undergone
understand
understood
understood
undertake
undertook
undertaken
undo
undid
undone
329
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: базовый теоретический курс
Îêîí÷àíèå òàáëèöû
Infinitive
Past
Past Participle
unwind
unwound
unwound
unhold
unheld
unheld
upset
upset
upset
W
wake
woke
woken
waylay
waylaid
waylaid
wear
wore
worn
weave
wove
woven
wed
wedded, wed
wedded, wed
weep
wept
wept
wet
wet, wetted
wet, wetted
win
won
won
wind
wound
wound
withdraw
withdrew
withdrawn
withhold
withheld
withheld
withstand
withstood
withstood
wring
wrung
wrung
write
wrote
written
Bibliography
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Jake Allsop, Cassell’s Students’ English Grammar, 1985.
B. S. Azar, Fundamentals of English Grammar, New Jersey, 1992.
Cobuild English Guides, Prepositions. Harper Collins Publishers, 1997.
Cobuild English Guides, Reporting. Harper Collins Publishers, 1996.
Cobuild English Guides, Articles. Harper Collins Publishers, 1996.
Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary. Harper Collins Publishers, 1991.
Grammar Smart. The Princeton Review. A Guide to Perfect Usage,
New York, 1996.
Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English, 2002.
R. Quirk, A. Greenbaum, G. Leech & J. Svartvik (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, London: Longman.
Education Resources on the Internet — Home Page: www.edufind.
com/english/grammar.
Учебное издание
ИНОСТРАННЫЙ ЯЗЫК: ШАГ ЗА ШАГОМ
Саакян Аида Суреновна
АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА
Базовый теоретический курс
Ответственный редактор Н. Уварова
Редактор Н. Шестопалова
Художественный редактор Г. Федотов
Технический редактор Л. Зотова
Компьютерная верстка Т. Кирпичева
Подписано в печать 20.09.2012. Формат 70×90 1/16.
Гарнитура «JournalCTT». Печать офсетная. Усл. печ. л. 24,5.
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