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An Introduction to The Social Sciences Academic Disciplines • Academic disciplines are specific branches of learning: • Social Science Disciplines: – Anthropology, psychology, sociology, economics, political science – Each discipline examines human behaviour from a particular point of view - Theoretical Perspective Theory • A theory is a “framework” for organizing facts (observable evidence) • Theories explain how and why something happens, and predicts with great accuracy how things will happen in the future • Theories DO NOT determine what will happen, nor do they imply what should or should not be • Facts, lack meaning without some theory to explain them. • Example: Divorce rate is about 33.5% • This is a fact, but the fact does not explain why couples get divorced or how divorce affects society. The Social Sciences • Anthropology: the science that studies the physical and cultural development (values, beliefs, mores, institutions etc…) of humanity. “How and why did the family develop?” • Psychology the science that studies the mental processes and the behaviour of persons. It’s focus is on how people think and develop “How did your childhood experiences affect your attitudes towards school / relationships?” Introduction to Sociology • Define “society” • Briefly explain ‘how’ society works • Idenitify 3-5 ways in which your behaviour is affected by your society. What is Sociology? • Sociology • the study of the social world. It involves studying human beings and their patterns of behaviour. • Sociology focuses on the way people form relationships and how these relationships, considered in their totality are represented by the concept of a "society". Focus of Sociology • The focus of the sociologist’s attention is group behaviour. • They study the effect that the groups people either create / join or are born into (family, work, education and peer groups) have upon people’s behaviour. Micro & Macro Perspective of Sociology Mirco level: Sociology is about explaining the different forces and influences that shape how someone grows up Macro level: Sociology is about understanding why & how society functions, and why people accept society’s control (and why some do not). What is Society? • Some people deny “society” exists at all → simply individual men and women acting as individuals • But → individuals DO appear to act in very ORGANIZED ways • The way society is organized affects the individual – individuals are socially constructed • Although we are Individuals, we are SOCIALLY MADE • The problem of Sociology → it threatens ordinary understanding of how things work – commonsense ideas that “everyone knows to be true” Answer True of False to the following statements: a. A woman walking alone at night is in greater danger of sexual assault or rape by a stranger than a woman in a familiar place with a man she knows. b. Men are naturally more aggressive than women. c. "Falling in love" is a natural human emotion. Therefore, romantic love has existed in all societies at all times. d. By teaching children about sexual relationships, the education system encourages young people to experiment sexually, leading to an increase in teenage pregnancies. e. Someone living in Toronto is more likely to be the victim of crime than any other city in Canada. f. Crime rates are higher today than they were 30 years ago. g. The high divorce rate in our society indicates that marriage as an institution is under threat in our society. h.1/2 of all marriages in Canada will end in divorce • Sociology relies on evidence that can be tested and verified to develop explanations about human behaviour The Origins of Sociology • John Locke (16321704)→ The mind at birth is a “tabula rasa” – a blank slate – our social environment, not our social class, determines who we will be • Auguste Compte (1798-1857) → coined the term sociology – use social facts to show how social structures work • Positivism – authentic knowledge is only that which can be derived from scientific and mathematical data • Like the physcial world society operate according to measurable and verifiable laws – understand these laws and you can make a better society Emile Durkheim • • • • • • Society functions to protect the interests of its members Functional differentiation – society divides itself into groups to cope with the complex tasks that allow it to function successfully. Fascinated by suicide – why did it happen? Discovered that Catholics committed suicide far less frequently than protestants – there must be social forces at work Suicide → must look beyond individual act to see the moral pressures at work → see social patterns or forces - culture Identified “social facts” – concepts and expectations that come from one’s social community and affect individual behaviour – • Although we accept these ‘norms’ and ‘values’, we are constrained by them as well Conclusion – society is a system of hidden forces (institutions, roles, norms and culture) that influence individual behaviour. Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) • Developed one of the first theories to explain how and why society works. • All successful (functional) societies must solve 4 basic problems: – Economic – Political – Cultural – Family • Society invents social structures to solve each problem – structural functionalism Economic PROBLEM All successful societies must produce and distribute the things that are needed for human survival SOLUTION • Society has to develop a division of labour – organizing people into work related roles • Economic organization affects social values – Industrial capitalism – individuals must be free to work – liberty, equality become social values Political PROBLEM • All successful societies are orderly and stable SOLUTION • Society must develop ways of governing and controlling people's behaviour. • Our society - this is achieved by government (lawmaking), the police, the courts and so forth. Cultural PROBLEM SOLUTION • Social institutions and • All successful agents of socialization societies must make develop values and people feel they have norms that people feel things in common they have in common. with other people - to • Cultural institutions that make people feel that attempt to perform this they belong to a function include education, the mass society and common media, and religion culture. FAMILY PROBLEM • All successful societies must ensure that children are born (physical reproduction), nurtured and socialized in a way that allows them to grow into functioning adult members of society (social reproduction). SOLUTION • The FAMILY • Primary institution and agent of socialization – it prepares us for participation in all other social groups • It ensures that children learn language, and the cultural roles and expectations of their society. Structural Functionalism • Society functions because it has structure: – Institutions: organizations that meet the needs of society – Roles: social-status positions that are important for society to be successful – Norms: accepted behaviours for a given role • All social structures (institutions & agents of socialization) have a purpose (function) fulfill the needs of society • Each necessary social function is institutionalized individuals are socialized to assume roles and act according to norms – Example: When I perform my duties as a husband, a wife, teacher, or a citizen, and carry out the commitments I have entered into, I fulfill obligations which are defined in law and custom and which are external to myself Basic Assumptions of S-F • Macro View of Society focus on how largescale structures affect individual behaviour • Consensus: Stability and Order is achieved through shared norms and values social norms and values reflect the majority of society • Change is evolutionary norms and values change slowly & in an orderly way • Equilibrium The goal of all societies is to be stable (equilibrium) if one part changes all other parts must adjust Structural Functionalism Explanation of family • Family primary institution – We learn the values and norms of our society – microcosm (mini version) of society • Family prepares us to function in all other institutions Explanation of Individual • We are socialized to accept roles and behave according to norms • We are socialized by social institutions (education & government) and agents of socialization (friends & media) Conflict Theory • Karl Marx power & wealth not equally distributed in society: some social groups dominate others • How does society function? Not through social consensus BUT social dominance & force! – Social order is maintained either by FORCE or SELF-OPPRESSION Basic idea of Conflict Theory • Question: How do the few manage to get the many to do most of the work? • Answer: ideology (ideas and beliefs about how the world works) • The “commonsense” views of the world are shaped by the ideology (viewpoint) of the dominant groups • Others adopt this viewpoint, even when it is not in their interest to do so false consciousness • False Consciousness – when we accept the values of the dominant class • How? Through media (owned by dominant class), and other social institutions (government, education, etc…) • Thus, social values are not the values of the many, but the values of the fortunate few Conflict Theory Explanation Institutions • Religion – the “opiate” (drug) of the masses – Teaches the common person to be subserviant – reward is in heaven • Political ideology Family – – Family represents society’s class division men’s work is primarily outside the home and paid a wage. Women’s work is primarily within the home & not paid – therefore not valued – Men of all classes wield economic power within the household – Family oppressive institution that serves the interest of men above women and children – Family teaches us to accept inequality Conflict Theory Family – Family represents society’s class division: men’s work is primarily outside the home and paid a wage. – Women’s work is primarily within the home & not paid – therefore not valued – Men of all classes wield economic power within the household – Family oppressive institution that serves the interest of men above women and children – Family teaches us to accept inequality Individual • We are socialized to accept the values of the dominant class • Religion – the “opiate” (drug) of the masses – Teaches the common person to be subserviant – reward is in heaven • Political ideology – Free-market capitalism works for all equally Symbolic Interactionism “I am not who I think I am I am not who you think I am I am what I think you think I am” Who am I? What does this mean? Symbolic Interactionism • A psychological theory • Explains how we derive meaning from our experiences • Action depends on meaning – we act based on the meaning we’ve given something • We give meaning to something based on our social interactions – different meanings for different people • Meanings can change over time • Micro Theory people develop and define their individual & group identity through interactions with others- mutually working out what things mean • In a “macro” way it explains how we develop our culture – what it means to be Canadian, Jamaican, Chinese etc… Three aspects of theory: 1. Symbols/ language tangible (real) representation of an idea – we share our meaning of things through symbols & language – Language is symbolic the word ‘love’ is a sound symbol for the idea that we are emotionally attached to one another 2. Meaning – how we interpret the actions of others and thing » is your idea of love the same as mine? How can I know this? 3. Thought – how we interpret symbols – though internal dialogue with ourselves we “construct” meaning • We develop a sense of self through our interaction with others, both individually and in groups • Actions of others can be confusing we cannot see the mental processes behind their actions we are constantly interpreting what someone else “means” by what they say and do • We must take the perspective of the other in order to try to figure this out Symbolic Interactionism Family • Teaches us how to interpret the symbols of our society (language) • Begins the process of defining who we are as individuals Individual • • • We learn about ourselves first through our interactions with our family • Family instills in us societal values • The development of the individual is a social process As we develop we learn to use the symbols (language & visual icons) of our immediate group, give them the same meaning and share them with others S. I. also explains how we acquire our identities – from others – “Me” – my objective qualities (tall, short, male, female, white, black, brown) – “I” – subjective qualities – our awareness of self & the meaning of the objective qualities – Society determines what it means to be a boy, girl, short or tall, white or black We are what we think others think we are Feminist Theory • • • Examines the role sex and gender have on behaviour Specifically takes the perspective of women (virtually all sociologists were male) Reaction to gender bias in society • • • Androcentricity – the bias that assumes that male behaviour is human behaviour Like conflict theory, Feminist theory sees inequalities in power as a result of social structures that have been constructed by men, and therefore benefit men What social structures need to change to allow for women to more equally participate in society? Systems Theory • • • • • • System – a series of interrelated parts Change in one part = change in the entire system Systems strive for balance / equalibrium Feedback – the process of interacting so as to maintain the stability of the system Society is a system of institutions – change in one (family) = change in other institutions (education, government etc…) Family is a system of roles • • The success of each role depends on the others in the system Individual – must learn the patterns and strategies for interacting with others Social Exchange Theory • • • • • • • Cost-benefit theory of human behaviour We act to maximize our benefits and minimize our costs Benefits = perceived rewards Costs = the things we give up in order to secure a reward Costs & Benefits are often matters of perception – very personal Benefits can be social (status) as well as material ($$) Costs are also matters of perception – not everyone will consider costs equally • • Symbolic interactionism applies here to explain the meaning of “cost” and “benefit” Benefits must be perceived to be equal to, or outweigh, the costs for relationships to be stable