Download Editing Reference Guide

Editing Reference Guide
Writers can access many excellent references to ensure accuracy and clarity in writing
and editing. We encourage you to start now in building a collection of references you find
most useful. For formal writing of theses and dissertations, one should study thoroughly
the style manual required by the adviser.
This guide provides definitions, examples and rules for some of the terms students and
professionals often have questions about while writing and editing. (Terms in boldface
have separate entries in this section.)
Part I. The Eight Parts of Speech
Every word in the English language can be classified into one or more of eight groups
known as the parts of speech.
1. Adjective Descriptive words used to modify nouns or pronouns.
Local ranchers will make an important decision Monday, Jones said.
2. Adverb Words that modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.
Voters easily defeated the referendum.
The old equipment was well-maintained.
She performed satisfactorily on the exam.
3. Conjunction These connectors are used to join words or groups of words.
Farmers and ranchers oppose the measure.
John entered the contest, but was not a finalist.
4. Interjection Words used to show strong or intense feeling or emotion. They are
followed by one exclamation mark. Interjections are sometimes joined with a clause, as
shown below in the second example.
Help!
Wait! You can’t leave yet.
5. Noun Words used to represent a person, place, thing, idea or quality.
The officers postponed the meeting because of bad weather. (Common nouns)
Frank Willson had agreed to meet with us Friday. (Proper noun)
The team was recognized for its outstanding season. (Collective noun)
6. Preposition A word that shows the relation between its object and another word in
the sentence.
The combine approached the end of the row. (In this example, of is the preposition, and
row is the object of the preposition. The words of the row form a prepositional phrase.)
You may ride with Mary and me. (In this example, with is the preposition; Mary and me
are objects of the preposition. The words with Mary and me form a prepositional phrase.)
7. Pronoun A word that substitutes for a noun and can be used in the same position in
the sentence. Among the different types of pronouns are personal pronouns, indefinite
pronouns and compound personal pronouns, shown below.
She has held the position for six years. (Personal pronoun)
Everyone is invited to attend. All are welcome. (Indefinite pronouns)
Help yourself to some punch. (Compound personal pronoun)
(Also see agreement, antecedent and case.)
8. Verb Words used to express action, being or state of being.
The early frost stunted or killed most of the plants.
(Also see attribute verbs, verbals and voice.)
Part II. Editing Glossary
Active voice Refers to sentence structure in which the subject of the verb is the actor.
By contrast, passive voice refers to sentence structure in which the subject is the receiver
of action.
Active voice example: Dr. Jones taught the class for more than 21 years.
Passive voice example: The class was taught by Dr. Jones for more than 21 years. (Note:
Passive voice occurs when a to-be form of the verb (such as was, were, am, is or are)
is followed by a past-tense verb. In the current example, was is the to-be verb form,
and taught is the past-tense verb. Also note that the subject of the sentence, class,
does not serve as the actor, but as the receiver of the action.)
Do not use it, these, those that, or there as sentence subjects in formal writing such as
theses, dissertations, professional papers or journal articles.
Rule: Use active voice when possible.
Agreement Refers to correct usage where there is consistency in number between a
subject and verb, and consistency in number between a pronoun and its antecedent.
The county commissioner and state representative are expected to attend. (Agreement in
number between plural subject county commissioner and state representative and
verb are)
The county commissioner, as well as the state representative, is expected to attend.
(Agreement in number between singular subject county commissioner and verb is)
The award winners brought their trophies to the pep rally. (Agreement in number
between plural possessive pronoun their and plural antecedent noun winners)
The group will hold its annual meeting Nov. 14. (Agreement in number between singular
possessive pronoun its and antecedent collective noun group)
Each of the football players was recognized for his role in the upset victory. (Agreement
in number between indefinite pronoun each and (1) singular verb was and (2) singular
possessive pronoun his)
(See antecedent, collective noun and indefinite pronoun.)
Alternate subjects These are formed when a subject contains the conjunctions or or
nor. In such cases, the verb should agree with the nearer subject.
Tom or the others are supposed to meet Dr. Miller at the airport.
Neither the students nor Dr. Miller was aware of the new plans.
Antecedent The noun or pronoun referred to by a pronoun. The antecedent should
always agree with its pronoun in number and case.
(See agreement.)
Article The words a, an and the comprise the grammar classification known as articles.
To distinguish between a and an, remember that an is used before words that start with
a vowel sound.
A European economist will attend the group=s next meeting.
An agricultural economist will attend the group=s next meeting.
Attributive verbs Words used in a news story to indicate the sources of information on
which the story is based, including says, said, stated and explained. The attributive
verbs says or said are recommended in most situations because they are neutral terms
that help writers avoid editorializing.
Case The correct form, or case, of a pronoun depends on its position and use in a
sentence. The three case forms are nominative, objective and possessive.
Nominative personal pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they.
Objective personal pronouns: Me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them. (Note: Use objective
case for personal pronouns that serve as objects of a preposition: Let’s keep this
between you and me.)
Possessive personal pronouns: My, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their,
theirs. (Note: The possessive form of it requires no apostrophe: The ACT Club will
hold its first meeting Wednesday.)
In formal writing, try to eliminate apostrophes. Spell out conjunctions (don’t becomes
do not, etc.) and reword possessive cases (The teachers’ attitudes becomes the attitudes
of the teachers).
Clause A group of words that contains both a subject and verb. Independent clauses
express a complete thought and can stand alone as complete sentences. Dependent
clauses also contain a subject and verb, but do not express a complete thought. They
must be rewritten or correctly joined with an independent clause when used in a
sentence.
John has already packed, but he plans to stay for dinner. (Two independent clauses
correctly joined with a comma and conjunction to form a sentence)
John had already packed before he came to dinner. (An independent clause and
dependent clause correctly joined to form a sentence)
John had already packed and could not stay for dinner. (An independent clause and a
phrase correctly joined with a conjunction to form a sentence)
See phrase.
Clichés Avoid trite, worn-out phrases and expressions in nonfiction writing. (See
textbook for more information and examples.)
Collective noun Nouns that are singular in form but plural in meaning, such as flock,
group, company, class and team. If the collective noun refers to the entire group as a
single unit, use a singular verb and singular pronouns to ensure agreement. However,
if the collective noun refers to separate individuals within the group, use a plural verb
and plural pronouns to ensure agreement.
The winning team was honored Thursday. (The collective noun team is used in a singular
sense and requires the singular verb was.)
The couple were happy to accept the invitations. (The collective noun couple is used in a
plural sense and requires the plural verb were.)
The debate team held its last practice session last night at the gym. (The collective noun
team is used in a singular sense. As an antecedent, it requires the singular possessive
pronoun its.)
Comma splice A sentence problem that results when a comma is used without a
conjunction to join two complete sentences or independent clauses.
Problem example: Wilson said, We’ve never had a problem with our students finding
jobs, employers know they are getting a quality product.
Corrected version (1): Wilson said, We’ve never had a problem with our students finding
jobs. Employers know they are getting a quality product.
Corrected version (2): Wilson said, We’ve never had a problem with our students finding
jobs; employers know they are getting a quality product.
See sentence fault and semicolon.
Common noun A class of nouns that refers to non-specific things, qualities, places,
ideas and persons.
In this county, coyotes are the limiting factor to raising sheep on pasture, he said.
Compound modifier An adjectival construction composed of two or more words
where the first word or words modify following words in the phrase, rather than the
main noun. Hyphens are used in most compound modifiers placed before the noun.
High-interest loans created economic hardships for borrowers. (Note that the adjective
high modifies interest, not loans. Therefore, the compound modifier high-interest
requires a hyphen when used before a noun.)
Compound personal pronoun A special type of personal pronoun formed by adding
-self or -selves, including myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves and
themselves. Do not substitute compound personal pronouns for simple personal
pronouns.
Problem example: The professor asked Linda and myself to speak to the class.
Corrected version: The professor asked Linda and me to speak to the class.
Dependent clause A group of words containing both a subject and verb. Dependent
clauses do not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as complete
sentences. They must be rewritten or correctly joined with an independent clause to
form a sentence.
See clause and independent clause.
Editorializing The result when writers purposely or unintentionally allow their biases
and opinions to enter a news story. To avoid editorializing, avoid first-person pronouns
such as I, me, my, we and us except when used in direct quotation. Also see attributive
verbs.
In formal writing, personal pronouns in the first-person are typically not permitted. For
example, in a dissertation, one would not say I conclude Y. But the the researcher
concluded Y. Further, regarding editorializing in formal writing, a good rule to
remember is that the research should not have an original thought until Chapter 5. Any
idea should be accompanied by citations until one comes to Recommendations,
Implications, or Discussion sections in Chapter 5.
False plural Words that appear plural because they end in s, but are singular in
meaning. False plurals require singular verbs and singular pronouns.
The company’s headquarters is located at 56 Trabue Blvd. in Columbus.
Politics is one of her favorite subjects.
The company’s headquarters held an open house for its new customers last week.
Fragment A group of words, often a dependent clause, that is incorrectly used as a
complete sentence. See sentence fault.
Fragmentary quotation A direct quotation that includes only selected words or
fragments of a source’s complete statement. (Example: Harper said his farm was clearly
the most efficient operation in this part of the state.) Fragmentary quotations are
acceptable if used sparingly. Excessive use of fragmentary quotations lowers
readability and also increases the risk of taking the source’s words out of context.
Homonyms Words that sound alike, but have different meanings or spellings.
Homonyms can be particularly troublesome when editing and revising. (See textbook
for more information and examples.) [Always proofread and do not rely on spell
checkers.]
Indefinite pronoun A class of non-specific pronouns that includes each, none, either,
neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, and nobody. When used as antecedents,
indefinite pronouns usually should refer to singular pronouns. When they are used as
subjects of a sentence, they take singular verbs.
Each of the companies displayed its products at the convention.
Neither of the winners is going to the banquet tonight.
Grammatically correct usage, but sexist phrasing: Everyone should always do his best.
Awkward structure: Everyone should always do his or her best.
Preferred: Students should always do their best. (Converting singular pronouns to plural
pronouns often allows writers to avoid sexist or awkward phrasing.)
Independent clause A group of words containing both a subject and verb. Independent
clauses express a complete thought and can stand alone as complete sentences.
See clause and dependent clause.
Jargon The specialized words and language of a profession that should be avoided in
professional writing.
Lead (also Lede) The first paragraph or paragraphs of a news story intended to attract
readers. The lead in an inverted-pyramid story should summarize the most important
facts, while the feature lead is often longer and frequently relies on description, emotion
or humor to hook readers. (See textbook for more information and examples.)
Libel A false written statement that damages an individual’s personal or professional
reputation. Writers and editors should understand basic principles of libel to avoid
editorial and legal problems.
Non-parallel structure See parallel structure.
Number Number refers to whether nouns, pronouns and verbs are used in singular or
plural form. Always check for consistency in number between (1) a subject and verb,
and (2) a pronoun and its antecedent. (See agreement.)
Parallel structure Sentence construction where clauses and phrases are grammatically
parallel.
Problem example: The harvest period is often one of stress, fatigue and working late
hours.
Corrected version: The harvest period often brings stress, fatigue and long hours.
(See sentence fault.)
Passive voice Refers to sentence structure in which the subject of the verb is the
receiver of action. (See active voice.)
Personal pronoun Includes all pronoun forms that refer to people or things, such as I,
me, we, us, you, he, she, they, them, their, it and its. Personal pronouns may be written
in either nominative, objective or possessive case. (See agreement and antecedent.)
Phrase A group of two or more words that does not contain both a subject and verb.
Phrases do not express complete thoughts and cannot stand alone as complete sentences.
(See clause.)
Proper noun This class of nouns refers to the formal names of specific places, things,
organizations, people and trademarked products. Capitalization is required. Always
double-check spellings of proper nouns.
In other business, Kyle Sharp of Columbus was elected president of the Ohio Agricultural
Communicators Association.
Quotations (See attributive verbs, editorializing and fragmentary quotations.)
Sentence fault Any grammatical or structural error that causes a sentence to be
awkward, incomplete or otherwise incorrect.
(See comma splice, fragment and parallel structure.)
Sexist phrasing The unacceptable use of gender-biased words, phrases and examples
in professional writing.
Slang Non-standard words, phrases or expressions that are usually unique to a certain
age group, social class or region. Avoid slang in all types of professional writing
unless used as part of a direct quotation.
Verbals Three special verb forms, known collectively as the verbals, require close
attention in professional writing.
1.
Infinitive A form of the verb usually preceded by to.
Examples: I would like to attend. To write well takes practice.
Rule: Avoid split infinitives, which are formed by placing a word between to and the verb.
Problem example: To really write well takes practice.
2. Gerund A verbal noun ending in ing.
Examples: Winning the contest has always been his dream. One of his hobbies is
collecting stamps.
Rule: Pronouns that precede gerunds usually require possessive case.
Problem example: I didn’t mind you asking the question.
Corrected version: I didn’t mind your asking the question.
3.
Participle A verb or phrase that functions in the sentence as an adjective.
Participles and participial phrases used at the beginning of a sentence must modify the
grammatical subject of the sentence.
Examples: After examining the data, the agricultural economist could provide an
explanation. (Note that the phrase After examining the data contains the verb
examining. But, the phrase acts primarily as an adjective in the sentence, modifying the
subject of the sentence, agricultural economist.)
Rule: Avoid dangling participles and modifiers, which result when the modifier is
incorrectly modifying a word other than the subject of the sentence.
Problem example: After meeting with her tutor, the math problems were much easier to
solve.
Corrected version: After meeting with her tutor, she found the math problems easier to
solve.
Wordiness The tendency to use unnecessary works and phrases in writing. Many
experts agree that omitting unnecessary words is one of the most important things
students can do improve their writing.
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Note: In formal writing, such as in a dissertation or thesis, verb tense should be in the
past tense. For example, one would write: Hendrix (1999) stated Y. and not Hendrix
(1999) states Y. Also, be aware that in reporting research, the word data is always
considered to be plural: The data were analyzed by Y. These data explain Y.
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Part III. Punctuation
The following guidelines are provided as a condensed review. For more detailed
questions, consult the style manual or other reference recommended by your adviser.
Apostrophe [ ‘] This punctuation is used most commonly to show ownership. It also is
used when expressing plural forms of single letters or numbers and to indicate missing
letters or numbers.
Correct forms:
That is John’s car. The students’ stolen books were never recovered.
Mary received two A’s and two B’s during her first semester.
He said he would never forget the flood of ‘93.
(Apostrophes are not used in the following constructions: 1990s, ABCs.)
In formal writing, avoid the use of apostrophes.
Colon [ : ] This punctuation is commonly used to introduce a list of items or examples.
The colon is also used after the salutation in business letters.
Jones said the new regulations apply to three specialty crops: apples, grapes and
asparagus.
Do not confuse the colon with the semicolon.
Comma [ , ] This punctuation is used to provide clarity in writing. Examples include
setting off introductory phrases, separating three or more items in a series, and
separating independent clauses.
After the movie, she went home to study.
Yesterday, he received the letter in the mail.
Emily, Andy and Kate requested letters of reference from their advisers.
The utility rates are highest in January, February, March and December.
(Note that the final comma in a series is usually omitted in news writing.)
Lesley cannot attend tonight, but she will join us tomorrow.
All of the winners have been notified, and all of them were excited to hear the good news.
Comma usage in listings is an issue in formal writing, e.g., The teacher was pleased with
the principal, superintendent, and the school board. The issue is whether or not the
comma should come before the and. For formal writing of dissertations or theses,
ask your adviser; then, be consistent in the use (or not) through the whole document.
Dash [ -- ] This punctuation may be used to set off parenthetical material or to indicate
a sudden shift in a sentence. Always insert a space before and after the dash.
Two varieties of snap beans -- Contender and Topcrop -- are recommended for this area.
John promised he would arrive early to install the speaker system C where could he be?
Most computer software packages provide a special keyboard command to construct the
dash properly. If necessary, two hyphens (--) may be used to form the dash.
The dash should not be confused with the hyphen ( - ).
Ellipsis [ ... ] The ellipsis is used to indicate missing or purposely omitted text in
quotations. Its use should be limited in professional writing and news writing. Consult
your style manual for specific uses of 3 and/or 4 points in formal writing.
Exclamation mark [ ! ] This punctuation is used to show great emphasis, strong emotions,
incredulity or surprise. The mark may be placed inside or outside of quotation marks,
depending on the intended meaning.
Always! she shouted.
I can’t believe you said he was arrogant!
See interjection.
Hyphen [ - ] This punctuation is required in compound modifiers used before a noun
and fractions that are written out.
She said all small-business managers should attend the symposium.
Four people were injured in the high-speed chase.
Nearly two-thirds of the student body voted against the plan.
Note that fractions are always hyphenated. Further, relating to number usage, Arabic
numerals never start sentences, but are spelled. Many style manuals also note that
any single digit number is always spelled (six and not 6) while double-digit (or more)
numbers are in Arabic number form (11 and not eleven).
See suspensive hyphenation.
Parentheses [ ( ) ] Parentheses are used to enclose explanatory words or phrases within
a sentence. They are also used in technical writing when referring to photographs,
citations, tables or figures. Avoid excessive use of parentheses in news writing.
Johnson said all varieties (short and tall) are suitable for this region.
Growers should become familiar with the common plant disease symptoms (Fig. 2).
Period [ . ] B This punctuation is most commonly used to terminate sentences. It is also
used in decimal numerals (3.6 percent) and abbreviations (Highland, Ill.). Periods
always are placed inside quotation marks.
(Brewer said the correct term was adjuvant.) A period is not used after symbols of
chemical elements (N, P, K, Zn).
Question mark [ ? ] The question mark is used at the end of a direct question. Like the
exclamation mark, it may be placed inside or outside of quotation marks, depending
on the intended meaning. When attribution follows the question, the comma is omitted.
Which insecticide worked best?
I heard him ask, Which insecticide worked best?
Which insecticide worked best? Huber asked.
What did he mean by burndown?
Quotation marks [ “ ]
These marks are used primarily to indicate a source’s or
speaker’s words. Commas and final periods should always be placed inside the
quotation marks. Exclamation marks and question marks should be placed inside if
they are part of the quotation.
This is our best variety, she said, pointing to the....
Did she actually call your apples poisonous?
Quotations marks should not be used to legitimize slang or clichés: Winters said the new
models are selling like hotcakes.
For formal writing, consult your style manual on the proper use of single and double
quotation marks.
See fragmentary quotation.
Semicolon [ ; ] This punctuation can be used to join two closely related independent
clauses and to separate items in a series when the items themselves have commas.
The six employees said they had no time to seek shelter before the tornado hit; the alarm
did not sound.
It’s easy to register for the meeting; just complete the form and bring it to our office.
The new marketing team leaders are Cindy Sellers, a senior agricultural communications
major from Denton; Mike Cox, a senior agricultural economics major from Tahoka;
and Carol Goode, a junior agricultural communications major from Amarillo.
The semicolon should not be confused with the colon.
Suspensive hyphenation A method of handling hyphenation for two similar compound
modifiers used before a noun. It is so named because the hyphen used in the first
compound modifier in the set appears to be suspended.
The new regulations will apply to both small- and large-farm operators.
All first- and second-year students are eligible for the scholarship.
See compound modifier and hyphen.
Recommended References
The following references are recommended for additional depth in writing and editing
instruction.
Agricultural Communicators in Education (1996). The Communicator=s Handbook: Tools, Techniques and
Technology. Gainesville, Florida: Maupin House.
Kilpatrick, J. J. (1984). The Writer=s Art. Kansas City: Andrews, McMeel & Parker.
Polnac, L., Grant, L., & Cameron, T. (1999). Common Sense: A Handbook and Guide for Writers. Upper Saddle River,
N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Strunk, W., & White, E. B. (1979). The Elements of Style. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.
Zinsser, W. (1988). On Writing Well. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc.
This guide is adapted from Burnett, C., and Tucker, M. 2001. Writing for
Agriculture: A New Approach Using Tested Ideas. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.,
Dubuque, Iowa.
Dr. Mark Tucker prepared the original text of this document. Amendments were made
by Larry Miller to emphasize special cases for formal, scholarly writing.
Some Rules about Numbers [from Downie, N. M. & Heath, R. W. (1970)
Basic Statistical Methods, 3rd Ed., New York: Harper & Row.]
Computers are often programmed to print data to four digits beyond the decimal. That
does not mean that these should be used in the research report. In fact, one could argue
that the precision of the measurement in social and behavioral sciences does not warrant
such preciseness. When analysis involves a series of steps, and the final answer is to be
in tenths, then do all preceding operations in hundredths and round to tenths at the final
step.
As a general rule, report one more digit than the original data. If data are whole
numbers, such as 10, 14, 17, 22; then report the mean to one decimal: 15.8.
Rounding:
To the nearest whole number
To the nearest tenth
To the nearest hundredth
7.2 =
7.8 =
7
8
7.17 = 7.2
7.11 = 7.1
.09 =
.1
7.177 = 7.18
.674 =
.67
1.098 = 1.10
In rounding numbers, the general rule is that if the last digit is less than 5, then it is
dropped; if the last digit is more than 5, the preceding digit is raised to the next higher
digit. The only complication arises when numbers end in 5. The rule in this case is
that if the number preceding the 5 is an odd number, this digit is raised to the next higher
one; when it is an even number, the 5 is dropped.