Download Securing the Fresh Water Systems of the Nepal Himalaya

Draft
Securing the Fresh Water Systems of the Nepal Himalaya
1. Introduction
The impacts of climate change are already noticeable and felt in the Himalayas regions as
revealed by the rapid melting of glaciers, formation of new supraglacial lakes, expansion of
existing lakes, and disappearing of some small lakes. The accelerating melting rate of snow and
glacier will have an impact, for example, on water flows in rivers, health of the people and food
and biomass productivity which depend on water derived from the Himalayas. Nevertheless, the
efforts to reach a consensus at a global level to mitigate the impacts of climate change and to
agree on a clear commitment to support poor and particularly vulnerable countries including
mountain countries in their struggle to adapt to rapidly changing climate are still continuing.
As an attempt to meet these challenges, the Royal Government of Bhutan (RGoB) felt an urgent
need to take an action at regional and sub-regional levels and made a call for making a regional
effort in meeting the climate adaptation challenges in the Eastern Himalayan countries. The
RGoB has therefore proposed to bring together head of the state/governments from the four
countries lying in the southern slopes of the Himalayas that include Bangladesh, India, Nepal and
Bhutan for a summit meeting in October, 2011. As a follow-up initiative, a team of expert
representatives from 4 countries met in August 2010 and agreed to jointly develop a road map
for adapting to climate change in the Eastern Himalayan region in four key sectors namely,
Water, Biodiversity, Food Security and Energy. The four national thematic roadmaps from four
countries (16 in total) will be the basis to prepare 4 regional thematic paper or roadmap which is
to be ratified at the Bhutan Climate Summit for a Living Himalayas in October 2011.
This report forms the country roadmap on fresh water systems of the Himalayas for Nepal. The
report first provides country specific information including impact of climate change on water
resources followed by another section dealing with major climate change issues. The report then
discusses on adaptation initiatives intended to minimize the negative impact and exploit the
positive impact of climate change followed by a section on gap analysis, which provides
information on weakness or initiatives yet to be started to manage the impact of climate change.
The report finally presents strategies and actions required to secure the fresh water system of the
Nepal Himalayas within next ten years.
2. Country Context
2.1 Location and Physiography
Nepal is a land-locked country situated in the central part of the Himalayas stretching between
26022' and 30027' N latitudes and 80040' and 88012' E longitudes with an altitudinal range from
60m in the south to 8,848m (Mt. Everest, the world's highest mountain peak) in the north. The
country is bordered by India in the east, west and south, and the People’s Republic of China in
Draft
the north. The country is about 885 km long (east-west) with an average breadth of 193 km
(north-south).
Fig. 1 Physiographic sub-division of Nepal
The physiographic zone of Nepal is divided into Terai, Siwalik (Churia), Middle Mountain, High
Mountain and High Himal, from south to north respectively (Fig. 1). Similarly, there exist three
distinct ecological zones, namely Churia-Terai Range (also known as foothills / Siwalik), Middle
Mountain (includes Mahabharat Range and Midlands) and High Mountain (includes also snow
peaks). In terms of geological setting, Nepal is sub-divided in to five tectonic zones, which also
roughly correspond to the physiographic and ecologic zones. Each of these geologic units are
demarcated by geological fault structures, which are responsible for on-going mountain building
process caused by the collision of Indian and Tibetan plates. The geologic, physiographic and
ecologic zones are extended in east-west direction through out the country forming distinct area
of diverse characteristic. The general topography is such that it forms flat Terai plane (along
Indo-Nepal boarder), steep mountain slopes, deep gorge and river valleys, Dun valleys and
mighty snow peaks (along Nepal-China boarder).
Draft
2.2
Socio-economy
Nepal, with an annual per capita gross domestic product (GDP) estimated at about US$562, is
one of the poorest countries in South Asia. The real GDP growth at producer prices is estimated
to be 4.6 % (GoN, 2010). Total population is projected to be 28 Millions and the population
density is 157 persons/square km (Table 1). The population is predominantly rural with some
urban centers such as the Kathmandu Valley gaining in inhabitants at the expense of rural areas.
The Census of 2001 indicated that 14% of Nepal’s population was urban. However, migration to
cities and valleys has been increased tremendously in the past decade. Poverty is widespread
with about 30.9% of the population living below the prescribed poverty line. Only 26% of
Nepal's women are literate, compared to 62% of men. Agriculture is the main source of
livelihood for a majority of the population and more than 80% of the population is engaged in
agriculture, which is still the largest sector of the economy, having a share of around 35% of the
GDP. About 40% of the population has access to electricity but the gap between urban access
(87%) and rural access (27%) is very large. Moreover, the Nepalese are the lowest per capita
electricity users in South Asia (about 70 kilowatt-hours per year).
Table 1: Areas and population by physiographic regions
Physiographic
Region
Area
Share
km‌2
%
High Mountains
51,817
35.2
Mid. Mountains
61,345
41.7
Churia/Terai
34,019
23.1
Total / average
147,181
100
1
According to the last census of 2001
Number
of
Districts
16
39
20
75
Population1
Share
Population
Density
Million
1.7
10.3
11.3
23.3
%
7.3
44.3
48.4
100
Persons/km‌2
33
167
330
157
2.3
Climate
The Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau play central role in the climate of Nepal which
experiences a wide range of climates varying from the sub-tropical in the south to the alpine type
in the north within a span of less than 200 km (north-south). The climate, predominantly
influenced by the monsoons and westerly disturbance, is characterized by three distinct seasons:
Summer (March to mid-June), Rainy (mid-June to September), and Winter (October to February)
(Shrestha, 2004)
The South Asian monsoon enters Nepal from southeast direction and precipitation start occurring
as soon as it comes into contact with the Churia Range which is the first monsoon barrier. The
monsoon rain is most abundant in the east and gradually declines as it moves westwards; while
winter rains are higher in the northwest declining as it moves southeastwards. More than 80% of
the total annual precipitation occurs during the summer four months (June to September).
Comment [SD1]: The data itself suggest the
Nepal's poverty standings, therefore, is it necessary
to write the word poorest?
Draft
Likewise, the distribution of daily precipitation during the rainy season is also uneven.
Sometimes, 10% of the total annual precipitation occurs in a single day (Alford, 1992), and 50 %
of the total annual precipitation is often recorded within 10 days of the monsoon period (Dahal
and Hasegawa, 2008).
The average annual rainfall ranges from only 163mm at Lomangthan (Mustang) to 5,244mm at
Lumle (near Pokhara). The Trans Himalaya region, which includes Mustang and Manang
districts, receives annual precipitation of less than 500mm; the valleys of the Fore-Himalaya
500-1000mm; the Terai, Siwalik (Churia) Hills, lower Midlands valleys and Dun valleys
between 1000 and 2000mm; and most slopes in the Midlands, Mahabharat Range, and Higher
Himalaya between 2000 and 3000mm (Khanal et al. 1998). A few pockets, such as Pokhara
(Kaski district) and Kanyam Tea Estate (Ilam district) receive more than 3,000mm of annual
rainfall. In these places, rainfall events exceeding 300 mm within a 24-hours period, which
disturb both slope and channel equilibrium on a regional scale, occurs frequently (Khanal 1995a,
1995b). Precipitation as high as 540 mm in 24 hours with a peak intensity of 70 mm per hour,
has also been recorded in central Nepal (Dhital et al.1993). The risk of landslides on Himalayan
mountain slopes is high when the daily precipitation exceeds 144mm (Dahal and Hasegawa,
2008).
As the altitude increases, with a few exceptions, from south to north, the temperature also
decreases almost in the same way (Table 2). In the Terai, a low land, the mean July temperature
attaints remarkably high temperature of over 320 C. The Mahabharat and Churia range due to
altitude and forest cover temperature ranges from 20 0 to 280 C. The river basins in the hilly
regions have generally hot climate with over 300 C. The Kathmandu Valley situated in the
midland region has moderately hot climate with the mean temperature ranging form 27 0 to 300 C.
In the main Himalayas over 5,000m of altitude, temperature falls below the freezing point and
climate becomes severely cold even during summer months (Shrestha, 2004).
Table 2: Climate characteristics in different ecological belts of Nepal
Physiographic
zone
High Himal
High mountain
Middle mountain
Siwalik
Terai
Source: WECS, 2005
Ecological
belt
High
Mountain
Middle
Moutain
Churia/Terai
Climate
Arctic/alpine
Cool/warm
Average annual
precipitation
Snow/150mm200mm
275mm-2300mm
Tropical/sub- 1100mm-3000mm
tropical
Mean annual
temperature
<30C-100C
100C-200C
200C-250C
Draft
2.4
Climate Variability and Change
Over the last 100 years, the warming in the Himalayas has been much greater than the global
average of 0.74 oC (Du et al. 2004; IPCC 2007). Recent findings of Shrestha and Devkota (2010)
have demonstrated that the major part of the eastern Himalaya is undergoing warming with
increase in annual mean temperature at the rate of 0.04 to 0.06 oC/yr or higher, which is five
times more than the global average. The higher altitude has experienced more temperature
fluctuations, with the areas above 4000m exhibiting the highest warming rates posing great threat
to the Himalayan ecosystem (Liu and Chen, 2000). An analysis of temperature trends in Nepal
for the period of 1971-1994 has indicated a continuous warming at an average annual rate of
0.06 oC which varied spatially as well as according to seasons (Shrestha et al., 1999). For
example, average annual temperature in the Terai regions in the south has been increased by
about 0.04ºC/yr, whereas it is about 0.08ºC/yr in the middle mountain areas in the north. The
pre-monsoon season (March-May) has showed the lowest warming rate of 0.03ºC/yr, while the
post-monsoon season (October-November) has showed the highest one of 0.08ºC/yr (Shrestha,
2001). Similarly, another trend analysis conducted for the period of 1996-2005 has indicated the
annual rate of warning to be 0.040C (Practical Action, 2009).
Himalayan region has experienced both the increasing and decreasing trends of precipitation.
The Tibetan Plateau in the northeast region (Zhao et al., 2004) and eastern and central parts (Xu
et al., 2007) has shown the increasing precipitation trend while the decreasing trend was
observed in western Tibetan region. Nepal, however, has shown no distinct long term trend in
precipitation (Shrestha et al., 2000). NAPA (2010) has highlighted a fact that the General
Circulation Models run with the SRES B2 scenario show the mean annual temperature to
increase by an average of 1.20C by 2030, 1.70C by 2050 and 30C by 2100 compared to a pre2000 baseline. It has also mentioned results of another study which states that the mean annual
temperature will increase by 1.4 0C by 2030, 2.80C by 2060 and 4.70C by 2090 following the
General and Regional Circulation Models projections. The projections show higher temperature
increments during winter as compared to the monsoon seasons. The NAPA report has further
mentioned of precipitation projections which show no change in western and up to 5-10%
increase in eastern Nepal for winter. During the summer months precipitations are projected to
increase for the whole country in the range of 15 to 20%. The report also discusses a regional
circulation model study which projects both rise and decline in the mean annual precipitation
with no clear trends. In terms of spatial distribution, this study projects an increase in monsoon
rainfall in eastern and central Nepal as compared to western Nepal. Further, the projections
indicate an increase in monsoon and post-monsoon rainfall as well as an increase in the intensity
of rainfall, and a decrease in winter precipitation. IPCC (2007) has projected that there will be a
general increase in the intensity of heavy rainfall events in the future and an overall decrease by
up to 15 days in the annual number of rainy days over a large part of South Asia. These facts and
figures clearly indicate for an in-depth study to understand a more detail precipitation pattern in
Nepal.
Draft
2.5
River System
The Himalaya region is known as the "third pole" or "Water Tower of Asia" as it has the most
highly glaciated area in the world outside of the Polar Regions. It has huge stocks of water in the
form of snow and ice, with a total area of 35,110 square km of glacier and ice cover, and a total
ice reserve of 3,735 cubic km (Xu et al, 2007). There are 3,252 glaciers which cover a total area
of 5,323 square kilometers in Nepal and supply melt waters to feed the extensive river network
that covers the country (WWF, 2005).
Nepal has more than 6,000 rivers, which provide a dense network of rivers with steep
topographic conditions. The four major river systems namely, the Mahakali, Karnali, Narayani
(Gandaki) and Saptakosi, all predate the uplift of the main Himalayan ranges and cut through the
mountain ranges to form deep river valleys (Fig. 2). The other medium rivers originating from
the Mahabharat range are Kankai, Kamala, Bagmati, West Rapti and Babai. The southern rivers
rising from the Siwalik range have little water during dry season, but they cause flash floods
during monsoon. Although the total average annual runoff from all these river systems is
estimated at about 225 billion cubic meters (Bm3), only a small part of it (estimated at 15 Bm3)
has so far been used for economic and social purposes (National Water Plan, 2005). The
characteristics of rivers are determined by the geology of the terrain through which they flow;
precipitation patterns affecting the river basins; and the slope of terrain they pass through. Due to
these features, each river is likely to have unique features in the context of climate change and
climate variability, and the river should be treated as a "unified whole" adopting water basin
approach.
Fig. 2 Major river basins of Nepal (WECS, 2006)
Draft
2.6
Climate Change Impact on Water Resources
Being the most dynamic and complex mountain system, the Himalaya is very sensitive to climate
change. There are several evidences indicating that the climate change is gradually altering the
ecological and socioeconomic landscape in the Himalayan region, particularly with respect to
water. The hydrological processes, water demands, vegetation all are influenced by the climatic
processes (Kaczmarek et al., 1996). Studies have shown that the climate change has become one
of the critical reasons for building pressure in hydrological systems and water resources of the
world (IPCC, 2001a). The most critical point to be considered while analyzing the impacts of the
climate change particularly for Eastern Himalayan region is the cascading property of the impact
along the altitudinal gradient caused due to the hydrological connectivity between higher
elevations to lower elevations (Xu et al. 2009). Thus, any changes in terms of water availability
(amount, duration, timing), intense events, monsoon precipitations (intensity and timing) will
have their implications at the lower elevations. It highlights the importance of up stream down
stream connectivity. The main impacts of climate change on water resources are briefly
presented below.
2.6.1 Deglaciation
With the rising in temperatures in the eastern Himalayas, the area covered by permafrost and
glaciers are decreasing in larger part of the region. During the recent decade, a large number of
glaciers in the Himalayas are observed to retreating at a higher rate compared to any other
mountain glaciers in the world (Nakawo et al., 1997; Ageta et al., 2001). In general, glaciers are
shrinking and valley glaciers are retreating in the Dudh Koshi sub-basin as reported by
Bajracharya et al. (2007). They have further mentioned that the minimum retreat of glaciers was
not less than 400m and the maximum was 2340m during 1960-2001. The average minimum
glacier retreat rate was estimated to be 10m per year which was observed on the Langdak, W.
Lhotse, and Setta glaciers. Out of the 2323 glaciers lakes inventoried, 330 lakes have expanded
to area larger than 0.02 square kilometer and are further expanding in size due to glacier retreat
(Bajracharya et al., 2005).
Not limited to Nepal, the importance of glacier retreat can be evident in regional level as it has
been estimated that Nepali river discharge, which also constitutes certain portion of glacial melt,
contributes up to 70% of the dry season flow of the Ganges River (Alford, 1992). Another study
has estimated that the annual average proportion of melt water in river flow is 13% for rivers
flowing to the Ganges from Nepal. But, during March through May, the monthly average
proportion of melt water is increased up to 30% (Chaulagain, 2006). Thus, it is very likely that
any significant change in glacier mass (due to glacier retreat) can impact water resources at
regional level. But in-depth research is still required to understand the extent of the impact of
deglaciation on water resources in local, regional and trans-boundary level.
Draft
2.6.2 River discharge fluctuation
The rate and magnitude of temperature rise, along with changes in water availability from
precipitation and runoff are critical factors which can affect Asia’s 7 most important rivers,
which originate in the Himalayas (WWF, 2005). A runoff sensitivity analysis by Mirza and Dixit
(1997) in the Ganges River showed that a 2ºC rise in temperature would cause a 4% decrease in
runoff, while a 5ºC rise in temperature and 10% decrease in precipitation would cause a 41%
decrease in the runoff.
MOPE (2004) has indicated that river discharges in Nepal are more sensitive to precipitation
change than to temperature change. A river discharge analysis conducted for the Koshi basin (for
1947-1994) has showed a decreasing trend particularly during the low-flow season (Sharma et
al., 2000). However, in the case of Gandaki River basin (for 1964-2000), the river discharge has
been found increased by about 1% annually (Shrestha, 2005). A preliminary analysis on river
discharge has indicated that all the snow-fed rivers showed declining trends (Fig. 3) in discharge
whereas the larger and southern rivers did not show any consistent and significant trend (WWF,
2005).
Figure 3: Discharge data of snow-fed rivers (Data source: DHM, 1996)
A research conducted to investigate the impact of climate change in the Brahmaputra and Koshi
basins has indicated a significant increase in water yield and surface runoff (Gosain et al., 2010).
The increases could be as high as 20 to 40% from the baseline and can be attributed to both
increases in precipitation as well as in snowmelt. The predicted increase is significantly more in
the Koshi basin than in the Brahmaputra basin. Furthermore, the predicted increases in water
yield and surface runoff are much higher during the wet months and not so much or even absent
in dry months, suggesting possible increases in flood frequency and magnitude. This problem is
shown to be more prominent in the lower parts of the basins.
Since the impact of climate change on river discharge may vary in each river basin, a
comprehensive conclusion may not be possible to draw on the basis of existing literatures and
publications only. Nevertheless, an urgent scenario has clearly been understood and research
should be initiated to cover all the water basin so as to address the problem coherently.
Draft
2.6.3 Groundwater depletion
Kulshrestha (1996) stated that climate change impacts human behavior which may change the
water supply demand balance in different parts of the world. IPCC (2001a) has estimated that
temperature increase of 1.1ºC by 2025 would lead to an increase in average per capita domestic
water demand by 5% in the UK. In long term, global warming may lead to water shortage for
more than one billion people who depend upon melt water from the Himalayas by 2050 (Cruz et
al., 2007). These situations will create pressure on groundwater which itself is at risk due to
continuously reducing recharge opportunity due to drought of various kinds.
There are two main groundwater systems in Nepal, the alluvial aquifers in the Terai and the river
valleys of the mid-hills. The groundwater resources of the former are more significant, but the
valley aquifers are vital for population centers such as Kathmandu. The overexploitation of
groundwater in Kathmandu currently far outweighs any climate impact as extraction is greater
than recharge by a ratio of 2 to 1 (Pandey et al., 2010).
Nepal has been already experiencing water deficit, for various purposes, for four to five months
outside the monsoon seasons and further warming may worsen the situation (ADB, 2010). The
decline in natural recharge of the aquifers (due to drought, low precipitation, and intense
localized precipitation) and over exploitation of groundwater, in some locations, have lead to
rapid drop down in groundwater tables in many regions of the country. For example, in Narayani
river region groundwater level has dropped down from 50 to 70 feet below ground level (in the
Terai part), spring water is drying reducing discharge upto 90% during winter in hill regions
(NCVST, 2009).
Although the facts mentioned above requires further in-depth study to understand the extent at
which the effect is due to over exploitation or due to global warming, it is indicative of an
alarming situation which should be addressed soon. Since groundwater monitoring system has
not been initiated, except a few cases, in Nepal, it is difficult to estimate the comprehensive
impact of climate change on it explicitly. At the same time aquifer mapping and understanding
their horizontal and vertical linkage is utmost important to estimate the status of groundwater and
its future trend in the light of climate change scenario.
2.6.4 Wetland degradation
The Himalayan wetlands are the natural reservoirs for surface and underground water. Several
studies have also reported the degradation of wetlands due to climate change (Sharma et al.
2009). A recent study in Nepal by Chaulagain (2006) predicts that the total water availability in
the country will increase from the present 176 km3/yr to 178 km3/yr in 2030, and then drop to
128 km3/yr by 2100 which would have significant consequences for wetlands at lower elevations
and in the plains that depend largely on runoff from upstream areas. Rapidly filling up of the lake
with debris from surrounding, sedimentation due to intense precipitation and flash floods,
Draft
increased rate of evaporation due to temperature rise and drought, land sliding and soil erosion,
and over exploitation are some of the issues that have threaten the Himalayan wetlands
(Bhandari, 200). Wetlands are located not only in Terai but also in Mountain and Himalayan
regions. Because of inaccessibility, high altitude, and extreme climate information on Himalayan
wetlands are very rare. The base line information on wetlands located in Terai and Mountain is
also lacking. This is high time to start collecting base line data on wetlands of all kinds so as to
make an action plan for their conservation.
2.6.5 Impact on hydropower
Hydropower potential is highly sensitive to the rainfall amount, timing and pattern of rainfall and
variation in temperature (IPCC, 2001b). Consequently, the impacts of climate change (such as
wetter monsoon, drier low flow seasons, and decreased snow-to-rain ratio) on river runoff will
affect the hydropower capacity of mountain rivers (Agrawala et al., 2003). Various impacts of
climate change (GLOFs, stream flow variability, reduced low flow dependability, increased
sediment loads from floods and strong precipitation events) affect Nepal’s hydroelectric potential
which is predominantly significant as hydro contributes over 90% of Nepal’s electricity
generation. The minimum flow period (early spring) or the periods when the flows are greatly
dependent on melt water in most of rivers of Nepal will create problems to run-of-river
hydroelectric plants (Kattelmann, 1993 and Shrestha et al., 2010). Nearly all of the hydropower
plants existing in Nepal are run-of-river type, lacking storage dams, which tend to make them
highly vulnerable to the stream flow variability, reducing the hydropower potential of the
country (Agarawala et al., 2003). Hydropower and agriculture sectors are also given much
importance in 25-Year Water Plan of Nepal which aims to increase hydropower to 22,000 MW
and extend irrigation to 90% of irrigable lands (Sharma, 2003). Consequently, the future water
availability scarcity in the face of changing climatic conditions can significantly impede to
achieve such goals.
The impact of climate change on water resources and hydropower is significant than any other
sector for several reasons. First, a number of impacts on water resources and hydropower are
directly related to rising temperatures that have already been observed, and are projected (with
high confidence) to increase further over the coming decades. This includes glacier retreat that in
turn causes greater variability (and eventual reduction) in stream flow, and glacial lake outburst
floods that pose significant risk to hydropower facilities, and also to other infrastructure and
human settlements. GLOFs are real threats to infrastructures as such events have already had
significant impacts in Nepal; the most significant being the near total destruction of the newly
built Namche Bazaar hydropower facility in 1985. Other climate induced risks to water resources
and hydropower facilities include: flooding, landslides, and sedimentation from more intense
precipitation events (particularly during the monsoon), as well as greater unreliability of dry
season flows that poses potentially serious risks to water and energy supplies in the lean season.
The significance of water resources to agriculture, and the significance of hydropower to the
nation's electricity supply (a 92% share) further justify the high ranking (Table 3) for water
Draft
resources and hydropower. In addition, studying the impact of climate change in the
Brahmaputra and Koshi basins, Gosain et al. (2010) has mentioned that under no land-use and/or
land-cover change, climate-change scenarios are likely to result in 25 to 40% more sediment.
This could mean serious management problems for hydropower project.
Table 3: Priority ranking of climate change impacts for Nepal
Resource/ranking
Water Resources and
Hydropower
Agriculture
Human Health
Ecosystems/
Biodiversity
Certainty of
Impact
High
Timing of
Impact
High
Severity of
Impact
High
Importance of
Resource
High
Medium-low
Low
Low
Medium-low
Medium
Uncertain
Medium
Uncertain
Uncertain
High
High
Medium-high
Source: (Agrawala et al., 2003)
3
Major Climate Change Issues
As already discussed above, the expected impacts of climate change include water shortages in
the dry season due to rapid glacial retreat, drying out of springs and depletion of groundwater,
and increasing threats from glacial lake outburst floods. On the other hand, erratic rainfall during
monsoon poses the threat of reduced groundwater reserves due to excessive surface runoff and
increased water-induced hazards that include landslides, floods and erosion. These impacts
would have serious implications particularly with regards to hydropower development, water
resources management, and agriculture. The impacts would be most felt by the poor who live on
a subsistence basis. It would also affect Nepal's unique biodiversity upon which much of its
tourism relies and provides the basis for ecosystems services.
The climate change outcome risk generally differs across ecologic units. With flood, drought,
debris flows, vector and water borne diseases, forest fire and degradation of ecosystems being
the major climate change outcome risks in the Terai-Churia Range. In the case of the Middle
Mountain, landslides, drought / drying out of springs, prevalence of insect and diseases in
agriculture are more significant. Rapid glacial melting, glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF),
landslide, habitat shifting and deterioration, and ecosystem degradation constitute major climate
change outcome risk in the High Mountain (SPCR, 2010).
The most severe issues resulted due to the climate change impact on water resources can be
broadly categorized as too little water (reduced water availability), too much water (waterinduced disaster), dirty water (water quality degradation) and data generation and sharing as
briefly presented below.
3.1 Too Little Water (Reduced Water Availability)
Draft
The Terai region and valleys of the Mid-Mountain region are heavily populated and intensively
cultivated. Generally, populations that have been displaced due to weather induced extreme
events (floods, droughts) migrate to these valleys and Terai since these regions possess a huge
amount of groundwater in addition to better infrastructure and economic prospects. This
migration trend, along with haphazard urbanization, inadequate waste and pollution control, and
unplanned increases in water use, has already resulted in reduced water availability. These
impacts on water resources will progressively increase due to changes in the water cycle and
water balance from climate change, ultimately affecting the availability of water for domestic
and agricultural use in many areas.
In Eastern Himalayas region, majority of the countries are dependent on the monsoon rain for
their agricultural productivity and even a small modification in water availability can outcome
large effect in national economy (Shrestha et al., 2010). The increase in temperature and water
stress could lead to 30% decrease in crop yields in Central and South Asia by the mid-21st
Century (UNDP, 2006). A field survey conducted during the SPCR preparation phase has
revealed a fact that many springs in the mid-mountain area are drying out (discharge is gradually
reducing) causing water scarcity for drinking and irrigation (SPCR, 2010). An another study has
indicated that in response to increased water stress, in the Koshi River Basin farmers tend to
adopt structural adaptation changes, such as using electric pumps, constructing canals and
building ponds to irrigate their fields. The reports also indicates that, in terms of domestic water
use perspective, alarmingly, water scarcity often results in people using less water for general
hygiene and sanitation activities (Dixit et al., 2009). In fact, it is yet to know the efficient ways of
coping the water scarcity in different water basin in relation to different climatic zones and
different socio-economic statues of water users.
3.2 Too Much Water (Water-induced Hazard)
The magnitude of snowmelt floods depend upon the volume of snow, snow melting rate and the
amount of rain that falls during the melting period (IPCC, 1996). For the Himalayas, the peak
melting season usually coincides with the summer monsoon season. As a result, any
amplification of monsoon or stimulating melting would result increasing summer runoff which
may contribute to enhance the risk of disasters (IPCC, 2001a). The various types of natural
hazards in the Eastern Himalayas are due to the intense seasonal precipitation occurring during
the summer monsoon (Shrestha, 2008). One of the major consequences of climate change is
related to changes in magnitude, frequency and duration of the hydrologic extremes (Sharma and
Shakya, 2005), which may cause the followings.
3.2.1 Glacier Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs)
The Eastern Himalayas consists of about 5389 glacial lakes covering 192 km 2 of area (Mool,
2007). GLOF can result due to sudden release of lake water, as a result of failure of the lake
damming moraine caused due to internal instability or some external triggers (Shrestha, 2008).
Draft
The phenomenon of GLOF is not a new to the Himalayas as some of the examples of lake
outburst particularly in Nepal and Bhutan has already been well-documented. The studies in the
past has also revealed that the GLOF events are clustered around the eastern Himalayas in
predominantly in countries like Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet (Shrestha, 2008). Moreover, twenty
five lakes in Bhutan and twenty one lakes in Nepal are identified as potential dangerous lake (six
of which has been identified as critical which are to be investigated and prioritized (Ives et.al,
2010) for implementing hazard reduction measures. Fujita et al. (2001) has observed that the
glaciers in Nepal are retreating at faster rate suggesting increase in GLOF frequency under
climate change scenario. GLOFs events can further trigger various problems such as aggravating
land degradation, increasing variations in the hydrological regime, degrading biodiversity and
most importantly causing many socioeconomic externalities.
Some of the trans-boundary type of GLOF events has also been evident in the Eastern
Himalayan region. Nepal has experienced 10 GLOF events which actually originated in Tibet but
their adverse impacts were felt in Nepal. For instance, the GLOF event of 1981 damaged the
highway sections between Zhangzangbo Gully and the Sun Koshi Power Station in Nepal,
destroyed the Friendship Bridge constructed over the Bhote Koshi river at the China–Nepal
boarder along the highway and caused serious economic losses in Nepal amounting US $3
million) (Bajracharya et al., 2006). Discussing the possibility of occurring GLOFs of transboundary nature, Bajracharya et al. (2006) has mentioned that in last 25 years some of the glacial
lakes in Poiqu basin in China (a trans-boundary basin joining with Sun Koshi- Bhote Koshi in
Nepal) have expanded to almost double in size increasing the threat of GLOFs having destructive
effects locally as well as in trans-boundary regions.
3.2.2 Floods and flash floods
Milly et al. (2002) and Ouarda et al. (2006) through their investigation in stream flow trends in
various basins of the world detected an increase in flood frequency and discharge due to high
intensity rainfall events in the recent years. During the last decade (in 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007)
the countries like Bangladesh, Nepal and north east states of India have suffered from serious
and recurrent floods (Shrestha et al., 2009). According to the United Nations International
Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), in 2008 seven out of the top ten natural disasters by
number of deaths occurred in Afghanistan, China, India, Myanmar and Bangladesh. As China,
India and Pakistan accounts for 99% of the total deaths, it indicates the vulnerability of the
region to such events.
Nepal is exposed to various types of hydro-meteorological disasters. Department of Water
Induced Disaster Prevention (DWIDP, 2006) has reported that the destruction of infrastructure
worth US $9 million and about 300 deaths annually is caused due to water induced hazards in
Nepal. Various studies have reported that an increase in the frequency of high intensity rainfall
often leads to extreme events such as flash floods and landslides (Chalise and Khanal, 2001).
Many regions of the country has already faced severe problem of flooding, similar to the impacts
Draft
of climate change projected by several climatic models (NCVST, 2009) (Table 4). The climate
change phenomenon will further intensify the existing scenario. In the last ten years more than
4,000 people died due to climate induced disasters causing an economic loss of US $ 5.34 billion
(MoE, 2010). Further, Ministry of Home Affairs has stated that each year more than 1 million
people are susceptible to climate induced disasters such as floods, landslides, and droughts.
Events (date)
Heavy precipitation
in Kulekhani area,
Central Nepal
(1993)
Breaching of Koshi
embankment
(2008)
Flooding in FarWestern Nepal
(2008)
Table 4: Some significant flood events of Nepal
Destructions
Triggered destructive floods, causing damage to the
extent of about 800 km2 affecting 69,000 families
with 975 human deaths
Severe precipitation (540 mm)
Displaced 65,000 people in Nepal and about 3
million in Bihar killed about 6,190 people in Bihar
-Mostly affected Kailali and Kanchanpur districts
affecting total of 29,621 households.
-Severe precipitation: 283 mm (in Kailali district)
and 250 mm (in Kanchanpur district) in 24 hours
Sources
(Khanal, 2005)
(NCVST, 2009)
(NRCS, 2008)
3.2.3 Landslides and soil erosion
Nepal is vulnerable for various types of natural hazards such as earthquake, flood, landslide and
debris flows due to steep topography, on-going mountain building process, highly fractured
rocks, diverse climate and intense precipitation. Climate change is likely to increase the incidents
of these events except the earthquake which is mainly related to geological phenomena. The Risk
Assessment undertaken during the SPCR planning process clearly indicated that the incidents of
flood, landslide, cold wave, heat wave, thunderstorm and hailstorm have constantly increased
during the last few decades (SPCR, 2010). The community consultation, during SPCR planning
process, has also identified that landslide and flood have significantly damaged physical
infrastructures, washed away sources of drinking water, cultivated land and forest resources.
Due to steep mountain slope, fragile soils, marginal farming systems and inadequate knowledge
and technology for soil and water management/conservation, the erosion of fertile soils from
agricultural land is significantly high which accelerates the process of already diminishing rate of
agricultural productivity. Since water and soil formation process are sensitive to climate change,
any extent of change on climatic variables directly affects its performance. Extreme climatic
events coupled with non-engineering practices of linear infrastructure (e.g. roads and irrigation
cannel) construction have also accelerated the soil erosion and landslides in hill slopes.
3.3
Dirty Water (Water Quality Degradation)
Draft
The extreme climate events have created too much water which not only creates flooding but
also degrade the drinking water sources converting them to dirty water. Similarly, the prolong
drought may cause reduction of discharge, which in turn, again make the drinking water with
unacceptable amount of sediments and chemical precipitation. Impacts on water quantity have
been identified by the SPCR Thematic Working Groups as the principal risk from climate change
which affects all three mountain regions. Community consultations undertaken at the district and
community levels during the project planning process has confirmed this assessment (SPCR,
2010). Lack of base line data on water quality and inadequate number of real time water quality
monitoring stations across the country have caused difficulties in evaluating the impact of
climate change on the water quality.
3.4
Data Generation and Sharing
According to a study (ADB, 2010), only limited quality control has been undertaken on the
Department of Hydrology and Meteorology(DHM) station data. The station network deteriorates
in remote areas, especially in the high mountains, where harsh conditions and challenging terrain
make establishment of meteorological stations very difficult. The snow and glacier section of the
DHM maintains 10 automatic weather stations in glacial valleys (elevations between 2500m and
4000m) but data from these stations are of poor quality, especially for precipitation, where
snowfall and icing produce anomalous readings. The Flood Forecasting Section under the
Hydrology Division of DHM is maintaining a network of 43 stations (15 hydrological and 28
precipitations) for the purpose of flood forecasting and warning. Some of these stations are
equipped with wireless (SSB) communication facilities for once a day data transmission. Others
have mobile (CDMA and GSM) phone facilities. Recently, DHM has installed 10 rainfall and
three water level data loggers in the Narayani river basin with Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA) wireless technology for high speed data transfer in real time. However, severe financial
constraints preclude DHM from extending the range of real-time stations.
DHM has been working to install a Telemetry System for Monitoring Water Availability and
Allocation in Karnali, West Rapti and Babai river basins under the Irrigation( Integrated) and
Water Resources Management (IWRMP) Project funded by the World Bank. The proposed
telemetry facilities are expected to provide an efficient water use system minimizing the adverse
impacts particularly during floods and low flows. The automated system will help to operate
water resource projects, water reservoirs and water diversion schemes based on water availability
and needs
Currently, provision and dissemination of hydro-meteorological data and information is not at an
adequate level in order to meet global, regional and national needs of the country. This is due to
the fact that the technical, human and financial capacity of the national hydrological and
meteorological services does not meet international standards and requirements, and the need
and possibilities of improved hydro-meteorological services and associated early warning
Draft
systems have not been fully recognized by government, industry, agriculture and other socioeconomic sectors until recently (SPCR, 2010).
4
Adaptation Initiatives
4.1
National Capacity Self Assessment (NCSA)
Using an inclusive consultative process, the National Capacity Self-Assessment (NCSA) project
focused on identifying the priority issues for action and capacity needs within the thematic areas
of biodiversity conservation, combating climate change, and combating land degradation. The
project took stock and assessed the capacity development strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
and threats to Nepal’s national implementation of the Rio conventions. It also discusses on the
capacity development issues and priorities deemed key to achieving global environmental goals
as well as national development priorities.
Nepal completed the National Capacity Self Assessment (NCSA) with one of the objectives
being to explore related capacity needs within and across the main thematic areas. NCSA also
paid particular attention to those capacity constraints and opportunities that cut across the
concerned international Conventions to which Nepal is a signatory (including the UNFCCC), as
well as the synergies that can be created through harmonized and coordinated implementation of
multilateral environmental agreements. The NCSA reveals: (a) the absence of observation
stations to collect key meteorological data (spatial and temporal) needed for the establishment of
early warning systems; and (b) the low level of capacity and funding for climate change risk
management measures.
4.2
National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA)
As a foundation for receiving supports from international and bilateral agencies to combat
against negative impact of climate change, the Government of Nepal has prepared its National
Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA). Initiated through a broad-based consultative process,
NAPA process was geared-up by six Thematic Working Groups (TWGs), namely Agriculture
and Food Security, Forests and Biodiversity, Water Resources and Energy, Climate Induced
Disasters, Public Health, and Urban Settlements and Infrastructure. The work of the NAPATWGs resulted with a “long-list” of adaptation options, which were synthesized into nine
immediate and urgent project profiles. The total cost to implement urgent and immediate
adaptation measures is estimated to be US$ 350 million. The prioritized adaptation options
include both urgent/immediate and long term adaptation strategies in key vulnerable sectors
under the six TWGs
4.3
Pilot Project for Climate Resilience (PPCR)
In order to help Nepal transform to a climate resilient development path, consistent with poverty
reduction, food security and sustainable development goals, the Strategic Program for Climate
Draft
Resilient (SPCR), a preparatory phase of PPCR, builds upon government’s ongoing programs to
address poverty and support’s the country’s long-term vision to achieve a climate resilient
development by initiating five broad interventions as follows:
(a) Building climate resilience of watersheds and water resources in mountain eco-regions;
(b) Building resilience to climate related extreme events;
(c) Mainstreaming climate change risk management in development;
(d) Building climate resilient communities through private sector participation; and
(e) Building climate resilience of endangered species.
The proposed interventions will be implemented after establishing a comprehensive program of
capacity building for climate change risk management at the systematic, institutional and
individual levels, at the national, sectoral, district and local level, and within the public sector
and civil society that will support the integration of climate change risk management into
development planning. The SPCR proposal to be submitted by the Nepal Government to PPCR
Sub-committee is underway. The total fund available to implement the interventions for Nepal is
110 Millions US$ consisting both grant and loan.
4.4
Adaptive Capacity Assessment
The Risk Assessment and Adaptive Capacity Assessment undertaken during SPCR preparation
has highlighted the fact that knowledge on climate change risk management in Nepal is
inadequate and therefore the planning of development projects follows a "business as usual"
path. There exists moderate knowledge on climate change risk in some ministries and
departments, but such knowledge barely exists at the district and local levels. District officials
are unfamiliar with tools such as screening for climate change risks or climate proofing.
Technical training to government officials at the national level, district level and community
levels, and allocation of financial resources to implement climate change risk management
measures is urgently needed. Climate change risk management capacity is non-existent in the
private sector.
The national level adaptive capacity assessment undertaken during SPCR highlights the
following:
a)
b)
c)
Almost complete absence of climate change risk management personnel in key
organizations and institutions;
Climate change risk management approach is not institutionalized in government,
academia, civil society or in vulnerable sectors, municipalities, districts or
communities;
No training, database, information or guidelines exists on planning/constructing
climate resilient development infrastructures;
Draft
d)
There are insufficient financial resources to effectively integrate climate change risk
management into development planning process in key sectors (water, agriculture,
and forestry).
4.5
Water Resource Strategy and National Water Plan
Water Resource Strategy (WRS, 2002) in Nepal has categorized ten strategic outputs into three
main agendas namely, security (managing water induced disasters), use (adequate and
sustainable supply) and mechanisms (information systems, legislative frameworks). Some of the
outputs mentioned in WRS are relevant to climate change adaptation measures and are briefly
listed below.
i) Enhancing Water-Related Information Systems: To improve the country’s present situation
of data unavailability or inconsistent results, WRS has plans to establish functional
information collection and dissemination systems through extending and upgrading the
hydro-meteorological network.
ii) Strengthening of hydrological, meteorological network in monitoring and research activities.
For the purpose, Himalayan Climate Change Study Centre will be established as per the
National Water Plan 2005.
iii) Identification of potential disaster zones on district maps and making available emergency
relief materials for all five development regions.
iv) Designing infrastructure for mitigating predictable disasters and installing functional early
warning systems in at least 20 most vulnerable districts until 2017.
v) Anticipates finding effective mechanism to facilitate bilateral agreements for equitable water
sharing (Indo- Nepal cooperatives initiatives: Sapta Koshi high dam).( we still do not know
the modality of development of the Project, this point should be removed)
vi) Developing cost-effective micro-hydropower projects to meet domestic demand, promoting
private investment in power distribution and accelerating rural electrification. It has set the
target to develop 2035 MW hydropower to meet projected demand by 2017.
vii) Emphasizes on sharing of water resource benefits among the co-riparian countries in an
equitable level??? for mutual benefit. ( The relevancy of the bullet is not clear).
4.6
Institutional set-up, programs and policy formulation
The Government of Nepal has constituted the Climate Change Council (CCC) under the
chairmanship of Right Honorable Prime Minister on 23 July 2009. The Council, a high level
coordinating body, has been established, amongst other responsibilities, to Provide coordination,
guidance and direction for the formulation and implementation of climate change-related
policies.
The current Three-Year Interim Plan (2010-2013) and the Sustainable Development Agenda of
Nepal (SDAN) outline a project implementation approach that made the Ministry of
Environment (MoE) responsible for coordinating all activities related to environment
Draft
conservation and climate change. The government has formed the Multi-Stakeholder Climate
Change Initiatives Coordination Committee (MCCICC) in April 2010 under the chairmanship of
the Secretary of MoE. The Committee aims to foster an unified and coordinated climate change
response in Nepal. It institutionalizes the multi-stakeholder and participatory process adopted in
the formulation of the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) and Nepal’s Strategic
Program for Climate Resilience (SPCR), and consolidates the strengths of the six multi-sectoral
TWGs constituted to formulate the NAPA and the SPCR.
Being the focal ministry for climate change and environmental issues, the MoE has recently
established the Climate Change Management Division which is responsible for overall
coordination among stakeholders, development partners and provide policy guidelines to
implement climate change related interventions.
The Three-Year Interim Plan (2010-2013) has a strategy of continuing disaster risk reduction
and poverty environment initiatives as a means of promoting climate change adaptation and
sustainable natural resource management. It has also adopted a working strategy of formulating
climate resilience friendly plan to implement the NAPA priority projects. It also envisions
developing and implementing Early Warning System (EWS) to protect communities and
infrastructures from glacial lake outburst floods, floods and other natural hazards including
negative impact of climate change which are priority interventions under the SPCR.
The Three Year Interim Plan (2007-2010) had set the target of supplying basic drinking water
service to 85% and sanitation to 60% of total population, strengthen collaborative works
(government, private sector) for disaster relief and emphasize on pre-disaster preparedness
(identifying /mapping high risk areas). It also promoted projects for irrigation and water
resources management such as non-conventional irrigation technology, community managed
irrigation, shallow and deep tube well and groundwater irrigation. It also aimed to complete the
construction of ongoing hydropower projects (adding 105 MW), and also initiating construction
of new projects for additional 2,115 MW. The river basin approach was also considered as the
basis for development and management of water resources.
The National Planning Commission (NPC) has recently completed Nepal’s Climate Resilient
Three Year National Development Plan. A climate resilient planning method has been proposed
which begins with screening of development plans to determine the extent to which a project
might be affected by climate related impacts, and to identify adaptation options to reduce
resulting adverse impacts.
Government has recently endorsed Climate Change Policy which states that 80 % of the total
budget of the donor-funded climate change related projects should be spent to implement
interventions at community level whereas the remaining 20 % may be used for institutional
capacity building and other purposes at national level.
Draft
5
Gap Identification
Nepal's Initial National Communication to the UNFCCC (2004) and National Capacity SelfAssessment (2008) has highlighted some key problems as inadequate financial, technological
and human resources in relation to implementing adaptation activities. Additionally, the
Adaptive Capacity Assessment undertaken during SPCR preparation has also identified a
number of key gaps in national capacity (SPCR, 2010). In a broader sense, data availability and
access, inadequate scientific understanding, lack of awareness, poor institutional mechanism,
poor integration of existing knowledge and practices and lack of integrated management
approach are some of the major gaps or constraints to handle the priority issues in relation to
fresh water of the Himalaya (ICIMOD, 2010). The followings summarize the major gaps in
addressing water issues in Nepal.
5.1
Lack of Data Availability and Access
The available hydro-meteorological data are not sufficient enough to make prediction on likely
climate change and its impact on water resources. Besides, the hydro-meteorological stations are
sparsely distributed which can not capture the situation of local climate variability. Similarly, the
numbers of real-time monitoring stations are also not enough to capture the temporal variation of
extreme events through out the country. Further, snow fall gauging stations are also lacking to
make an estimate of changing pattern of snow falling in the Himalayan range. Only a few data on
glacier movement and glacial lake extension are available but nationwide assessment and
monitoring of glacial process including frequency of GLOF events are yet to be initiated. A
research based status of glacier melt water, surface water, groundwater including spring water
are not available. Data on rate of evaporation, evapo-transpiration and infiltration in each
ecological zone corresponding to major river basins are also not available particularly in the
context of rise in temperature. There may be some project specific data along with research
reports, but these documents are, generally, not made available in public domain.
5.2
Inadequate Scientific Understanding
Until now the state of climate change and its impact is analyzed based on global dataset as the
regional dataset is not available currently. Unlike temperature, precipitation doesn't show long
term trends making difficult for predicting climate induced disasters. Available climate models
are to be improved to make them efficient in quantifying any processes of climate change related
issues. Effectiveness of water conservation approaches giving due consideration to evapotranspiration, evaporation and infiltration water need to be validated generating scientific data to
address water scarcity issues. A scientific understanding on the changing pattern of frequency,
magnitude and recurrence interval of extreme events (erratic rainfall, floods, GLOFs) has still
not been achieved so as to make comprehensive evaluation of the climate change scenario.
Comment [SD2]: Suggested to reframe as the
gap, rather than recommendation.
Draft
5.3
Inadequate Policies, Plans and Strategies
There exist national policies, plans and strategies to address water related issues but their
effective implementation is yet to be started in many of the cases. For example, National Water
Plan has envisioned establishing the Himalayan Climate Centre which, however, has not been
materialized yet. Besides, the existing plans and policies do not recognize the impact of climate
change as a threat that could affect the successful delivery of such policies, plans and strategies.
This point may be highlighted considering the case of the Hydropower Development Policy,
which emphasizes hydropower as an alternative to biomass /fossil fuel but does not reflect on
impacts of climate change on hydropower. Similarly, the inter-linkage of sectoral policies and
plans are yet to be appreciated to minimize the overlapping authority which is one of the factors
for mismanagement of the available resources. There are also some ambiguities in conducting
statutory mandate in some acts. For instance, the disaster relief committees formed under Natural
Calamity Relief Act carry out relief activities only after disasters. The Committee rarely involves
in disaster risk reduction activities which plays crucial role in saving lives and protecting
infrastructures. Lacking of national polices on mechanism for sharing water resources or water
benefits in river basin area (expect for hydropower royalty sharing) has also been felt necessary.
Statutory obligations set up by various acts are also often violated and the convict rarely receive
any punish. For example, water supplier has a duty to maintain drinking water quality with
standard set by Water Resource Act but in practice this has rarely happened. A policy adhering
to the principles of Integrated Water Resources Management considering the climate change
effects is felt necessary. needs to be formulated for highland-lowland linkages and payment for
environmental services which will help promote integrated water resource management with
basin approach.
5.4
Poor Institutional Capacity and Mechanism
The Government of Nepal has created a number of institutions as advisory bodies, policy making
bodies (ministries), implementing departments and centers, research institutions, and training
institutions with specific roles and responsibilities. The lack of institutional capacity ( in terms of
human, technological, and financial resources) in these organizations for climate change risk
management and poor coordination (horizontal as well as vertical) amongst the concerned
agencies are some of the main constrains to integrate climate change risks management into the
development planning at the national, sectoral, district, and village levels. Realizing this fact,
SPCR (2010) has proposed to designate a Climate Change Risk Management Officer in key
government agencies along with a package of countrywide capacity development programs.
5.5
Poor Integration of Existing Knowledge and Practices
The conventional adaptation strategies used by the communities can help them to cope with
some of the climate risks (Twomlow et al., 2008). But such traditional strategies alone are not
always adequate to cope with uncertain risk contributed by climate change (Nelson et al., 2007).
In Nepal also, it has been observed that traditional knowledge/strategies are not adequate to
Comment [SD3]: Suggested to reframe as the
gap rather than recommendation.
Comment [SD4]: Suggested for reframing and
moved in the activity below heading No. 6
Strategies and Programs
Draft
predict and cope with the increasingly variable and erratic patterns of rainfall and other weather
phenomena of the country. Thus, a balance between traditional knowledge/potential and
scientific knowledge and techniques is needed to design effective community adaptation
strategies (World Bank, 2009). The traditional knowledge and local technologies which were
being used by local people for centuries need to be recorded as "good practice examples", tested
and modified, if needed, so as to make the techniques and practices more versatile in the context
of climate change adaptation. New technology developed somewhere else may not always yield
good result owing to the diverse ground reality. But the integration of good practice examples
into the newly introduced technology may lead to a successful adaptation plan as local people
feel ownership on such techniques
5.6
Lack of Integrated Management Approach
A single extreme event (e.g. flood) may cause damage to infrastructures belonging to different
sectors (for example, water supply infrastructures, road alignment and agricultural land all
located in an area). It requires integrated management approach to deal with such situation but in
practice the concerned authorities act independently at different time with different approach to
combat the extreme event. Consequently, satisfactory results are not achieved and resources are
ineffectively used. Integrated management approach should be promoted to implement and
monitor adaptation actions to have a successful project completion.
5.7
Lack of Early Warning System
Early warning system is a part of the disaster risk reduction. It helps saving lives and protecting
infrastructures if the early warning system is in place with all the required specification intact.
But the risk mitigation measures and early warning systems are limited to a handful of cases and
mechanism for trans-boundary risk management and early warning system is non-existent
currently. Early information on possible drought, flood, pests and dieses and arrival and
departure of monsoon would greatly help to adapt the impact of climate change in national and
sectoral level.
5.8
Exclusion of Livelihood Aspect
Development projects are generally designed giving due consideration to technical and economic
aspects also performing cost and benefit analysis( public projects generally use economic
benefit rather than financial analysis). However, there has not been a trend of analyzing the
possibility of providing livelihood opportunities to local public through development projects(
please be specific). In fact, people take ownership of the project if it provides livelihood options
such as income source diversification scheme, crop diversification options, micro-insurance and
micro-finance. Climate change adaptation actions embedding appropriate livelihood options
would help achieve the goal significantly.
Comment [SD5]: Suggested to reframe as gap
and move these to the appropriate heading under 6
Strategies and Activities (given in track change
mode)
Comment [SD6]: This suggestion can be
reframed as activity under 6.
Draft
5.9
Lack of Awareness
Climate change is an entirely new issue and there has not been enough knowledge to manage
climate change issues in national, regional, district and local level (SPCR, 2010). Lack of
awareness is a barrier for technology transfer and it has compelled concerned personnel to adopt
"business as usual" path in development projects despite the fact that there do exist technology to
adapt climate change impact in several cases. Thus, awareness program is also equally important
to convince decision makers and general public about the recommended techniques and
guidelines available to minimize the impact of climate change. As most public junior officials
are unfamiliar with tools such as climate proofing, screening etc., awareness training to
government officials and progressive farmers at the district level and community levels would
help to implement climate change adaptation actions successfully.
6
Strategies and Actions
The above mentioned various gaps in terms of planning, policy, strategy framing and
implementation for conserving water resources of Nepal suggest that some future strategies are
to be designed and implemented which provide opportunities as well as effective solution or
adaptation mechanism particularly taking into consideration the uncertainties regarding both the
magnitude and timing of many climate change impacts.
Comment [SD7]: The report basically deals in
the national context, however, the regional summit
is expected to prepare regional roadmap. Therefore,
the strategies and actions are reframed (track
change mode) below, considering the national
roadmap. These are equally valid in the regional
perspective. Gaps identified in 5 forms the basis of
designing these strategies and actions and this also
maintains the consistency of the report.
Adaptation measures for Nepal should primarily ensure accessibility of acceptable quantity and
quality of water for health, livelihoods and production of agricultural enterprises. Basin wide
approach in major river basins (Karnali, Narayani, Kosi, Bagmati, Kankai, Rapti, Mahakali) as
suggested in National Water Plan (2005) should be considered for the appropriate water
resources management in Nepal. Also, the benefit sharing mechanism should be promoted
through basin-wide planning (focused on sharing the benefits of water use/non-use, instead of
dividing the water itself) considering both sustainability and equity (Sadoff, 2008). There is also
a need of decision support system for river basin planning and management which requires
management and funding for hydro-meteorological networks. NAPA (2010) has also highlighted
for the efficient and multipurpose use of water resources, conservation of watershed and
expanding and advancing of hydrological-meteorological stations as urgent and immediate
adaptation priorities.
Considering the identified gapspoints mentioned above and taking into account of the underlying
concepts laid down in NAPA (2010) documents and National Water Plan (2005), The following
strategies and activities are suggested to address the climate change effect and enabling
adaptation to the climate change in Himalayan fresh water. the following interventions are
proposed as adaptation program and projects.
i. Enhance data base acquisition and Provide access to the data
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Hanging: 0.25",
Numbered + Level: 3 + Numbering Style: i, ii,
iii, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned
at: 1.38" + Indent at: 1.88", Tab stops: Not at
2.38"
Draft
Activities:
- Need assessment of the data measuring stations
- Install, upgrade and expand the stations and other physical facilities
- Ensure real time and regular data collection
- Design Information system and establish data sharing mechanism within the country and
in the region
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.25", Tab stops:
Not at 0.5" + 2.38"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.25", Bulleted +
Level: 4 + Aligned at: 1.75" + Indent at: 2",
Tab stops: Not at 2.38"
Formatted: Tab stops: Not at 0.5" + 2.38"
ii. Conduct Scientific research and study
Activities:
- Design the climatic model to suit the national geo-physical and climatic phemenon to
enable more accurate forecast.
- Identify vulnerabilities such as 'too much water', 'too little water', 'Dirty Water', GLOF,
water induced disaster, aquatic life and ecosystem etc.
- Determine planned adaption associated with the identified vulnerabilities.
- Identify the best practices and examine its replicability with or without modification.
- Sharing of scientific knowledge and experience at national and regional level to assist
study and research.
iii. Formulation of Policies, Plan and Strategies
Activities:
- Design the policy, plan and strategies for anticipatory, autonomous and planned
adaptation as suggested by research and studies.
- Review/refine policies, plan and strategies periodically or as required in case of extreme
events.
iv. Establish/Strengthen appropriate institution
Activities:
- Establish 'Himalayan Climate Change Center' as identified by the Water Resources
Strategy Nepal 2002, to undertake scientific study and research.
- Establish a focal institution at the government level to facilitate communication, sharing
of information, knowledge, experience and ensure integrated management approach.
- Provide mandate to the related existing institutions to implement, monitor and evaluate
the climate change adaptation.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Hanging: 0.25",
Numbered + Level: 3 + Numbering Style: i, ii,
iii, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned
at: 1.38" + Indent at: 1.88", Tab stops: Not at
2.38"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.25", Tab stops:
Not at 0.5" + 2.38"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.25", Hanging:
0.25", Tab stops: Not at 0.5" + 2.38"
Formatted: Tab stops: Not at 0.5" + 2.38"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Hanging: 0.25",
Numbered + Level: 3 + Numbering Style: i, ii,
iii, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned
at: 1.38" + Indent at: 1.88", Tab stops: Not at
2.38"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.25", Tab stops:
Not at 0.5" + 2.38"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.25", Bulleted +
Level: 4 + Aligned at: 1.75" + Indent at: 2",
Tab stops: Not at 2.38"
Formatted: Tab stops: Not at 0.5" + 2.38"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Hanging: 0.25",
Numbered + Level: 3 + Numbering Style: i, ii,
iii, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned
at: 1.38" + Indent at: 1.88", Tab stops: Not at
2.38"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.25", Tab stops:
Not at 0.5" + 2.38"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.25", Bulleted +
Level: 4 + Aligned at: 1.75" + Indent at: 2",
Tab stops: Not at 2.38"
Formatted: Tab stops: Not at 0.5" + 2.38"
v. Capacity Building
Activities:
- Need assessment of existing institutions engaged in securing freshwater system in terms
of human, technological and financial resources.
- Capacity development support to existing and new institutions.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0", Hanging: 0.25",
Numbered + Level: 3 + Numbering Style: i, ii,
iii, … + Start at: 1 + Alignment: Left + Aligned
at: 1.38" + Indent at: 1.88", Tab stops: Not at
2.38"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.25", Tab stops:
Not at 0.5" + 2.38"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.25", Bulleted +
Level: 4 + Aligned at: 1.75" + Indent at: 2",
Tab stops: Not at 2.38"
Draft
-
Create awareness and empower the vulnerable communities at all level (National, local
etc)
Table 5: Major proposed strategies to secure fresh water in the Nepal Himalaya
Priority Issue: 1) Too Little Water (Reduced Water Availability)
Proposed Strategy  Empowering Vulnerable Communities through Sustainable
Management of Water Resource ( “sustainable management”-the
terminology requires definition.)
 Conservation of Wetland Resources
Priority Issue: 2) Too Much Water (Water-induced Hazard)
Proposed Strategy  Glacier Lake Monitoring and GLOF Risk Reduction (Trans-boundary
issues)
 Flood Disaster Risk Reduction (Trans-boundary issues)
Priority Issue: 3) Dirty Water (Water Quality Degradation )
Proposed Strategy  Basin-wide Water Quality Monitoring
 Managing Aquatic Ecosystems
Strategy 1: Glacier Lake Monitoring and GLOF Risk Reduction
Project Rationale
In Nepal, temperature rise resulting in glacier melt has already been evident and the weak natural
dams can further increase the risk of GLOF events. Nepal has already experienced a number of
GLOF events in the past. If immediate mitigation and risk reduction activities for reducing such
disasters are not developed, the country will definitely suffer more from these events.
Project Title: Glacier Lake Monitoring and GLOF Risk Reduction
Activity Components:
 Glacier lake monitoring
 Early warning system development in disaster prone areas
 Interlink climate change with DRR and enhancement of institutional capacity at different
levels
 Hazard mapping/disaster impact assessment and preparedness/ contingency plan
development
 Management of existing hydrological and meteorological network at the Department of
Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) and up scaling the services
 Collaborative research with neighboring countries to monitor glacial lakes and implement
early warning system for GLOF related events.
 Research and development of base line data
Estimated total cost: USD 55 million
Project Description
Project Activities
Project Outcomes
Short-term
Long-term
Implementation
Draft
Goal
Contribute to the
reduction of GLOF
risk due to climate
change and enhance
the sustainability of
environmental services
from the Himalayas.
Objectives
1. Monitoring of
critical glacial
lakes
2. Identify GLOFvulnerable
communities and
work with them to
reduce risk
3. Provide alternative
livelihoods to
GLOF-vulnerable
communities
4. Develop climate
proof
infrastructure and
support services in
GLOF sensitive
areas
5. Reduce the
chances of loss of
lives and
properties due to
GLOF
1. Monitoring of the
potential glacial
lakes (emphasis
on the six major
GLOF potential
lakes)
2. Implementation of
structural
measures for the
GLOF reduction
3. Disaster risk
reduction
activities
(establishment of
early warning
systems,
forecasting and
preparedness in
downstream
communities)
4. Support
alternative
livelihoods of
GLOF-vulnerable
communities
(agriculture and
forest based
livelihood,
alternative energy)
Outputs
(2011-2015)
outputs
(2016-2021)
1. Hazard/risk
mapping of
the GLOF
potential
areas
Downstream
communities
recognize
less adverse
impacts from
the GLOFs
due to rising
temperature
2. Information
about the
state of the
GLOF
potential
lakes
3. Involvement
of
downstream
communities
in disaster
preparedness
and risk
reduction
activities
Implementing
Agency:
Relevant line
ministries along
with
implementing
partners
Estimated total:
cost: USD 55
million
Risks and
Barriers:
Delayed
implementation
due to the
country’s
situation and
funding
Monitoring and
Evaluation:
Works will be
evaluated by the
experts from line
ministries and
implementing
partners.
Strategy 2: Empowering Vulnerable Communities through Sustainable Management of
Water Resource
Project Rationale
Nepal has been already facing water scarcity due to changes in climatic trends. Adaptation
activities designed early will not only be cost effective but also provide opportunity to increase
adaptive capacity of the local communities through efficient water and energy supply. This
includes investment in efficient water resource management and clean and low carbon energy
technologies. Water resources and energy supply systems need to be adapted to cope with both
too much and too little water in all seasons.
Objective
Formatted: Underline
Draft
This project aims to ensure enough quantity and satisfactory quality of water for all purposes to
community people
Project Title: Empowering Vulnerable Communities through Sustainable Management of
Water Resource
Activity Components:
 Conservation of lakes supplying water and ecological services to urban areas
 Promotion of rain water harvesting structures and technologies (fog/ mist harvesting as a
water harvesting option)
 Water supply source conservation (quality as well as quantity) and strengthening programs of
existing projects affected by source reduction
 Development of nationwide urban groundwater monitoring system and enhancement of
regulatory measures
 Establishment and improvement of micro-hydropower projects being affected by the acute
water shortages ( plz be specific)
 Improved Water Mills for Multi Use
 Development of Non-Conventional Irrigation Technology
 Community Managed Irrigated Agriculture Sector
Estimated total cost: USD 40 million
Formatted: Underline
Project Description
Activities
1.
1.
Conservation of lakes supplying
water and ecological services to
urban areas
2. Water supply source
conservation and strengthening
programs of existing projects
affected by source reduction
3. Piloting rain water harvesting
structures (fog/mist harvesting)
4. Cost benefit analysis and
economic appraisal of existing
innovative water schemes and
practices
5. Development of nationwide
urban groundwater monitoring
system and enactment of
regulatory measures
6. Establish and improvement
micro-hydropower projects
being affected by the acute
water shortages
7. Improve water mills for multiuse
8. Develop non-conventional
irrigation technology
9. Develop community managed
irrigation
10. Facilitate the implementation of
local adaptation plans for
efficient water management
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Inputs
Assess the status of
important lakes
Develop adaptive
management methods
for lake and water
sources management
Develop and promote
appropriate water
harvesting methods
and investments in
infrastructure
Identify and install the
most appropriate
urban groundwater
monitoring system
Assess and amend the
regulatory framework
for groundwater
management
Appraise water
shortages effects on
micro-hydro and water
mill schemes
Develop drip,
sprinkler and runoff
harvesting ponds, to
meet the demands of
small and marginal
farmers
Rehabilitate and
improve farmer
managed Irrigation
Systems
Develop and carry out
climate proofing of
micro-hydro plants
and water mills
Project Outcomes
Short-term
Long-term outputs
Outputs (2011-2015)
(2016-2021)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Urban water sources
adaptive plans (lake
conservation)
developed and
implemented
Appropriate water
harvesting
techniques promoted
Pilot urban
groundwater
monitoring systems
for key urban
centers
Recommendations
for regulatory
framework
amendments to
improve
management of
water resources and
supply systems
Farmer managed
Irrigation Systems
rehabilitated and
improved
Non conventional
irrigation
technology
developed
Methods for climate
proof micro-hydro
plants and water
mills developed and
tested
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
8.
7.
Urban water sources
managed to
overcome climate
change challenges
Key lakes conserved
Widespread
adoption of water
harvesting
techniques
Urban groundwater
information used for
improved adaptive
management
Regulatory
framework for water
resources
management and
supply amended
Climate proof
micro-hydro plants
and water mills
promoted
Non conventional
irrigation
technology
implemented
Sustainable clean
energy and low
carbon investments
at national level
achieved
Draft
Implementation
Institutional arrangements:
Leadership by Department of Drinking Water and
Sanitation in collaboration with Ministry of
Energy, private sector water professionals involved,
Private sector to offer climate proof water
harvesting, micro-hydro and water mills
technologies
Water Users Groups involved in promoting
technology adoption
Estimated total cost: USD 40 million
Risks and barriers
Inadequate climate change projection to assess
climate effects on water sources.
Mainstreaming climate change adaptation into key
regulatory and provision organizations difficult.
High costs of climate proofing micro-hydro and
Formatted: Underline
water mills.
Reluctance to adopt water harvesting technologies.
Monitoring and evaluation
Baseline development of water source status,
functionality of micro-hydro plants and water mills,
and water harvesting technology use
Monitoring through assessment of the effectiveness
of adaptive management of waste sources and
functionality of micro-hydro plants and water mills,
and water harvesting technology use
Evaluation by independent evaluators
commissioned by Ministry for Energy
Draft
Strategy 3: Managing of Aquatic Ecosystems in Major River Basin
Project Rationale
Adaptation activities designed should also consider developing appropriate environmental action
plan for watersheds management as well as the aquatic ecosystems conservation. The
mismanagement and over-exploitation of natural resources has been deteriorating the condition
of watersheds and aquatic ecosystems. Likewise, aquatic resources are also threatened as a result
of encroachment, periodic flash floods, pesticides and chemical pollution, landslides and erosion,
water pollution and deforestation. The construction of dams has also affected the normal aquatic
life. The declining aquatic drying of wetland and declining aquatic diversity are the major threats
to the aquatic ecosystem.
Objectives
This project aims to ensure adequate water quantity and quality for aquatic ecosystems and also
reduce the environmental impacts to aquatic ecosystems
Project Title: Developing Proper Action Plan for Management of Aquatic Ecosystems
Activity Components:
 Improve Environmental Database System
 Map Climatically Sensitive Watersheds and Aquatic Ecosystems
 Develop Water and Wastewater Quality Standards and Regulations
 Implement Climate Change Adaptation/ Water Conservation/ Education/Awareness Program
 Implement climatically sensitive Watersheds and Aquatic Ecosystems Protection,
Rehabilitation and Management Programs
 Promote Community Participation in the Management of Watersheds and Aquatic
Ecosystems to enhance climate change adaptation
 Enhance Institutional Capacity and Coordination
 Develop Watershed Management Policy
Estimated total cost: USD 30 Millions
Project Activities



Mapping of climatically
sensitive and priority
watersheds and aquatic
ecosystems
Piloting management plan
for watershed and aquatic
system
Framing water and
wastewater quality
standards and regulations
Project Outcomes
Short-term
Long-term outputs
Outputs (2011-2015)
(2016-2021)
 National institutions
 Satisfactory water
for watershed
management and
quality for aquatic
ecosystem protection
habitats, insured in
strengthened
all rivers and lakes
 Environmental
 Watersheds and
database system for
aquatic
monitoring and
ecosystems made
protecting the
sustainable
situation of aquatic
 Basin-wide scale
Implementation
Institutional
arrangements:
Leadership by
Department of
Wildlife
and National Parks
(DWNP) and
Department of
Soil Conservation and
Draft





Developing and
implementing programs for
protection, management and
rehabilitation of priority
watersheds and aquatic
ecosystems
Developing and
implementing programs for
community awareness,
facilitation and participation
in the management of
watersheds and aquatic
ecosystems
Increasing fund for
programs to enhance
wetlands and aquatic
ecosystems
Establishing coordination
committees to integrate
watershed and aquatic
ecosystem management
program and water-based
infrastructure development
projects
Developing appropriate
watershed management
policy to control and protect
aquatic ecosystems




ecosystem improved
Reducing
environmental
impacts to watersheds
and aquatic

ecosystems
Community
participation in
protection of the
aquatic ecosystems
promoted, facilitated
and monitored
Strategic
environmental
assessment utilized
in water resources
management
Management plan
for pilot watershed
and aquatic system
prepared and
initiated

watershed
management and
aquatic ecosystem
activities
implemented
Identification and
evaluation of
options and
alternatives for
mitigating and
preventing
environmental
impacts to
watersheds and
aquatic
ecosystems
Ecosystem
approach for
watershed
management(
considering both
direct and indirect
biophysical and
social effects)
adopted
Watershed
Management
(DSCWM)
Other relevant
ministries (Ministry of
Local Development
(MoLD), Ministry of
Physical planning and
Works
(MOPPW))along with
implementing partners
Estimated total cost:
USD 30 Million
Risks and Barriers:
Delayed
implementation due to
the country’s situation
and funding.
Monitoring and
evaluation:
works will be
evaluated by the
experts from line
ministries and
implementing partners
(National Water
Resources Quality and
Tariff Regulatory
Agency)
Strategy 4: Effective Water quality Monitoring in Major River Basins
Project Title: Developing Proper Action Plan for Effective Water Quality Monitoring
Activity Components:
 Preparation of water quality database of each major water sources (basin-wide approach)
 Protection of water resources
 Implement proper water safety measures
 Enhance capacity building programs
 Implement water conservation/ public awareness programs
 Develop and implement techniques for water quality security
 Develop and implement efficient water use systems
Estimated total cost: USD 20 Million
Draft
Project Rationale
Decline in water availability usually results in decline in water quality (sanitation level). The
shortage of water is very prevalent in Nepal. It has been estimated that only 34% of the
population in Nepal has access to safe drinking water (Nepal Net, 2001). This compels people to
compromise with available water at the cost of its quality and subsequently with health
implications. The major river systems of Nepal are tapped at source for different water supplies
purposes (particularly for drinking) however with no frequent water quality or quantity
monitoring (Sharma et al., 2005). Thus, the development of appropriate strategic planning and
remedial action for water quality improvements is required. An effective water quality
monitoring and surveillance program to ensure a safe and sustainable water supply system in
Nepal should be developed.
Objectives
This project aims to monitor and ensure satisfactory water quality for each water sources.
Project Activities










Monitoring the water
quality characteristics
(river, runoff, groundwater,
rainwater, public water
supply systems)
Framing of water quality
criteria and standards
Piloting management plan
for all water systems
Developing procedures for
protection of water
resources (handling of
wastes/effluents, runoff
from agriculture)
Developing procedures for
efficient water use
Implementing measures for
providing adequate safe
water to people.
Enhancing capacity
building programs
Promoting public awareness
Programs
Implementing techniques
for water quality security






Project Outcomes
Short-term
Long-term
Outputs (2011-2015)
outputs
(2016-2021)
Treatment of human
 Water
wastes and industrial
quality
effluents before they are
criteria and
discharged into natural
standard
water resources
developed
developed
 WHO
Management of run-off
guidelines
from agriculture initiated
adopted for
water safety
System of incentives and
disincentives adopted
 Satisfactory
and encouraged for
water
efficient water use.
quality for
public water
Effective Communitysupply
level methods designed
insured for
for providing safe water.
all sources.
Facilities to educate and
 Satisfactory
train personnel in water
water
management skills
quality data
developed.
generated
Mechanism of
 Water
laboratory inspection
security
and accreditation
achieved by
developed for ensuring
harvesting
the quality of data
of rainwater
generated.
and
Rainwater harvesting
recycling of
and recycling of
municipal
municipal waste water
Implementation
Institutional
arrangements:
Relevant line ministries
along with implementing
partners
(such as Department of
Water Supply and
Sanitation)
Estimated Cost: USD 20
Million
Risks and Barriers:
Delayed implementation
due to the country’s
situation and funding
Monitoring and
Evaluation:
Works will be
evaluated by the
experts from line
ministries and
implementing partners.
(Water Supply and
Sewerage Regulatory
Agency, Water Supply
Tariff Fixation
Draft
promoted
waste water
Committee)
Strategy 5: Water Induced Disaster Risk Reduction
project Title: Water Induced Disaster Risk Reduction in Vulnerable Water Basin
Activity Components:
 Monitoring for flood, flash flood and landslide in potential disasters areas
 Identify vulnerable communities and work with them to reduce risk
 Emphasizing on pre-disaster preparedness
 Provide alternative livelihoods to vulnerable communities
 Designing of climate proofing of infrastructure in sensitive areas( plz be specific about the
activity. What we should understand from the phrase”Designing of climate proofing of
Infrastructure”)
 Strengthening collaborative works for disaster relief activities
 Building robust weather and climatic forecasts technology
 Implementing functional early warning system
Estimated total cost: USD 30 Million
Project Rationale
The water induced disasters events such as soil erosion, landslides, flood, flash flood, debris flow
and bank erosion not only claim the lives of the people but they also induce severe damages on
the vital infrastructures (roads, bridges, houses, hydropower, irrigation and drinking water
facilities, agricultural lands, properties). Such events pose great threat to the economy and
sustainable development of the nation. The poor people are the most vulnerable groups. There
still exists insufficient knowledge on disaster management, inadequate physical infrastructure,
poor forecasting facilities and unplanned settlement which further triggers the problem. Also, the
water related hazards planning and management should go beyond GLOF and address
downstream hazards like sedimentation, bank erosion etc.
Objective
This project aims to contribute reducing water induced disaster risk in vulnerable communities
Project Activities
Mapping of disaster prone areas
in all regions
Monitoring of the potential
disasters zones in all regions
Project Outcomes
Short-term
Long-term
Outputs
outputs
(2011-2015)
(2016-2021)
Disaster prone
Hydrological
areas identified
and
and mapped.
meteorological
network
Advance
upgraded and
technology for
strengthened
Implementation
Implementing Agency:
Relevant line ministries along
with implementing partners
[DHM, Department of Local
Infrastructure Development
and Agriculture Roads
Draft
Providing the alternative
livelihood options to vulnerable
communities
Establishment of community
based early warning systems for
downstream communities
Implementation of structural
measures for disaster reduction
Building robust weather and
climatic forecasts technology
(develop hydrological models)
Management of existing
hydrological and meteorological
network and also upgrading the
services
weather and
climatic
forecasting
developed
Hydrological
models
implemented
Downstream
communities
involved in
disaster
preparedness and
risk reduction
activities
(DOLIDAR), the
Minimum
adverse impacts
to downstream
communities
Department of Water
Induced Disaster
Prevention )
Reducing the
social and
economic losses
to levels as
experienced in
developed
countries
Estimated Cost: USD 30
Millions
Risks and Barriers:
Delayed implementation due
to the country’s situation and
funding
Monitoring and Evaluation:
Works will be evaluated by
the experts from line
ministries and implementing
partners
Strategy 6: Conservation of Wetland Resources
Project Title: Conserving Major Wetland Resources Across the Country
Activity Components:
 Preparation of national inventory of wetlands
 Integration of wetland biodiversity conservation values into national policy and planning
 Enhance capacity building programs on wetland ecosystem management
 Implement public awareness programs on sustainable use of wetland ecosystem
 Develop collaborative management of wetland resources for conservation as well as for
sustainable livelihoods
Estimated total cost: USD 20 Million
Project Rationale
The issue of wetland conservation has not received much attention in Nepal though it has
tremendous ecological, social-cultural, aesthetic as well as economic values. Most of the
wetlands in the country have been threatened due to the degradation of wetland habitats,
depletion of species diversity and loss of wetland ecosystem integrity. Moreover, the gap in the
policy framework related to wetland management issue, has also triggered the loss of the wetland
ecosystems. Therefore, there is an immediate need to address the problem of wetland ecosystem
degradation in the country and also promote the wise use of wetland resources for human welfare
and economic upliftment.
Objective
Draft
This project aims for the management of ecosystem as well as sustainable use of wetlands
biodiversity.
Project Activities
Preparation of national data base of wetlands
Monitoring and mapping of priority wetlands
Developing mechanism and procedures for
incorporating wetlands concerns in policy and
planning at both national and local levels
Supporting community based user groups to
enhance livelihood activities
Assessing the multiple values/benefits of
wetlands
Promoting public awareness programs for
sustainable use of resources
Protecting the rights of local people residing
adjacent to wetlands
Seeking technical assistance from relevant
agencies for the wetland conservation
Involving the various inter-sectoral and multistakeholder committees for promoting the
conservation and sustainable use of wetlands
Project Outcomes
Short-term
Long-term
Outputs
outputs
(2011-2015)
(2016-2021)
Priority
National
wetlands
Inventory of
identified
wetlands prepared
and
monitored
National
institutional,
Activities to technical and
influence
economic capacity
wetland
for wetland
policies and
management
practices
strengthened
planned
Activities for
Partnerships sustainable use of
and capacity wetland resources
developed at implemented
both
national and Local user groups,
local levels
NGOs, relevant
government
Traditional
agencies involved
knowledge
for decision
and
making processes
practices
promoted
Implementation
Implementing Agency:
Relevant line ministries
along with implementing
partners and Un agencies
(Ministry of Forests and
Soil Conservation ,
IUCN,UNDP)
Estimated Cost: USD 20
Million
Risks and Barriers:
Delayed implementation
due to the country’s
situation and funding
Monitoring and
Evaluation:
Works will be evaluated by
the experts from line
ministries and implementing
partners
Energy from the water-( hydropower projects whether storage or run- of- the river type)
should also be included in the report. Or it is assumed to be included in report on Energy.
Reference:
ADB. 2010. Development of a State-of-the-art Hydro-Meteorological Monitoring System for Flood
Early Warning in Nepal.
ADB. (2008). Preparing the Secondary Towns Integrated Urban Environmental Improvement Project.
Technical Assistance Consultant’s Report. Japan Special Fund and the Netherlands Trust Fund for the
Water Financing Partnership Facility
Ageta, Y., Naito, N., Nakawo, M., Fujita, K., Shankar, K., Pokhrel AP. and Wangda, D. (2001) Study
project on the recent rapid shrinkage of summer-accumulation type glaciers in the Himalayas, 1997-1999.
In: Bulletin of Glaciological Research 18, Japanese society of snow and ice
Comment [SD8]: i.These strategies and
activities requires reframing to incorporate in the
above mentioned strategies and activities (track
change mode) and accordingly project outcome,
implementing agency and budget need to be
worked out. For example: Glacial lake monitoring
comes under scientific research and study as an
activity or sub-activity. Improve Environmental
database comes under Enhance data base
acquisition and Provide access to the data as subactivity.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"
Draft
Agrawala, S., Raksakulthai, V., Aalst, MV. and Larsen, P. (2003) Development and Climate Change In
Nepal: Focus on Water Resources and Hydropower. Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD), Paris http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/6/51/19742202.pdf (Retrieved on 18th
January, 2011)
Alford, D. (1992) Hydrological aspects of the Himalayan region. Occasional Paper number No. 18
ICIMOD, Kathmandu.68 pp
Anthwal, A., Joshi, V., Sharma, A. and Anthwal, S. (2006) Retreat of Himalayan Glaciers: Indicator of
Climate Change. Nature and Science 4
Bajracharya, S. R., Mool, P. K. and Shrestha, B. R. (2007) Impact of Climate Change on Himalayan
Glaciers and Glacial Lakes. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD).p 119.
Bajracharya, SR. and Mool PK. (2006) Impact of global climate change from 1970s to 2000s on the
glaciers and glacial lakes in Tamor Basin, Eastern Nepal. Kathmandu: ICIMOD
Bajracharya, SR. and Mool PK. (2005) Growth of hazardous glacial lakes in Nepal. Proceedings of the
JICA Regional seminar on natural disaster mitigation and issues on technology transfer in South and
Southeast Asia (September 30-13 and October 2004), Department of Geology, Tri-Chandra Campus,
Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Bhandari, B. B. (2007) Himalayan Mountain Wetlands: Case Studies from Nepal in " Current Issues on
Wetland Conservation in Asia: In View of the Upcoming COP10" Bhandari Bishnu. B. and Seung Oh
Suh (eds). Changwon: Ramsar Wetlands Center Korea.
Chalise, SR. and Khanal, NR. (2001) Rainfall and related natural disasters in Nepal. Landslide Hazard
Mitigation in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas [Li, T., Chalise, SR. and Upreti, BN (eds.)]. Kathmandu:
ICIMOD
Chaulagain, NP. (2006) Impacts of climate change on water resources of Nepal: The physical and
socioeconomic dimensions. MSc Thesis, University of Flensburg, Germany
Cruz, RV., Harasawa, H., Lal, M., Wu, S., Anokhin, Y., Punsalmaa, B., Honda, Y., Jafari, M., Li, C. and
Huu Ninh, N. (2007) Asia. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of
Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, Cambridge University Press. UK.
Dahal, Ranjan Kumar and Hasegawa Shuichi (2008) Representative rainfall thresholds for landslide in the
Nepal Himalaya. Geomorphology 100 (2008), pp429-443.
Dixit, A., Upadhya, M., Dixit, K., Pokhrel, A. and Rai, DR. (2009) Living with Water Stress in the Hills
of the Koshi Basin, Nepal. Institute of Social and Environmental Transition-Nepal (ISET-N) and
ICIMOD.
Dhital, M.; Khanal, N.; Thapa, K. B.(1993) "The Role of Extreme Weather Events, Mass Movement and
Land Use Changes in Increasing Natural Hazards". A Report of the Preliminary Field Assessment and
Workshop on Causes of the Recent Damage Incurred in South-central Nepal (July 19-20, 1993),
Kathmandu: ICIMOD.
Draft
Du, MY., Kawashima, S.,Yonemura, S., Zhang, XZ. and Chen, SB. (2004) Mutual influence between
human activities and climate change in the Tibetan plateau during recent years. Global and Planetary
Change 41: 241-249
DWIDP. (2006/2007). Disaster Review 2006. Kathmandu: Department of Water Induced Disaster
Prevention http://www.dwidp.gov.np/pdf/bulletin/review.pdf (Retrieved at 14th January 2011)
DWIDP. (2005). Preparation of water induced hazard maps Vol.1. Main Report. Kathmandu: Department
of Water Induced Disaster Prevention
Eriksson, M., Jianchu, X., Shrestha, AB.,Vaidya, RA.,Nepal, S.and Sandström, K. (2009) The changing
Himalayas: Impact of climate change on water resources and livelihoods in the Greater Himalayas.
Kathmandu: ICIMOD
Fujuta, K., Kadota, T., Rana, B., Kayastha, RB. and Ageta, Y. (2001) Shrinkage of Glacier AX010 in
Shorong region, Nepal Himalayas in the 1990s. Bulletin of Glaciological Research 18. Japanese society
of snow and ice.
Government of Nepal (GoN). (2010) Economic Survey, Fiscal Year 2009/2010, Volume 1, Ministry of
Finance.
ICIMOD (2010) High level consultative meeting on: Sacred Himalayas for Water, Livelihoods, and Biocultural Heritage, August 18-20, 2010, Godavari Village Resort, Kathmandu.
Initial National Communication to the UNFCCC, 2004, Ministry of Environment, Government of Nepal
IPCC (2007). Climate change 2007: The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the
Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S; Qin, D;
Manning, M; Chen, Z; Marquis, M; Averyt, KB; Tignor, M; Miller, HL (eds)]. Cambridge and New
York: Cambridge University Press
IPCC. (2001a). Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to
the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Watson, RT. and the
Core Writing Team (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 398
IPCC. (2001b). Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of WG II to
TAR of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [McCarthy, MC., Canziani, OF., Leary, NA.,
Dokken, DJ. and White, KS. (eds.)] Cambridge University Press: 1031
IPCC. (1998). The regional impacts of climate change: An assessment of vulnerability. Special report of
IPCC working group II [Watson, RT., Zinyowera, MC., Moss RH. and Dokken, DJ. (eds.)], Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge
IPCC, (1996): Climate Change 1995: Impacts, adaptations and mitigation of climate change: scientific
technical analyses. Contribution of Working Group II to the Second Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Watson, RT., Zinyowera, MC., Moss, RH. and Dokken,
DJ.(eds.)], Cambridge University Press
Ives, D. (1986). Glacial Lake Outburst Floods and Risk Engineering in the Himalaya. ICIMOD
Occassional Paper No. 5. Kathmandu: ICIMOD
Draft
Kaczmarek, Z., Arnell, N. and Starkel, L. (1996) Climate, Hydrology, and Water Resources. Water
resources Management in the face of climatic/ hydrologic uncertainties [Kaczmarek, Z., Strezepek, KM.,
Somlody, L. and Priyajhinskaya,V. (eds.)], International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis,
Laxenburg
Kattelmann, R. (1993) Role of snowmelt in generating streamflow during spring in east Nepal. In: Snow
and glacier hydrology. Proceedings of the Kathmandu symposium, November 1992. IAHS Publication
No. 218.
Khanal, N. R. (1995a) "Mass Movement in Nepal Himalaya". Paper presented at the regional workshop
on landslide hazard management and control in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas, July 12-14, ICIMOD,
Kathmandu (unpublished).
Khanal, N. R. (1995b) "The 1993 Extreme Event in Nepal and Its Consequences". Unpublished paper
presented at the international Himalayan / Tibetan Plateau Paleoclimate Workshop, 2-7 April 1995,
Kathmandu.
Khanal, N. R.; Chalise, S. R.; Pokhrel, A. P. (1998) "Ecohydrology of River Basins of Nepal". In Chalise,
S. R.; Hermann, A.; Khanal, N. R.; Lang, H.; Molnar, L. and Pokharel, A. P. (eds) Proceedings of the
International Conference on Ecohydrology of High Mountain Areas. pp49-61, Kathmandu:ICIMOD.
Kulshrestha, S. N., Kos, Z. and Priyajhinskaya, V. (1996) Implications of climate change for future water
demand. In: Water resources Management in the face of climatic/ hydrologic uncertainties [Kaczmarek,
Z., Strezepek, KM., Somlody, L. and Priyajhinskaya, V. (eds.)], International Institute for Applied
Systems Analysis, Laxenburg
Liu, X. and Chen, B. (2000) Climatic warming in the Tibetan Plateau during recent decades. International
Journal of Climatology 20: 1729-1742
Milly, P., Wetherald, RT., Dunne, KA. and Delworth, TL. (2002) Increasing risks of great floods in a
changing climate. Nature 415
Mirza, MQ. and Dixit, A. (1997) Climate change and water management in the GBM basins. Water
Nepal 5, Nepal Water Conservation Foundation, Kathmandu: 71-100
Mool, PK. (2007) Application of Remote Sensing and GIS in Monitoring Glacial Lake Outburst Flood in
the Hindu Kush-Himalaya Region. Second Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction, (78 November, India). Kathmandu: ICIMOD
http://www.nidm.gov.in/amcd_presentations/groupa_theme1/mool.pdf (Retrieved on 25th January, 2011)
MOPE. (2004). Implementation of UN Convention to Control Desertification. Ministry of Population and
Environment, HMG Nepal, Kathmandu
Nakawo, M., Fujita, K., Ageta, Y., Shankar, K., Pokhrel, AP. and Tandong,Y. (1997) Basic studies for
assessing the impacts of the global warming on the Himalayan cryosphere, 1994-1996. In: Bulletin of
Glacier research 15, Data center for glacier research, Japanese society for snow and ice.
National Adaption Program of Action (NAPA), 2010, NAPA Document, Ministry of Environment,
Government of Nepal.
National Water Plan, 2005, Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS), Government of Nepal.
Draft
NCVST. (2009). Vulnerability Through the Eyes of Vulnerable: Climate Change Induced Uncertainties
and Nepal’s Development Predicaments. Institute for Social and Environmental Transition-Nepal (ISETN), Nepal Climate Vulnerability Study Team Kathmandu
Nelson, DR., Adger, WN. and Brown. K. (2007) Adaptation to Environmental Change: Contributions of a
Resilience Framework. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 32: 395–419.
Ouardo, T., Cunderlik, J., St. Hilaire, A., Barbet, M., Brueneau, P. and Bobee, B. (2006) Data-based
comparison of seasonality-based regional flood frequency methods. Journal of Hydrology 330: 329-339
Pandey, VP., Chapagain, SK. And Kazama, F. (2010) Evaluation of Groundwater Environment of
Kathmandu Valley. Environmental Earth Sciences 60:1329–1342)
Practical Action. (2009). Temporal and Spatial Variability of Climate Change over Nepal (1976 – 2005).
Kathmandu: Practical Action
Rai
(2007)
Retreating
the
Himalayas
Glaciers:
Alarming
Situation
http://www.forestrynepal.org/article/89/2499 (Retrieved on 2nd February, 2011)
in
Nepal.
Renoj, J.,Thayyen, JT., Dobhai, DP. (2007) Role of glaciers and snow cover on headwater river
hydrology in monsoon regime: Micro-scale study of Din Gad catchment, Garhwal Himalaya, India.
Current Science 92(3): 376-382
Sadoff, C. (2008) Proceedings of the National Dialogue on Himalayan Water Resources. Final Report,
The Abu Dhabi Dialogues, Ministry of Water Resources, Jalsrot Vikas Sanstha and Nepal Water
Conservation Foundation, (16 May), Kathmandu, Nepal
Shakya, NM. (2003) Hydrological Changes Assessment and Its Impact on Hydro Power Projects of
Nepal. Draft proceedings of the Consultative Workshop on Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation
Options in Nepal’s Hydropower Sector with a Focus on Hydrological Regime Changes Including GLOF,
Department of Hydrology and Meteorology and Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, (5-6 March),
Kathmandu, Nepal
Sharma, E., Chettri, N., Tse-ring, K., Shrestha, AB., Jing, F., Mool, P. and Eriksson, M. (2009) Climate
change Impacts and Vulnerability in the Eastern Himalyas. Kathmandu: ICIMOD
Sharma, HS. and Shakya, NM. (2005) Hydrological changes and its impacts on water resources of
Bagmati watershed, Nepal. Journal of Hydrology 327: 315-322
Sharma, KP. (2003) Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources of Nepal. Draft proceedings of the
Consultative Workshop on Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Options in Nepal’s Hydropower
Sector with a Focus on Hydrological Regime Changes Including GLOF, Department of Hydrology and
Meteorology and Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (5-6 March 2003) Kathmandu
Draft
Shrestha and Devkota (2010) Climate Change in the Eastern Himalayas: Observed Trends and Model
Projections: Climate Change Impact and Vulnerability in the Eastern Himalayas. A Technical Report.
Kathmandu: ICIMOD
Shrestha, S. H. (2004) Economic Geography of Nepal, Educational Publishing House, Kathmandu, p.250
Shrestha, AB., Mool, P., Shrestha, M., Pradhan, N., Bhandari, B. and Vaidya, R. (2010). Climate Summit
for a Living Himalayas - Bhutan 2011. Framework paper for the Consultative Meeting. Kathmandu:
ICIMOD
Shrestha, A. (2008) Overview on Climate Research, Presentation at the Advanced Institute on the Asian
Monsoon System: Prediction of Change and Variability, East-West Center, Honolulu, HI.
Shrestha, KL. (2005) Global change impact assessment for Himalayan mountain regions for
environmental management and sustainable development. Global Environmental Research 9: 69-81
Shrestha, ML. and Shrestha, AB. (2004) Recent trends and potential climate change impacts on glacier
retreat/glacier lakes in Nepal and potential adaptation. Global Forum on Sustainable Development:
Development and Climate Change (11-12 November 2004, France).
Shrestha, AB. (2001) Tsho Rolpa Glacier Lake: Is it linked to Climate Change? In: Global Change in
Himalayan Mountains. Proceedings of a scoping workshop, Kathmandu Nepal, [Shrestha, K.L. (ed.)]:
.85-95
Shrestha, AB., Wake, CP., Dibb, JE. and Mayewski, PA. (2000) Precipitation fluctuations in the Nepal
Himalaya and its vicinity and relationship with some large scale climatologically parameters.
International Journal of Climatology 20: 317-327
Shrestha, AB., Wake, CP., Dibb, JE. and Mayewski, PA. (1999) Maximum Temperature Trends in the
Himalaya and Its Vicinity: An Analysis Based on Temperature Records from Nepal for the Period 197194. Journal of Climate 12, American Meteorological Society: 2775-2786
Strategic Program for Climate Resilient (SPCR), 2010, SPCR Program Document, Ministry of
Environment, Government of Nepal.
Twomlow, S., Mugabe, FT., Mwale, M., Delve, R., Nanja, D., Carberry, P. and Howden, M. (2008)
Building Adaptive Capacity to Cope with Increasing Vulnerability Due to Climatic Change in Africa: A
New Approach. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 33: 780–87
UNDP. (2006). Human Development Report: Beyond Scarcity: Power, Poverty and the Global Water
Crisis. New York: United Nations Development Programme
WECS. (2006). WECS, GIS-RS Unit, Nepal.
http://www.raonline.ch/pages/np/nat/np_glacier01b01.html (Retrieved on 13th March, 2011)
World Bank. (2009). World Development Report 2010 .Climate change and Development. Washington,
DC: World Bank
Draft
WWF. (2010). Climate Change Impacts on Freshwater Ecosystems in the Himalayas.
WWF,Indiahttp://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/project/projects/index.cfm?uProjectID=9
S0814 (Retrieved on 21st January, 2011)
WWF. (2005). An Overview of Glaciers, Glacier Retreat, and Subsequent Impacts in Nepal, India and
China. Kathmandu: WWF Nepal
Xu Jianchu., Grumbine, ER., Shrestha, A., Eriksson, M., Yang, X., Wang, Y. and Wilkes, A. (2009) The
melting Himalayas: Cascading effects of climate change on water, biodiversity, and livelihoods’.
Conservation Biology 23(3):520-530
Xu Jianchu., Shrestha, A., Vaidya, R., Eriksson, M., Hewitt, K. (2007) The melting Himalayas: Regional
challenges and local impacts of climate change on mountain ecosystems and livelihoods. ICIMOD
Technical Paper. Kathmandu: ICIMOD
Zhao, L., Ping, CL., Yang, DQ., Cheng, GD., Ding, YJ. and Liu, SY. (2004) Change of climate and
seasonally frozen ground over the past 30 years in Qinghai-Tibetan plateau, China. Global and Planetary
Change 43: 19-31