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CHAPTER TWELVE—FROM BALADI TO BELLY DANCE: Women’s dance and dance
rhythms in Egypt and beyond
Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn about:
The historical and cultural background of Arab-Egyptian dance music
Arab-Egyptian melodic and percussion instruments
Genres of women’s solo dance traditions of the Middle East
Characteristic rhythm patterns used in Arab-Egyptian dance music
Practitioners of women’s solo dance, instrumental performers, and composers
Overview
Egyptian women’s dance is an important, though often controversial, part of Egyptian cultural heritage. Its
status has been complicated by Orientalist and Western representations of Middle Eastern dance as well as by
religious, cultural, and political agendas. In this chapter, three domains of dance (raqs baladi, raqs sharqi, and
international belly dance)—as well as common rhythms and instruments that accompany them—are explored
through demonstrations and performances by Hossam Ramzy. Exploration of genres, melodic structures, and
performance techniques further enhance understanding of Egyptian and Egyptian-derived music and dance.
Getting Started: Middle Eastern Instruments
Before beginning the study of Arab-Egyptian music, scan through the chapter and identify the instruments you
will encounter. Listen to the demonstrations of these instruments and use the following chart to list instruments and describe the sounds they make. This reference chart may serve as a guide to more effective listening.
Instrument
Description
Similar to:
Mazhar
CD ex. # 3-11 @ 0:14
Duff
CD ex. # 3-11 @ 0:31
Doholla
CD ex. # 3-11 @ 0:43
Tabla
CD ex. # 3-11 @ 1:03
Riqq: CD ex. # 3-12 0:00-0:15
Sagat: CD ex. # 3-12
0:15—0:29
‘Ud
Qanun
Nay
Violin
Mizmar
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Introduction to Egyptian Music
Pages 251-260 offer an overview of Egyptian history and an introduction to Egyptian women’s dance.
What are the three domains of Egyptian and Egyptian-derived dance? Briefly describe each domain.
(Note: these will be more fully explored later in the chapter.)
Although women’s dancing represents a significant marker of Egyptian identity, it is often controversial. Why has it been criticized and, to an extent, marginalized in official annals of Egyptian heritage?
What is the Orientalist image of the Middle East in general and of women’s dance in particular?
Identify the three major currents of Egyptian nationalism. How does each influence women’s dance?
Maqam: The Modal Foundation of Arab Music
The maqam system is roughly to Arab music what the raga system is to Indian music. It is the basis of an extraordinary range of musical idioms, improvised and composed, vocal and instrumental, solo and ensemble.
In the modern maqam system as described, how many pitches are recognized in an octave? ______
What is the interval between each pitch? ______ What are the characteristic features of the maqam
system? _____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________ How
does this compare to the Western pitch system? __________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Foundations of Women’s Dance
Western audiences define Middle Eastern women’s dance by performances of professional or semiprofessional dancers in various entertainment venues. However, in the Arab world, domestic women’s gatherings, often
held out of the sight of men and in the privacy of homes, largely define women’s dance. Pages 260-263 provide an overview of the history and development of Egyptian women’s dance.
Discuss several of the speculations about the ancient origins of women’s dance. What are some of the
purposes served by dances?
Zaar
Zaar is an ancient healing ritual rooted in shamanistic practices and involving spirit possession and trance. Although officially prohibited among Muslims, it continues to be practiced in private ceremonies and performed
in folkloric productions as a symbol of Egyptian heritage. The zaar ritual is described on pages 263-264.
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What are the origins of the zaar ceremony?
What is the role of music in this ceremony?
How does dance provide cathartic release in zaar?
Traditional Zaar Rhythms, Hossam Ramzy, CD ex. # 3-9 (and also 3-10, 3-11, and 3-12)
Hossam Ramzy’s performance of “Alla Hai” (CD ex. # 3-9) introduces the zaar rhythm and the large number
of variant forms it may take in the course of a performance.
Instrument
Description of sound
Mazhar (3-11)
0:14
Duff
0:31
Doholla
0:43
Riqq (3-12)
0:00—0:15
Sagat
0:16—0:29
“Zeina,” Hossam Ramzy Group, CD ex. # 3-13
“Zeina,” originally composed by Muhammad ‘Abd al-Wahhab for a dance number featuring Samia Gamal in the
Egyptian film Zannouba, is represented in CD ex. # 3-13 in an arrangement by Hossam Ramzy. Although ‘Abd
al-Wahhab frequently used Western instruments, harmonies, and rhythms in his earlier film music, “Zeina”
represents his later style, in which he placed greater emphasis on distinctly Arab-Egyptian derived musical elements. Pages 272-276 explore ensembles and instruments used in Egyptian film music and also analyze the
performance of “Zeina” on the CD set.
What are the five instruments of the takht (and the sixth one that is sometimes added)?
In the large ensemble used for film music (the firqa musiqyya), Western instruments were added to
those of the traditional Egyptian takht. List some of the instruments commonly added from the Western tradition.
Which instruments—Western and non-Western—are added to the takht for this performance of “Zeina”?
The maqam is the modal foundation of Arab music and is roughly equivalent to the raga of India in its
complex structure, including microtonal nuances, ornamentation, procedures for moving from one
pitch to another, etc. Upon which maqam is the melody for “Zeina” based? ________
________________________________ What are the approximate equivalent pitches in Western notation? _____(Remember that Arab music divides the octave into 24 microtonal pitches.)
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Post-Independence Era
After the “bloodless revolution” of 1952 and the establishment of the Arab Republic of Egypt under Gamal
‘Abd al-Nasser, a cultural nationalism agenda placed emphasis on the support of Egyptian folk culture (baladi).
Baladi, including music, dance, art, and folk rituals and ceremonies, became symbolic of the new Egyptian national identity. Pages 276-278 outline how these changes impacted women’s dance music and several leading
dancers and actresses.
What events sparked the movement toward total independence from the British?
Why was the raqs sharqi world now seen as a poor example for Arab/Muslim womanhood? How did
this affect the entertainment industry?
How did the patronage of ‘Abd al-Nasser benefit the careers of Muhammad ‘Abd al-Wahhab and Umm
Kulthum?
Discuss the role of Farida Fahmy and the Reda Troupe in promoting an “indigenous Egyptian culture”?
What were the sources and inspiration for the repertoire of this troupe? How did ‘Abd al-Nasser promote the Reda Troupe? Explain the irony of the success of the troupe.
Folk Dance Rhythms in Raqs Sharqi and Belly Dance: Fallahi and Saaidi
The popular interest in folklore following the establishment of the Arab Republic of Egypt resulted in adoption
and adaptation of certain dance rhythms identified with folk culture, including fallahi and Saaidi. The fallahi
rhythm is demonstrated in CD ex. # 3-14, while CD ex. # 3-15 offers an illustration of Saaidi rhythm.
Women’s Cane Dance
The Saaidi rhythm is closely linked to tahtib, a form of martial arts traditionally practiced by men in Upper
Egypt (i.e., the Saaid, or Said). In tahtib, there are contexts of actual fighting, sportlike combat, and a dance in
which players demonstrate skill, inventiveness, and musicality. This “dance with stick” (raqs bil-’asaya) is usually performed just before or after a tahtib match. Typically, the accompanying music is performed by a drum
struck with sticks (tabl baladi) with a melody played on one or more aerophones (mizmar). The women’s cane
dance (raqs ‘al asaya) also derives from tahtib.
Describe the movements typically used in a tahtib dance.
What was the origin of the women’s cane dance?
Characterize the movements of the women’s cane dance.
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Dances and singing games originating in martial arts and training for battle may be found in several
other cultures. For example, the Brazilian dance genre capoeira originated among Afro-Brazilians during their struggle for equal rights; Zulu dancers in South Africa use spears and shields in addition to
movements mimicking fighting skills in specific dances; and both the haka and tititorea of the New Zealand Maori originated in training for battle. The haka is a fierce challenge sung and danced by warriors
to intimidate their opponents (a practice which may be observed before the start of any New Zealand
All Black) and the tititorea stick tossing game hails back to when warriors were training to toss weapons to comrades during battle.
The Tabla Solo Dance
The Tabla Solo dance was created by Egyptian dancer Nagwa Fu’ad and her long-time tabla accompanist Ahmed Hammouda in the 1970s. Essentially, the Tabla Solo dance is a dance suite set to a series of different
rhythms played on percussion instruments, often just on a single tabla.
Briefly discuss the career of Nagwa Fu’ad. Include her “typecasting” in Egyptian movies.
When does the Tabla Solo dance typically occur in a raqs sharqi performance?
Describe a typical dance performance (illustrative photographs of typical movements employed in this
dance may be viewed at the Online Learning Center as www.mhhe.com/bakan1.).
“Belhadawa Walla Belshaawa?” Hossam Ramzy, CD ex. # 3-17
From Cairo to Mexico
“La Cucaracha,” Hossam Ramzy and Pablo Cárcamo, CD exs. # 3-18 and 3-19
This selection is an example of how music travels from culture to culture through the work of creative artists.
The rhythmic background is played on standard instruments of the Arab-Egyptian percussion section, yet the
melody and other parts are performed on South American panpipes, other Latin American instruments, and
guitar. The melody itself is that of the Mexican folk song “La Cucaracha.” A touch of modern technology
makes the performance possible—through use of multitrack recording and overdubbing, only two musicians
perform all the parts.
Additional Resources
Visit the Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/bakan1 for additional learning aids, study help, and resources that supplement the content of this chapter.
Visit www.smithsonianglobalsound.org and explore other audio and video examples from the cultures and
styles discussed in this chapter.
Visit http://internationalmuzic.net and explore other audio and video examples from the cultures and styles
discussed in this chapter.
Print Resources
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Murphy, John. (2006). Music in Brazil. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wilson, Chesley Goseyun, and Ruth Wilson and Bryan Burton. (1994). When the Earth Was Like New—Western
Apache Songs and Stories. Danbury, CT: World Music Press.
Websites
Sites with discussion of tahtib
http://www.alliancemartialarts.com/tahtib.html
http://www.bdancer.com/med-guide/culture/mdancer.html
Site offering video resources for Middle East dances and tahtib
http://home.earthlink.net/~evacernik/video.htm
Key terms
Chapter 12 Journal
Part 1: Information
Definitions/explanations/comments
Key terms
Riqq
Sagat
Raqs sharqi
Dum, tek (drum
strokes)
Belly dance
Firqa (firqa
musiqyya)
Tabla (Egyptian)
Masmoudi
Raqs baladi
Maqsoum
Zaar
Fallahin
Orientalist
(Orientalism)
Fallahi
Maqam
Saaidi
Qur’anic recitation
Tahib
Quarter tone
Cane dance
(Women’s raqs al-‘asaya)
Tabla Solo
(dance/music
form)
Nagwa Fu’ad
Egyptian
nationalism
Ghawazi
Baladi
(folk heritage)
Malfuf
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Definitions/explanations/comments
Music of Islam
General Overview
Debate has raged for centuries
Muhammad believed it was capable of misleading the faithful but enjoyed recitation and apparently other forms
of music making
Schools of Islamic training after Muhammad’s passing forbade the use of music in worship, except for recitation
(a chant-like reading of holy text).
Strict rules govern recitation to avoid making it sound too musical and to prevent secular influences
Shi’ite Muslims: no music apart from recitation and other religious uses; not entirely comfortable with secular
music
Sufi orders: encourage musical expression & dance
Recitation
Requires years of training and study to properly declaim words
No melodic repetition – a strong melody would draw attention away from words
Choose a mode (similar to raga), then improvise a melody that reflects the text. There are 24 tones (which are
not equally distributed) in an octave.
Art Music – This was the music of the noble classes. It became associated with a life of pleasure, frivolity and sensuality
(indecent dancing, drinking). As a result, it fell out of favor amongst the more devout Islamic communities.
Folk Music – considered more pure in intent and purpose; more functional, tied to specific events
Kitāb al-Aghānī (Book of Songs)
Written by Abū al-Faraj al-Isbahānī (287/897 to 357/967)
About music, musicians and musical life over several centuries
Listening Guide for Islamic and Islamic-Inspired Music
Orthodox Religious Music
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Qur’anic chanting – tejwid
Qur’anic chanting – tartil
Qur’anic chanting – Ya sin
Adhan
Adhan from the Fes Festival
unamplified example of adhan
group recitation
Instruments
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
duduk
frame drum
kemancheh
nay
qanun
santur
tablah
ud
Sufi Devotional Music
16. Madih I – traditional
17. Madih II – studio sound effects, harmonized voicing, drum track
18. Qawwali I – accompanied by accordion, tablah,
clapping
19. Qawwali II – slower tempo, more melismatic
phrases
20. Ka’benin Yollari – dance music of the Whirling Dervishes
Folk Music
21. Eshbehayn – Andalusian music influenced by interaction with European cultures
22. Farhang’e a’vam – Iranian; extensive embellishing
of existing melodies
23. Mawal – folk music of Tunisia; less dependant on
improvisation
24. Raga Bairagi Bhairva – influence of Indian music is
clear
25. Youbati – strong African influence
Modern Secular Music
26.
27.
28.
29.
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Moi Et Toi – Abdel Ali Slimani
Kidda – Natacha Atlas
L’histoire – Cheb Tarik
Desert Rose – Sting with Cheb Mami
ISLAMIC MUSIC
We are as the flute, and the music in us is from thee;
We are as the mountain and the echo in us is from thee.
Excerpt from a poem by Sufi poet Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi
secular - not specifically relating to religion or to a religious
body
caravan - a company of travelers on a journey through
desert or hostile regions
bedouin - a nomadic Arab of
the Arabian, Syrian, or North
African deserts
nomadic - traveling from place
to place without a fixed pattern of movement
Golden Age - approximately
Sth-10th centuries; a period of
time during the Abbasid Dynasty when arts and sciences
were at their height and Islamic civilization was quickly expanding
Crusades - the military expeditions by Western Christian
powers in the 11th -13th
centuries against Muslims to
take possession of or maintain
control over the Holy City of
Jerusalem
Music in the Islamic world is music that is created and/or performed in countries
where Islam is the dominant religion. Islamic music includes vocal and instrumental
music, religious and secular music, and music composed and/or performed by Muslims and non-Muslims belonging to Islamic civilization. A great diversity of musical
styles and sounds exists in the Islamic world due to the influence of local cultures.
For example, the music of North African nations such as Morocco varies considerably from that of Malaysia and other Islamic lands in Southeast Asia. However, music
from the Islamic civilization shares many common threads, such as the use of similar instruments, the role of religious and secular musical expression in daily life, and
the prevalence of the call to prayer, which can be heard five times daily from
mosques in every Islamic country.
The History of Music in the Islamic World
Music has been an important tradition and element of daily life in Arabia since preIslamic times. The caravan song sung by the early bedouin was most likely the first
form of Arab music. These songs were typically accompanied by a simple percussion instrument which often followed the rhythm of the camels' or horses' stride as
they traveled. Due to the predominantly nomadic lifestyle in early Arabia, musical
instruments were light and easy to carry. When Islam became the major religion of
Arabia, Arab music accommodated the new way of life; different local musical
styles merged, music began to follow a rhythmic structure similar to that of poetry,
and new instruments were developed.
Islamic music was further cultivated and musical instruments continued to evolve
during the Golden Age of Islam when the musical traditions of Greece, Syria, Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), Byzantium (present-day Turkey), and Persia (presentday Iran) had a great deal of influence on Arab music. As Islam began spreading
across the Middle East and North Africa, Muslim rulers hired musicians to entertain
in their medieval courts. Meanwhile, the science of music gained popularity and
scholars made advancements with regard to melody, pitch and construction of instruments. Thus, music during the Golden Age gained great renown.
The Crusades of the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries resulted in a cultural interaction
with a significant impact on Arab and European music and mutual borrowing and
adaptation of musical styles and instruments. The West adopted several instruments from the Islamic empire, including the lute, the flute, and the bagpipe; the
Arabs were introduced to Western musical notations and inspired to document
their own musical tradition. Until that time, Islamic music, like poetry, had been an
oral tradition.
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Ottoman Empire - founded in
the 13th century; controlled
the area from the Balkan Peninsula to the Middle East and
northern Africa for several
hundred years until it dissolved in 1918 at the end of
World War I
Since the conquest of the Abbasid Dynasty by the Mongols in 1258, outside influences have inspired significant evolution of Islamic music. When the Ottoman Empire later took control of the Middle East, traditional court music and the military
marching band were incorporated and further developed with a Turkish style. The
result of these mergers was the use of many percussion instruments, flutes, and
horns as well as the development of more complex rhythmic forms and musical
structures. After World War I, with the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the
emergence of many independent Arab nations, Western musical influence, such as
the orchestra, the use of harmony, and musical theater became more apparent in
many Muslim countries.
Religious Music in the Islamic World
Sufi - member of a sect of
Islam that teaches that direct
knowledge of God, spiritual
truth, or
ultimate reality can be attained through intuition and
insight; not all Sufi groups use
music in their rituals
Hadith - the sayings and traditions of Muhammad; part of
the Sunnah (the way of life
and example of the Prophet.)
The Hadith record the words
and deeds, explanations, and
interpretations of the Prophet
concerning all aspects of life.
Hadith are found in various
collections compiled by Muslim scholars in the early centuries of Islamic civilization.
sama - means “listening” in
Arabic; a Sufi musical concert,
sometimes accompanied by
dancing or twirling
orthodox - conforming to
established doctrine, especially in religion
Qur’anic chanting - the practice of reciting verses from the
Quran
adhan - the Muslim call to
prayer
Islamic beliefs have had a considerable impact on the role of music in Islamic society as well as on Muslims' perception of music. In most world religions, music plays a
very significant role and is considered one of the most important elements of worship. The status of religious music in Islam, however, is quite different. In fact, music is a fairly controversial topic in the Islamic world. On one hand, conservative
Muslims regard most music as sinful and useless, associating it with idolatry and
illegal acts, such as drinking alcohol. Conversely, many Sufi Muslims for whom music is an essential component of worship see great spiritual value in music, viewing
it as a means through which one can become closer to God. These contradictory
views represent two extreme ends of the spectrum that have resulted in an ambiguous role for Islamic religious music.
When Islam was established in the 7th century, Muhammad prohibited music due
to its association with idolatry, which had a large following and a long tradition in
Arabia before Islam was founded. According to the Hadith, Muhammad made several statements warning Muslims against music and the use of musical instruments.
As a result, music was strictly forbidden in the Islamic religious realm for hundreds
of years. (Conversely, music in the secular sphere was incredibly popular.)
Notwithstanding criticism from conservative Muslims, a group of Sufis began incorporating vocal and instrumental songs into their religious practices. Music quickly
became an essential element of their religious experience. Muslims who participate
in the performance of Sufi music, called sama, believe that the music prepares
them to achieve a deeper connection with and a greater understanding of God.
They also believe that because music is beautiful, it can serve as a bridge between
God, the creator of beauty, and his followers. Although regarded as "un-Islamic" by
some Muslims, Sufi sama has gained a great deal of public acceptance and recognition, within Islamic civilization and beyond.
Conservative Muslims, on the other hand, accept only orthodox religious music,
which is predominantly vocal rather than instrumental, as an acceptable form of
musical expression. Music allowed in the mosque is limited to two types of vocal
music, Qur’anic chanting and adhan which are never accompanied by musical instruments. In fact, musical instruments are forbidden in the mosque with few exceptions. Percussion instruments, such as cymbals and drums, occasionally accompany the procession of a special ceremony or a religious festival.
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Secular Music in the Islamic World
Umm Kutthum (19081975) famous singer from Egypt;
referred to as “The Heart of
Arabs” and considered “the
most influential Arabic singer
of the 20th century”
Sabri Brothers - Ghulam Farid
and Maqbool Ahmed Sabri;
Sufi musicians from Pakistan
who use traditional instruments and techniques
tone - intonation, pitch, and
modulation of a piece of music
expressing its meaning, feeling, or attitude
Notwithstanding the controversy surrounding music in the religious sphere, secular
music maintains the rich traditions cultivated during the spread of Islam, serving as
a means of artistic expression and cultural unity among many communities. Musical arts in the Islamic world have been enjoyed for centuries, in the royal courts, in
daily life, as accompaniment to manual labor, and for special occasions. In the last
two centuries, Islamic music has made great progress through the use of technology and the development of new musical forms and expressions, leading to more
widespread interest in Islamic music. Musicians such as Umm Kulthum and the Sabri Brothers are well known around the world.
Characteristics of Islamic Music
As in other parts of the world, Islamic music takes on the characteristics of the local
musical styles, thereby representing the people and culture that create it. Despite
the great diversity in music among various Islamic cultures, some basic characteristics exist in many types of Islamic music. They include the following attributes:
complex rhythms
lack of harmony: Islamic musicians sing and play solo and often create a
variation to the song in every performance (as in jazz music). Soloists are
typically accompanied by a group of musicians who repeat what has just
been sung or played rather than harmonizing with the soloist.
many tones
use of similar musical instruments across cultures
merging of sung poetry and instrumental accompaniment
As a result of the unifying elements, much of the vocal and instrumental music
across cultures of the Islamic world has a similar and distinct sound in tone,
rhythm, and emotional intensity.
Conclusion
Islamic music, including religious and secular music from Islamic countries, plays an
ambiguous role in the lives of many Muslims, enjoyed by some while deemed sinful
and useless by others. Nonetheless, music is an important component of Islamic
civilization, steeped in the history and culture of its various countries of origin. Due
to the influence of other cultures, Islamic music has undergone a great deal of
change in the last 1,400 years.
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ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS MUSIC
Orthodox Religious Music
Music of the Islamic world belonging to the category of orthodox music is limited to
the two forms of musical expression allowed in the mosque: Qur’anic chanting and
the call to prayer. Although subtle stylistic variations exist across cultures, orthodox
religious music is virtually the same for Muslims around the world. Qur’anic chanting and the call to prayer can sometimes be heard in secular music as well but in
such cases are not considered orthodox.
tejwid - literally means to
make good or excellent or to
improve; because tejwid requires great skill and training,
many famous secular musicians began their careers as
Qur’anic chanters
embellish - decorate or increase in attractiveness
monotonous - marked by a
sameness in pitch and intensity; unchanging
muezzin-in Muslim countries,
one who proclaims the regular
hours of prayer from the
mosque
minaret-a tall, slender towerlike structure located near, or
built into, a mosque
1. Qur’anic Chanting
The most significant form of music in the Islamic world is chanting or reciting of
the Quran. The practice of reciting the Quran is inspired by Muhammad's recitations of Allah's message. The art of Qur’anic chanting began during Muhammad's life, with the intention of pleasing Allah and receiving his blessing as well
as creating unity among Muslims. The Quran itself prescribes the rules for and
purpose of Qur’anic chanting. These rules include, but are not limited to, the
following:
The revelations must be recited aloud, slowly and deliberately in a humble
voice, but not sung.
The chanter must be in a state of physical and spiritual purity.
The recitation must always begin with two mandatory statements: "God
protect me from the wicked devil," and, "In the name of Allah, the Merciful,
the Compassionate."
The recitation must end with the phrase, "The great God has spoken the
truth."''
Qur’anic chanting embodies two forms. The more refined form, called tejwid
(tr. 1), follows strict rules and requires a skilled chanter to have a sophisticated
understanding of the Quran "not only to embellish the words, but also to enhance the meaning." Although tejwid can be recited at any time and in any
place, it is most frequently performed after the noon prayer on Friday, the
Muslim holy day and day of rest, and during all prayers that take place in the
mosque. The second type of Qur’anic chanting, called tartil (tr. 2), is a simple
chant intended to create a calm environment and teach its listeners through
the words of the Quran. Because of its monotonous and simple sound, tartil
has a hypnotic quality. Muslims believe that both types of Qur’anic chanting
benefit both the reciter and the audience.
2. Adhan
Adhan (tracks 4-6) is the call to prayer and the second most important type of
music in the Islamic world. The purpose of adhan is to notify Muslims of the
five prayer times each day, which take place at dawn, noon, midafternoon,
sunset, and late evening. At each prayer time, the muezzin sings adhan from
the minaret of the mosque. Modern-day conveniences allow the transmission
of adhan through a loudspeaker, personal cellular phones, or pagers. When
Muslims hear the call to prayer, they turn to face Mecca, and perform salat, or
prayer. Adhan is the music heard most frequently in Muslim countries, as it is
recited five times every day from every mosque.
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The following are the phrases of adhan, some of which are repeated two or
more times:
English
salvation-deliverance from the
power and effects of sin
Arabic
God is most great, God is most great
Allahu akbar, Allahu akbar
I testify that there is no god but Allah
ash-hadu an la ilaha ilia-llah
I testify that Muhammad is the
Messenger of God
Come to prayer
ash-hadu anna Muhammadan rasuluIlah
hayya 'ala-s-salah, hayya 'ala-s-salah
Come to Salvation
hayya 'ala-I-falah, hayya 'ala-l-falah
God is most great, God is most great
Allahu akbar, Allahu akbar
There is no god but Allah
la ilaha ilia-llah
When the muezzin sings the call to prayer at dawn, he also adds:
English
Prayer is better than sleep
Arabic
As-salatu khairum min an-nawm
Adhan has another social and religious function, which is also a tradition with
Muslim families. When a baby is born into a Muslim family, it is customary for
the father to sing adhan into his baby's ear. Adhan is also sung at Muslim funerals.
Sufi Devotional Music
devotional - a religious exercise or practice other than the
regular worship of a congregation; an act of prayer
Hassan ibn Thabit (563683) - a
Muslim poet and companion
of Muhammad who composed
many poems about him;
known as “the Prophet’s Poet”
A number of Sufi Muslim groups incorporate music of various kinds, including
Qur’anic chanting as well as secular songs, into their religious rituals. Unlike most
conservative Islamic practices, Sufi devotional rituals involve instrumental music
and dance. Sufis have greatly enhanced the role of music in worship and have significantly contributed to the spread of Islam, appealing to new converts through
their music and other practices.
1. Madih an-Nabawi
Madih an-Nabawi (tracks 16, 17)is a type of song that praises the Prophet Muhammad, his family, and the virtues of the Islamic faith. The first madaih (plural
of madih) were composed as poems of praise after Muhammad's death in 632.
The first poems to become madih songs were composed by the famous poet
Hassan ibn Thabit. Sufis later developed this musical genre further. Poems written by al-Busiri, a famous Sufi poet from the 13th century, are still very popular
among Muslims and continue to influence madih poems today. One man sings
the poem while accompanied by a chorus of drummers. Madih is performed
most frequently during the celebration of the birth of the Prophet, which is an
especially popular tradition in Egypt.
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dhikr - means "remembrance"
in Arabic; although it is a tradition for many Sufis, not all Sufi
groups practice dhikr
propriety - the quality or state
of being proper; conformity to
what is socially acceptable in
conduct or speech
2. Dhikr
Dhikr is the remembrance of Allah. The practice of dhikr is based on several
verses in the Quran which stress the importance of remembering and praising
God, including the verse in which Allah tells Muslims: "If you remember Me, I
will remember you."' In some Sufi practices, dhikr is expressed through the
chanting of Allah's names during a devotional ceremony. The purpose of this
Sufi expression of dhikr is to be in the presence of God, which Sufis believe they
achieve once they have fallen into a trance. When calling Allah's name, Sufis focus on their breathing, their body postures, and the rhythm with which they
chant. The shaikh, or leader of the Sufi group, leads the tempo and gradually
accelerates the speed. The dhikr ceremony comes to an end once all participants have become entranced.
Although dhikr ceremonies vary considerably among Sufi groups, most include
similar rituals, including recitations, religious and secular music, dance, meditation, and incense burning. Dhikr often begins with the recitation of the first
chapter of the Quran, called Fatiha, followed by chanted praises of Muhammad. Sufi women sometimes participate in Sufi dhikr ceremonies but are more
restrained by social expectations regarding modesty and propriety. As in all Islamic worship, men and women are separated during the dhikr ceremony.
The following poem portrays the experience of a Sufi during a dhikr ceremony.
THE SUFI
ecstatic - expressing passion;
in this context, used to describe a mystical experience in
which the spirit comes to
understand God
Hu - one of the names Muslims use to call God
stipulate - to require
beloved - dearly loved; in this
context, refers to God
Upon his soul marked the wing of heart.
The reed plays a note and the ancient drum beats.
His arms rise spread wide.
His smiling forehead bathed in light.
He dances through the primitive,
through the ancient,
through the contemporary
into the Real.
Beyond he whirls ecstatic...
His lips shape the heart's petal sounding...
Hu...Hu...Hu...!
Hu, the Sufi call to Allah!
He whirls with opened heart, sober, balanced
and free.
- Ruhi
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Dhikr ceremonies are also a form of entertainment. Sufi professional singers,
called munshids, often perform at weddings and other special events. They typically sing long poems about love for Allah, as demonstrated in the following
poem sung at Egyptian dhikr ceremonies:
Ark - affords protection and
safety; also used as a reference to the Biblical story of
Noah's Ark, which saved him
and his family from the flood;
also a reference to the sacred
chest representing to the
Hebrews the presence of God
among them
illuminated- intellectually or
spiritually enlightened
improvisational -performed
slightly differently each time
mystical - having a spiritual
meaning that is neither apparent to the senses nor obvious
to the intelligence
Love stipulates that the lover
Become the possession of the beloved
Into the ocean of love, of love, we have descended
We have descended into it like the Ark
We have descended into the ocean and are illuminated.
3. Qawwali
Qawwali, an extension of dhikr, is most common in Pakistan and India and has
become a popular type of modern music and is the best known to non-Muslims
around the world. Qawwali has its roots in Persia (present-day Iran), where Sufism traditionally has been very popular. Some of the most famous Sufi poets
were also from Persia and composed their poems in Persian. These poems are
often sung to Sufi music, such as the dhikr and the qawwali. The nature of
qawwali is very improvisational, and like Sufi poetry, the lyrics revolve around
religious and mystical symbols.
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Chapter 12 Journal: Reflections
What, in this chapter, was
new to me?
What, in this chapter,
would I like to know more
about?
Of the musical examples
in this chapter, which did I
enjoy the most? Why?
Of the musical examples
in this chapter, which did I
enjoy the least? Why?
Other thoughts or comments about Chapter 13
IM—1/15