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#1 FACT SHEET ON: Climate Change THE DEFINITION, CAUSES, EFFECTS AND RESPONSES IN NAMIBIA. Climate change is a real and urgent challenge that is already affecting people and the environment worldwide. Significant changes are occurring on Earth, including increasing temperatures, rainfall variability, and rising sea levels. This fact sheet discusses key scientific facts that explain the causes and effects of climate change today, as well as projections for the future. • Introduction Although the Earth’s climate has changed many times throughout its history, the rapid warming seen today cannot be explained by natural processes alone. Human activities are increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Some amount of greenhouse gases is necessary for life to exist on Earth – they trap heat in the atmosphere, keeping the planet warm and in a state of equilibrium. But this natural greenhouse effect is being intensified by human activities (such In simple terms, climate change is about the change over long periods of time (decades or longer) of temperature, precipitation, atmospheric pressure and winds on a global scale. Global warming is the increase in average surface temperature.” (IPCC, 2007). Both human-made and natural factors contribute to climate change: • Human causes include burning fossil fuels, cutting down forests, and developing land for farms, cities, and roads. These activities all release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Natural causes include changes in the Earth’s orbit, the sun’s intensity, the circulation of the ocean and the atmosphere, and volcanic activity. FIGURE 1: The Link between Greenhouse Gases and Temperature 1850 2009 (Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center. 2010. http://cdiac. ornl.gov/ and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2010. www.noaa.gov) as the burning of fossil fuels) that add more of these gases to the atmosphere, resulting in a shift in the Earth’s equilibrium. FIGURE 1 (on the previous page) shows a clear relationship between one of the major greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide, and increase in atmospheric temperature. Emissions of carbon dioxide, an important greenhouse gas, have been increasing since the Industrial Revolution. These emissions are causing carbon dioxide levels to build up in the atmosphere and global temperatures to rise. In particular, temperatures have gone up at an increased rate over the past 30 years. FIGURE 2 (below) shows natural greenhouse effect and human enhanced greenhouse effect. The natural greenhouse effect is vital to life processes on earth, as it helps to keep the earth warm. The human enhanced greenhouse effect, is caused by human activities, and is the primary driver of climate change and global warming today. It occurs when more greenhouse gases are added to the atmosphere. The increased amounts of greenhouse gases absorb and reflect more infra-red radiation back to earth. This leads to higher temperatures and has a knock on effect by interfering with many components of earth’s natural climate regulation systems. FIGURE 2: The greenhouse effect (Source: https:// greenfriendswoodlands.files.wordpress. com/2010/03/2.jpg) The Effects of Climate Change Current and future effects of climate change pose considerable risks to people’s health and welfare, and the environment. There is now clear evidence that Namibia is becoming hotter: • • • • Surface temperatures have risen by 1.2 degrees Celsius (ºC) over the last 100 years. The frequency of extreme temperatures has increased by 10% over the last four decades. Since 1900, climate in Southern Africa has warmed by ~0.8°C. Temperatures in the past ten years have been the highest since measured records started in the 19th century. According to recent studies, summer temperatures are projected to increase • between 1°C and 3.5°C and winter temperatures between 1°C to 4°C in the period 2046-2065. Maximum temperatures have been getting hotter over the past 40 years, as observed in the frequency of days exceeding 35°C. The evidence of climate change extends well beyond increases in surface temperatures. It also includes: • • Changing precipitation patterns. Given the variability of the Namibia rainfall patterning, it is difficult to ascribe changes in rainfall patterns to climate change Based on the available records, the frequency of drought and floods has increased by ~18%, on average, in the last 4 decades compared to the period before Later onset of rainy seasons and thus growing seasons, overall changes in average seasonal temperature, continual threat of drought and unusually severe flooding in parts of Namibia have provided an indication of how climate change could affect the country. F IN NAMIBIA’S RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE 1995 Business and the economy have already felt some impact but the most vulnerable are the communities whose livelihood depend on natural resources – such as subsistent agriculture. Response to Climate Change in Namibia The prediction that weather conditions will become more severe during the next decades places the responsibility for adaptation on the shoulders of all Namibians, especially high-level managers and policy and decision makers across all sectors. In 1995 Namibia ratified this international environmental treaty which has the ultimate objective to “stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level what will prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system.” 2001 NATIONAL CLIMATE CHANGE COMMITTEE (NCCC) 2011 NATIONAL CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY (NCCP) 2012 DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT ACT 2014 NATIONAL CLIMATE CHANGE STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN, 2013-2020 (NCCSAP) It is urgent to take action now to create resilience to the predicted changes by incorporating adaptation initiatives into existing and future policy and developments. Figure 3 highlights key policies in Namibia’s legislative framework to address climate change. The Government of the Republic of Namibia, through the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) has commissioned several studies on climate change adaptation. These studies highlight comprehensive current and proposed adaptation strategies across different sectors in Namibia. The studies are freely available to download from the MET website. For More Information For detailed information about greenhouse gas emissions, the effects of climate change and the current efforts to address the impacts of climate change, visit the web site for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change at www.ipcc.ch. UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE (UNFCCC) The NCCC has the main function of advising and making recommendations to government on climate change and is comprised of representatives from various government ministries, NGOs, parastatals and the private sector. The Policy takes a cross-sectoral approach and elaborates on climate change adaptation and mitigation in Namibia. The policy outlines a coherent, transparent and inclusive framework on climate risk management in accordance with Namibia’s national development agenda, legal framework, and in recognition of environmental constraints and vulnerability. The Act provides for the establishment of institutions for disaster risk management in Namibia. A disaster risk management plan is in place to cover amongst others drought and flood events from climate change. The Strategy and Action Plan lays out the guiding principles responsive to climate change that are effective, efficient and practical in order to realise the goals of the NCCP. It further identifies priority action areas for adaptation and mitigation. FIGURE 3: Namibia’s Climate Change legislative framework Source: Various key documents comprising the national legal framework for adapting to and mitigating the impacts of climate change Impacts of Climate Change in Namibia Glossary: References: Atmosphere The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth. The dry atmosphere consists almost entirely of nitrogen and oxygen, together with trace gases including carbon dioxide and ozone. Adaptation Adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. Mitigation An anthropogenic intervention to reduce the anthropogenic forcing of the climate system; it includes strategies to reduce greenhouse gas sources and emissions and enhancing greenhouse gas sinks. Extreme weather events An event that is rare within its statistical reference distribution at a particular place. Definitions of ‘rare’ vary, but an extreme weather event would normally be as rare as or rarer than the 10th or 90th percentile. By definition, the characteristics of what is called ‘extreme weather’ may vary from place to place. Extreme weather events may typically include floods and droughts. DRFN. (2008 and 2013). Climate change vulnerability adaptation assessment Namibia. Windhoek: Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Government of Namibia (GRN) (2009). Second National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Windhoek: Ministry of Environment and Tourism. IPCC (2014). Summary for Policy Makers. Climate Change 2014: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. IPCC (2014). Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Midgley, G., Hughes, G., Thuiller, W., Drew, G., & Foden, W. (2005). Assessment of potential climate change impacts on Namibia’s floristic diversity, ecosystem structure and function. Cape Town: South African National Biodiversity Institute. Reid, H., Sahlén, L., MacGregor, J., & Stage, J. (2007). The economic impact of climate change in Namibia: How climate change will affect the contribution of Namibia’s natural resources to its economy. Environmental Economics Programme Discussion Paper 07- 02. London: International Institute for Environment and Development. Retrieved October 12, 2010, from http://www.iied. org/pubs/pdfs/15509IIED.pdf Greenhouse gases Greenhouse gases are those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere, and clouds. This property causes the greenhouse effect. Water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4) and ozone (O3) are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. As well as CO2, N2O, and CH4, the Kyoto Protocol deals with the greenhouse gases sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). Resilience The ability of a social or ecological system to absorb disturbances while retaining the same basic structure and ways of functioning, the capacity for self-organisation, and the capacity to adapt to stress and change. Author: Mwala Lubinda Desert Research Foundation of Namibia September, 2015 FOR MORE INFORMATION CONTACT THE ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND CLIMATE CHANGE PROJECT: Hanns Seidel Foundation Namibia, House of Democracy, 70-72 Dr Frans Indongo Street, Windhoek West P.O. Box 90912, Klein Windhoek, Windhoek, Namibia Tel: +264 (0) 61 237373 Fax: +264 (0) 61 232142 Email: [email protected] www.enviro-awareness.org.na #2 FACT SHEET ON: Water Innovations INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TOWARDS WATER SECURITY IN NAMIBIA The purpose of this fact sheet is to share information on the innovative approaches that have been implemented in Namibia, to minimise the impacts of water insecurity due to climate variability. Introduction Namibia is an arid to semi-arid country with scarce and unpredictable rainfall and the average annual rainfall is 250 millimetres per annum. Most of Namibia receives summer rainfall, except for the south-western part that receives some winter rainfall. Due to the erratic rainfall conditions, the flow in the rivers in the interior of Namibia is ephemeral, irregular and unreliable. The potential of the ephemeral surface water sources is therefore very limited and the water can only be used when the runoff is harnessed in dams during the rainy season. The pattern of rainfall is highly seasonal with rain during the summer months (between October and April) in the north and winter rainfall in the south. The perennial rivers are located at the northern and southern borders of Namibia; hence all four of these rivers (Okavango, Kunene, Zambezi and Orange-Senqu) form part of shared watercourses with other States situated along the banks of these rivers. Demand centres located in the interior of the country are far from the perennial water systems and centres typically rely for water supply on dams built on ephemeral river systems (Kinyaga, 2015). Namibia’s water demand challenges include: • As indicated by Heyns 2008, the agricultural sector is the largest water use sector in the country. Over 40% of water demand is for irrigation. The demand is expected to increase • • to about 65% by the year 2030. Irrigation mainly takes place on the perennial river systems. There are irrigation schemes at the Hardap and Naute dams in the south, Stampriet and Karst aquifers, Etunda and Ngonga Linena irrigation schemes in the northern parts of the country (Heyns, 2008). Meeting domestic water and industrial demand in the interior of Namibia is becoming a challenge due to increasing population caused by urbanisation. This calls for improving operations and management of water infrastructure as well as investments into innovative systems to address the water needs (IWRM Joint Venture, 2008b). The basic policy and legal framework incorporating IWRM is well established in the Water Resources Management Act, Act 24 of 2013 but the associated regulations (through which the Act is enforceable) lag behind. For this reason water use, abstraction as well as pollution control are still regulated through the Regulations associated with the outdated 1956 Water Act (Kinyaga, 2015). The World Resources Institute (WRI) recently scored and ranked future water stress – a measure of competition for and depletion of surface water – in 167 countries for the years 2020, 2030, and 2040. Of these, 33 countries face extremely high water stress in 2040. Projections indicate that Chile, Estonia, Namibia, and Botswana could face an especially significant increase in water stress by 2040. This means that businesses, farms, and communities in these countries may be more vulnerable to scarcity than they are today. FIGURE 1: Omdel Dam Artificial Recharge Enhancement Project on the Omaruru River Innovative Approaches to ensure secure water supply Namibia implements various water conservation and water demand management approaches. Innovative approaches to addressing the country’s water insecurity include the following: Inter-basin transfers and integrated use of dams Inter-basin transfer is when water is transferred from one water basin to another. Windhoek, which is also the biggest industrial and financial centre in Namibia relies mainly on three major dams, the Von Bach and Swakoppoort dams on the Swakop River and the Omatako Dam for its water supply. Future planning to provide sufficient security of supply for Windhoek is based on the integrated use of the three dams together with banking of groundwater in the Windhoek aquifer and the conjunctive use with the groundwater resources of the Karst Area (IWRM Plan Joint Venture Namibia, 2010). Artificial enhancement of aquifer recharge and water banking Artificial recharge is when surface water runoff is stored in a dam to allow sediments and silt to settle without addition of chemicals in the dam. The Omdel Dam artificial recharge enhancement project situated some 40km east of Henties Bay on the Omaruru River is one such example of this innovative technology (IWRM Plan Joint Venture Namibia, 2010). Water banking is when water is purposely diverted and stored underground to be used in periods of scarcity. Groundwater can be created by using dewatered aquifer space to store water during the years when there is abundant rainfall. This water can then be pumped and used during years that don’t have a surplus of water (https://en.wikipedia.org, 2015). In Windhoek, surface water from the Von Bach Dam is purified in a water treatment plant and stored underground in the Windhoek aquifer. This results in lower evaporation and overflow losses at the dam and in years that the surface water sources (i.e. the three dams providing Windhoek with water) cannot provide enough water, stored underground water can be abstracted (IWRM Plan Joint Venture (2010 b). Water Reuse, Recycling and Reclamation Reuse, recycling and reclamation are technologies that allow for water that has already been used to be utilised again. The Gammams wastewater treatment plant is the county’s biggest wastewater treatment plant with a capacity 26 Ml/day (One mega litre of water is equal to one million litres of water. That is 1000 cubic metres. Semi-purified water is pumped from this plant to the new Goreangab Reclamation Plant where the water is further treated and supplied to the residents of the City of Windhoek. Overall, water that is supplied to a water user by means of a water scheme is not free and has a cost. The water cost comprises a fixed cost component to recover the capital and interest required to develop the water scheme and a variable cost component to recover the cost to operate the water scheme. Figure 3 explains how the financial cost of supplied water is calculated. This water undergoes various processes to ensure that the water supplied is safe and potable (IWRM Plan Joint Venture Namibia. 2010). Positive efforts are being undertaken by the private sector. Namibia Breweries Limited, has a system in place that makes reuse of the backwash water from the carbon filters for washing of vehicles and irrigation of gardens. Carbon filtering is generally used in water filtration systems whereby a bed of activated carbons, through the process of chemical absorption, is used to remove chemicals and contaminants. (https://en.wikipedia.org) THE COST OF WATER: Factors affecting the calculation of the cost of water WATER SOURCE Transfer system from water source to treatment facilities E.g: Dams, Rivers & Boreholes TREATMENT FACILITY Transfer system from treatment facility to water consumers Facilities to treat water, to make it safe for drinking use WATER CONSUMERS FIGURE 2: Areva Desalination Plant Desalination of sea water and brackish groundwater ACCESS TO WATER Desalination is the removal of salts, minerals and impurities in water. The Areva mine desalination plant located at Wlotzkasbaken, 30 km north of Swakopmund, is the first of its kind in southern Africa. The plant utilises state of the art technologies including rotary filters, multi-stage ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, and chemical treatment to treat seawater to a potable state that can be used for mining purposes (http://www.areva.com, 2015). The CuveWaters project has installed innovative desalination pilot plants in the two villages of Amarika and Akutsima in northern Namibia. These plants operate on solar energy and can produce up to 5 m³ (5 000 litres) water per day, which is used by the residents for every day needs. FIGURE 3: Factors affecting the calculation of the cost of water (Source: Developed by HSF with reference to the article 'The Cost of Water' by Piet Heyns, DRFN). Conclusion References: In view of the arid nature of the climate of the country, a vast array of innovative activities have taken place over many years to ensure water security. These have resulted in the development of policies, legislation, plans and strategies in an endeavour to achieve the overall goals of water resource management and sustainable water use. To ensure sustainable long-term access to water, effective management and conservation of the country’s water resources; the government of Namibia, will have to strengthen national capacities to reduce climate change risks and build resilience for any climate change shocks by increasing its investments towards innovative approaches Maria Amakali. 2015. Presentation on Country Situational Report- Country Profile, key water challenges, Planned interventions for SADC water week. to ensure water security. Glossary: Water security Having sufficient water resources to meet the demands of the country’s main sectors. Ephemeral rivers Rivers that flow only after heavy rainfall. IWRM Plan Joint Venture Namibia. 2010. Integrated water resources management plan for Namibia, Report 1. Report prepared for Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry (MAWF). IWRM Plan Joint Venture (2010 b). Development of an Integrated Water Resources Management Plan for Namibia. Theme Report 2: The Assessment of Resource Potential and Development needs. Ministry of Agriculture Water and Forestry (MAWF). Piet Heyns. 2013. Presentation on Water Resources in the Cuvelai Etosha Basin Piet Heyns. 2008. Namibia Zaragoza Expo Viviane Kinyaga. 2015. Situation report: Namibia. Global Water Partnership – Southern Africa CuveWaters. Groundwater Desalination. 2015. Available on: http://www.cuvewaters.net/GroundwaterDesalination.77.0.html. Accessed 1 September 2015. Areva. Areva Resources Namibia: More than just mining. 2015. Available on: http://www.areva.com/EN/ operations-595/areva-resources-namibia-training-andmining-projects.html. Accessed 1 September 2015 Wikipedia. Water Banking. 2015. Available on: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater_banking.Accessed 1 September 2015. Wikipedia. Carbon filtering. 2013. Available on: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_filtering. Accessed 15 September 2015. Perennial rivers Rivers that flow throughout the year. Aquifers Geological formations in which groundwater is found and this water is abstracted through boreholes. River basin Water catchment which is demarcated according to the common drainage flows of major water sources such as rivers, groundwater systems (aquifers), water supply canals and pipelines. Authors: Bernadette Shalumbu and Rennie Munyayi Desert Research Foundation of Namibia September, 2015 FOR MORE INFORMATION CONTACT THE ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND CLIMATE CHANGE PROJECT: Hanns Seidel Foundation Namibia, House of Democracy, 70-72 Dr Frans Indongo Street, Windhoek West P.O. Box 90912, Klein Windhoek, Windhoek, Namibia Tel: +264 (0) 61 237373 Fax: +264 (0) 61 232142 Email: [email protected] www.enviro-awareness.org.na #3 FACT SHEET ON: Saving Water Practical Options For Conserving Water At Home Water is a precious resource, particularly for an arid country like Namibia. Unfortunately, the large amount of water used by households has a significant environmental impact, so saving water means protecting the environment and sustaining our long-term development. The purpose of this fact sheet is to share information on simple practices that save water, energy, and money whilst protecting the environment. Introduction Water is important for all forms of life. The availability of water, amongst many factors, sets the limit to the amount of life that can exist in any landscape. As human populations and economies grow, so does the demand for water while the availability of the resource may remain relatively unchanged. As demand increases, it is increasingly important to manage and use water more carefully to ensure there is enough for all, including the environment. It is predicted that, even without the additional stresses of climate change on the water resources in Namibia, demand will have surpassed the installed abstraction capacity by 2015 (Republic of Namibia, 2011). Namibia aims to address its increasing water scarcity through both supply- and demand-side interventions within a framework of Integrated Water Resources Management (IBID). The focus is on measures to reduce evaporation and improving water resource use efficiency. Did you know? OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE IS WATER 97 % OF THE EARTHS WATER IS IN THE OCEANS AND SEAS - 3% IS FRESH WATER IN GLACIERS, LAKES, GROUND WATER, RIVERS, AND THE ATMOSPHERE. WATER IS A FINITE RESOURCE, WHICH MEANS THAT WE DO NOT HAVE AN ENDLESS SUPPLY. LESS THAN 1% OF ALL THE WATER ON EARTH CAN BE USED BY PEOPLE SO THE REST IS EITHER PERMANENTLY FROZEN OR IS SALT WATER. NAMIBIA IS THE DRIEST COUNTRY SOUTH OF THE SAHARA AND WATER IS SCARCE. ALL THE RIVERS IN NAMIBIA’S INTERIOR ARE EPHEMERAL, WHICH MEANS THEY FLOW ONLY AFTER INTENSIVE RAINS. THEIR SURFACE WATER POTENTIAL IS LIMITED BECAUSE THEY RELY DIRECTLY ON VARIABLE (OFTEN LOW) RAINFALL. FIGURE 1: Quantities for the water cycle applicable to Namibia (Source : http://www. iwrm-namibia.info.na/images/sml127440a2070cc0c112.jpg) Currently, of the water that falls as rainfall in Namibia, 83% evaporates, 1% recharges groundwater, 14% returns to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration, with only 2% remaining for runoff and potential surface water storage. Why saving water matters? • • • • Water is necessary to sustain life - water equals life. However, fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource. Water is the primary limiting factor to development in Namibia. If you use less water you also save on energy. Water is important for protecting and sustaining vital ecosystems. Some practical tips for saving water at home Turn off the tap when you brush your teeth – This can save 6 litres of water per minute. The same is true when washing dishes. Do not wash dishes with running water in the sink. Do not use the toilet as a waste basket - Every time you flush a facial tissue or other small bit of rubbish, you waste up to 12 litres of water for an old style toilet, while the new one uses up to 9 litres. Flush with less water - You can reduce the amount of water used by your flush toilet by placing a brick or two water-filled 500 ml plastic bottles in your cistern. If you flush the toilet five times in day, you use on average 50 litres of water. This is the basic amount of clean water that a rural person needs for an entire day’s household requirements. Save water when bathing The bathroom is usually the largest consumer of water in any household. Installing a water-saving showerhead and a timer in your shower can dramatically reduce your water use. A standard showerhead may use up to 25 litres of water per minute whereas a water-efficient showerhead will use as little as seven litres per minute. In addition, limit your shower time to 5 minutes. The average 5-minute shower requires only 40 litres of water. When bathing in a tub, you use between 150 and 200 litres of water. As such, ensure your tub is not filled beyond a 10cm depth. Keeping a bottle of drinking water in the refrigerator - Running tap water to cool it off for drinking is wasteful. If you do not drink all of the water in your glass, rather than throwing the rest down the drain, use it to water a plant. Always use full loads in your washing machine and dishwasher – This cuts out unnecessary washes in between. Set your washing machine to an appropriate water level when doing your laundry. You can also save energy by washing in cold water. Front loading washing machines use significantly less water than top loaders, and also require less energy and soap. While the investment may be higher to begin with − in the long term they will save water, energy and money. Fix a dripping tap - If you cannot completely close a tap, then you need to replace the washer. Washers are cheap and easy to replace. A dripping tap can waste up to 60 litres of water a day, which adds up to 1800 litres a month. Purchase and use water saving devices - Invest in water-efficient and water saving devices when you need to replace household products. These include water-efficient showerheads, taps, low-flush toilets, washing machines, dishwashers, taps which turn themselves off and many other water-saving products. Use a bucket to wash cars – Instead of using a hose pipe or a pressured nozzle, use a bucket to wash, it could save up to 90% of the water you might usually use for washing your car. Sweep the pavement - Use a broom, not a hose to clean pavements, driveways, patios, and sidewalks. Reuse grey water - Install a water butt to your drainpipe and use the water collected to water your plants, clean your car and wash your windows. Find and fix leaks – You can check whether you have leaks in your system or not by turning off all taps and seeing if the water meter is still running. Read your water meter regularly, at least once per month. Leaks should be fixed as soon as they are noticed or huge amounts of water can be wasted. Do not break or damage water pipelines – If you live in an area where water is supplied by pipeline, do not damage it in any way. Not only does this waste water but it also denies people down the pipeline access to water. Water your garden with a watering can rather than a hosepipe - A hosepipe uses 1,000 litres of water an hour. Mulching your plants (with bark chippings, heavy compost or straw) and watering in the early morning and late afternoon will reduce evaporation and also save water. You can also reduce the need to water your garden by planting drought tolerant native plants. Ask your local nursery for advice. FIGURE 2: Grey water system in Omaheke region (piloted by DRFN) Conclusion References: We all use water for many different things, but while using it we should always remember that water use today should not jeopardize the quality or quantity available in the future. So play your role by conserving water through adopting a new approach to water use. Use water efficiently, reuse, recycle and conserve this finite resource. IWRM plan joint venture Namibia. 2010. Thematic report 1. Development of an integrated water resources management plan for Namibia - Consolidation of national water development strategy and action plan – Review and assessment of existing situation IWRM plan joint venture Namibia. 2010. Thematic report 2. Development of an integrated water resources management plan for Namibia - Consolidation of national water development strategy and action plan – The assessment of resources potential and development needs DRFN.1994. More about water in Namibia. Part two of a resource package to develop awareness to water. DRFN. 1995. Sink or swim. Water and the Namibian Environment Glossary: DRFN. 2012. WATSAN Project Grey water Refers to all waste water generated from households. This untreated waste water should not contain any feacal matter. Grey water is normally generated from the kitchen sink, shower, bath tub, washing machine, dish washer and any other household activities excluding the toilet. Heyns, P., Montgomery, S., Pallett J., & Seely, M., Eds. (1998). Namibia’s Water. A Decision makers’ guide. Windhoek, Department of Water Affairs, Ministry of Agriculture, Water and rural development and the Desert Research Foundation of Namibia DRFN. 2015. IWRM Community Manual Blue water Refers to fresh surface and groundwater, in other words, the water in freshwater lakes, rivers and aquifers. Green water Refers to the precipitation on land that does not run off or recharge the groundwater but is stored in the soil or temporarily stays on top of the soil or vegetation. Eventually, this part of precipitation evaporates or transpires through plants. Hoekstra, A.Y., Chapagain, A.K., Aldaya, M.M. and Mekonnen, M.M. 2011. The water footprint assessment manual: Setting the global standard, Earthscan, London, UK. Available at: http:// waterfootprint.org/en/water-footprint/glossary/ Retrieved17 September 2015 MAWF. Hydrological cycle. 2012. Available at: http://www.iwrmnamibia.info.na/iwrm/fundaments-in-iwrm/hidrological-cycle/ index.php Retrieved 21/09/2015 Republic of Namibia. (July 2002). Initial National Communication to the United Nations framework convention on climate change. Windhoek. Ministry of Environment and Tourism Republic of Namibia. (July 2011) Namibia Second National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Ministry of Environment and Tourism Author: Greater Mukumbira Desert Research Foundation of Namibia September, 2015 FOR MORE INFORMATION CONTACT THE ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND CLIMATE CHANGE PROJECT: Hanns Seidel Foundation Namibia, House of Democracy, 70-72 Dr Frans Indongo Street, Windhoek West P.O. Box 90912, Klein Windhoek, Windhoek, Namibia Tel: +264 (0) 61 237373 Fax: +264 (0) 61 232142 Email: [email protected] www.enviro-awareness.org.na #4 FACT SHEET ON: Water Pollution THE UPPER SWAKOP BASIN - IMPLICATIONS IN THE FACE OF CLIMATE CHANGE The purpose of this fact sheet is to highlight the implications of water pollution in the Upper Swakop Basin and its impacts in the face of climate change. Introduction The Upper Swakop Basin is one of 12 Water Basins in Namibia. As stipulated in the Basin Management Approach (BMA) Guidebook (MAWF, 2013); a number of criteria are used to demarcate such basins, these include: • • • • • geographic extent of surface and groundwater catchments water supply infrastructure and schemes land use administrative regions and areas population density and settlement As highlighted in a report written by Pazvakawambwa et al., (2012), the Central Area of Namibia (CAN), which is supplied with water from the Upper Swakop Basin (part of the Swakop River catchment upstream of the Swakoppoort and Von Bach dams), is facing a water supply crisis due to the increasing pollution of the Swakoppoort Dam, one of the major water sources. If this situation is allowed to continue, the water security for the Khomas Region, as well as parts of Erongo and Otjozondjupa Regions will be compromised, with resultant negative impacts on the economy of the country. The CAN makes a major contribution to Namibia’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and many industries within this area are highly dependent on the availability of water. The area comprises of the City of Windhoek and the towns of Okahandja and Karibib, among other consumers. Windhoek is the capital city of Namibia and sits in the catchment of Swakoppoort and von Bach dams, from which the city is supplied. The veins of the Upper Swakop River and its tributaries drain through the City of Windhoek and Okahandja Town. An integration of three dams, namely Omatako, Von Bach and Swakoppoort, in conjunction with groundwater, supplies the CAN. Omatako dam is a tributary of the Okavango and water is pumped from there to von Bach immediately after it rains. Windhoek and Okahandja and a large number of scattered industries lie within the Upper Swakop Basin, and they contribute significant pollution loads into some if the source dams. Figure 1 depicts the Upper Swakop Basin. In view of the economic importance of the CAN the risk of water shortages occurring within the CAN over the next 10 years, i.e. until 2021, is unacceptably high, both in terms of the predicted magnitudes as well as the probabilities of such shortfalls occurring. FIGURE 1: The Upper Swakop Basin (Source: www.iwrm-namibia.info.na) In view of the economic importance of the CAN the risk of water shortages occurring within the CAN over the next 10 years, i.e. until 2021, is unacceptably high, both in terms of the predicted magnitudes as well as the probabilities of such shortfalls occurring. The Swakoppoort Dam has a major impact on the quantity and security of water supply in the Central Area/Upper Swakop Basin. The deteriorating water quality of Swakoppoort Dam increases the risk of not having enough water in the Central Area (Pazvakawambwa et.al., 2012). Impact of Climate Change on the Upper Swakop Basin Namibia is a water scarce country where potential evaporation exceeds precipitation. The semiarid conditions make Namibian water resources vulnerable, where the impact of human activities and increased population pressure usually exceeds the natural impacts. Even without human influence, climate variability and climate change will bring about added stress to Namibia’s water resources. Global warming will contribute to a change in temperature of 1°C to 3.5°C in summer and 1°C to 4°C in winter in Namibia, which will lead to increases in evaporation and evapotranspiration in the range of 5-15% (MET, 2008). Low or no rainfall patterns have been occurring over the CAN in recent years since 2011 and as a result, the dam levels have been drastically reduced leading to reduced flows and lower groundwater levels, putting such ecosystems at risk of being permanently threatened. The Climate Change Adaptability and Vulnerability Assessment Report (2008) highlights that high water temperatures and longer periods of low flow tend to exacerbate many forms of water pollution. Pollutants include sediments, nutrients, dissolved organic carbon, pathogens, pesticides and salt. When runoff declines we could find a reduction in the services provided by the water resources, thus climate change could affect not only the quantity of water, but also the quality. The Swakoppoort Dam is one of the reservoirs which central Namibia, and in particular the Upper Swakop Basin, depends on for water Conclusion The CAN is a center for many industrial, agricultural, mining and domestic activities, each of them relying on water resources. Because of its arid condition, the security of water supply in this area, and in particular the Upper Swakop Basin, is strongly dependent on both the quality and quantity of raw water in the Omatako, Von Bach and Swakoppoort dams. While considerable attention has been devoted to the optimization of the quantity of water from these dams, little is actually done with regards to the protection of the quality of the sources of water in this Basin. Prevention of water pollution is the responsibility of all, based on the principle that any person disposing of any effluent or waste has not only a duty of care to prevent pollution, but the responsibility to pay for the measures to prevent such pollution. Glossary: References: Water Pollution Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater). This form of environmental degradation occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. River Basin A river basin is the land that water flows across or under on its way to a river. Just as a bathtub catches all of the water that falls within its sides, a river basin sends all of the water falling within it to a central river and out to an estuary or to the ocean. Basin Management Approach-A Guidebook. Second Edition. 2013. Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry. Windhoek, Namibia. Pazvakawambwa G.T., Tjipangandjara K.F and Chulu E. 2012. Workshop Proceedings: Management of the Upper Swakop Basin. NamWater. Windhoek, Namibia. Dirkx E., Hager C., Tadross M., Bethune S., and Curtis B. 2008. Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment Namibia. 2008. Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Windhoek, Namibia. Surface Runoff Surface runoff (also known as overland flow) is the flow of water that occurs when excess stormwater, meltwater, or other sources flows over the earth’s surface. Water Quality Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological characteristics of water. It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and or to any human need or purpose. Author: Bernadette Shalumbu Desert Research Foundation of Namibia October, 2015 FOR MORE INFORMATION CONTACT THE ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND CLIMATE CHANGE PROJECT: Hanns Seidel Foundation Namibia, House of Democracy, 70-72 Dr Frans Indongo Street, Windhoek West P.O. Box 90912, Klein Windhoek, Windhoek, Namibia Tel: +264 (0) 61 237373 Fax: +264 (0) 61 232142 Email: [email protected] www.enviro-awareness.org.na #5 FACT SHEET ON: Climate Smart Agriculture The purpose of this fact sheet is to share information on the benefits of adopting Climate Smart Agriculture as a strategy to cope with challenges posed by climate change in Namibia. Introduction In Namibia, agriculture and forestry contributes 5.1% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and livestock alone contributes 3.5% which is a contribution of 68.63 % to the Agricultural GDP (Namibia Statistical Agency’s, 2012). In addition, agriculture plays a critical role in the formal and informal economy supporting 70% of the population directly or indirectly through employment and income generation (Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 2015). Crop production activities in Namibia are limited, mainly due to the arid climate and low rainfall patterns. Small-scale farmers use traditional methods of production that are characterised by low productivity (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland, 2015). (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland, 2015). In light of these challenges, Namibia needs to adapt its agricultural practices and increase the resilience of livelihoods to be able to withstand the challenges posed by Climate Change to sustain development and growth of the country. This is why Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an important topic for discussion at all levels of the society. Agriculture in the face of Climate Change Agriculture is extremely vulnerable to climate change. Negative impacts of climate change are already being felt, in the form of reduced yields and more frequent extreme weather events. Substantial investments in adaptation will be required to maintain current yields and achieve the increases that are needed. This weakens the food security of the population and the dependence on rain-fed agriculture increases the vulnerability of farming systems and predisposes rural households to food insecurity and poverty. While there is significant variation across crops, regions and adaptation scenarios, the majority of models predict a yield reduction of more than 5% with around 10% of projections expecting yield losses of more than 25% (IPCC, 2014). It is projected that the reduction in crop yields will have devastating impacts on food security at both national and household levels. Under the current conditions, the agriculture sector in Namibia needs to grow by 4% a year to meet the food requirements for the expanding population Agriculture is also a major part of the climate problem. It currently generates 19 – 29% of green house gas (GHG) emissions. Without action, that percentage could rise substantially as other sectors reduce their emissions. What is Climate Smart Agriculture? How Can Agriculture be Climate Smart? Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) integrates the three dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social and environmental) by jointly addressing food security and climate challenges (FAO, 2009). In this view, Climate Smart Agriculture is composed of three main pillars: I. Crop production 1. Sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes - Namibia needs to produce more food to improve food and nutrition security and boost the incomes of 70 percent of the Namibian population which relies on agriculture for their livelihoods. 2. Adapting and building resilience to Climate Change - there is need to reduce vulnerability to drought, pests, disease and other shocks; and improve capacity to adapt and grow in the face of longer-term stresses like shortened seasons and erratic weather patterns. 3. Reducing and/or removing greenhouse gases emissions, where possible – there is need to pursue lower emissions for each calorie or kilo of food produced, avoid deforestation from agriculture and identify ways to suck carbon out of the atmosphere (FAO, 2009 and World Bank Group, 2014). Main elements of Climate Smart Agriculture CSA is not a set of practices that can be universally applied, but rather an approach that involves different elements embedded in local contexts (CGIAR, 2013). Elements which can be integrated in Climate Smart Agricultural approaches include: • • • Management of farms, crops, livestock, aquaculture and capture fisheries to manage resources better, produce more with less while increasing resilience, Ecosystem and landscape management to conserve ecosystem services that are key to increase at the same time resource efficiency and resilience, and Services for farmers and land managers to enable them to implement the necessary changes. Most of the Greenhouse Gas emissions of the agricultural sector are directly driven by the use of natural resources for instance new land being deforested or turned from grassland to crop land, use of fertilisers, livestock rearing and energy. Fertiliser applications lead to the production and emission of nitrous oxide (N2O), whilst livestock especially cattle, produce methane (CH4) as part of their digestion (EPA, 2015). Increasing efficiency in the use of resources (simply put, producing more of a given output using less of a given input) is thus key to reducing emissions intensity per kilogram of agricultural output as well as to improve food security, especially in resource scarce areas. In addition, agriculture is recognised as an important practice leading to high levels of deforestation, therefore if we reduce agricultural expansion through sustainable intensification on already cultivated land (increasing the output on the same piece of land without further deforestation), this could have a major lessening effect on rates of deforestation. Can smallholder agriculture contribute to emissions reduction? Smallholder agriculture has a rich and untapped potential for emissions reductions that are in the interests of farmers themselves. For example planting acacia trees in maize fields in Africa has led to yields even doubling, while the resilience of the soil to land degradation has been increased by improving its organic and nitrogen content, water retention capacity and microclimate moderation. At the same time, this is reducing soil carbon emissions by maintaining greenery and promoting tree growth and biodiversity, which provides a diversified habitat and a source of food for both wild and domesticated animals. Source: IFAD, 2011 II. Livestock sector According to Steinfeld et al., 2006; the livestock sector has expanded rapidly in recent decades and will continue to do so as demand for meat, eggs and dairy products is expected to continue to grow. Therefore, there is urgent need for improved efficiency and resource use of the livestock production systems, to both improve food security and reduce the intensity of GHG emissions. Table 1, below summarises some climate smart practices that can be adopted in smallholder agriculture production in Namibia. Crop Management Livestock management Solid and waste management Agro Forestry • • • • • • • • Intercropping with legumes Crop rotations New crop varieties (e.g. drought resistant) Improved storage and processing techniques Greater crop diversity • • • • • • Improved feeding strategies Rotational grazing Fodder crops Grassland restoration and conservation Manure treatment Improved livestock health Animal husbandry improvements • • • • • • Conservation agriculture (e.g. minimum tillage) Contour planting Terraces and bunds Planting pits Water storage (e.g. water pans) Dams, pits, ridges Improved irrigation (e.g. drip) • • • • • Boundary trees and hedgerows Nitrogen-fixing trees on farms Multi - purpose trees Improved fallow with fertiliser shrubs Woodlots Fruit orchards III. Reducing food losses in the supply chain Food losses and waste in the supply chain also means that the GHG emitted during their production have served no useful purpose. This is especially true when the food has reached the end of the food chain, when the embedded emissions for transport and conservation/preservation are very high. This fact is ultimately a failure of economic and natural resource efficiency. Figure 2 below shows how food waste can be reduced. "Global food losses and waste amount to a third of all food produced." (Gustavsson et al., 2011) TABLE 2: Food Waste Pyramid ( Source: UNEP/FAO, 2013) Source: Neufeldt H, 2011 TABLE 1: Climate-smart practices useful in smallholder agricultural production Conclusion There is urgent need to transition from reflecting on the vast impacts food systems has on emissions that exacerbate climate change to seizing agriculture’s potential to reduce that impact and adapt to a changing climate. References: Environmental Protection Agency. 2015. Sources of Greenhouse Emissions. Available at http://epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/sources/ agriculture.html FAO. 2002. The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2001. Rome. FAO. 2009. The State of Food and Agriculture: Livestock in the Balance. Rome. FAO. 2013. Climate Smart Agriculture Sourcebook. Rome Available at http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3325e.pdf FAO. 2015. Climate Smart Agriculture Sourcebook. Available at www.fao.org Glossary Food security A situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (FAO. 2002). Sustainable development “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” from the World Commission on Environment and Development’s (the Brundtland Commission) report Our Common Future (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987). Sustainable intensification Sustainable agricultural intensification is defined as producing more output from the same area of land while reducing the negative environmental impacts and at the same time increasing contributions to natural capital and the flow of environmental services (Pretty, 2011). Adaptation The UNFCCC defines it as actions taken to help communities and ecosystems cope with changing climate condition. The IPCC describes it as adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. Gross Domestic Product The monetary value of final goods and services— that is, those that are bought by the final user— produced in any country in a given period of time (say a quarter or a year). Gustavsson, J., Cederberg, C., Sonesson, U., van Otterdijk, R. and Meybeck, A. 2011. Global food losses and food waste: extent, causes and prevention. Rome, FAO. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/mb060e/ mb060e00.pdf High Level Panel of Experts (HLPE). 2012. Food security and climate change. A report by the HLPE on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security, Rome. HLPE Report, 2014. Food losses and waste in the context of sustainable food systems. Available at http://www.un.org/en/zerohunger/pdfs/HLPE_FLW_ Report-8_EN.pdf IFAD. 2011. Climate-Smart Smallholder Agriculture: What’s different? Available at http://www.ifad.org/pub/op/3.pdf IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. Available at: https:// www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/annexessglossary-a-d.html Joint Guidelines for Crop and Food Security Assessment Missions (CFSAMs). Available at ftp://ftp.fao. org/docrep/fao/011/i0515e/i0515e.pdf). Ministry of Environment and Tourism. 2015. Country Climate Smart Agriculture Programme. Available at http://canafrica.com/publication/ namibia-country-climate-smart-agriculture-program/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland. 2015. Farmers Clubs with ClimateSmart Agriculture for Improved Resilience and Livelihoods of Small-scale Farmers in Kavango. Available at http://www.formin.fi/public/default.aspx?c ontentid=328492&contentlan=2&culture=en-US Neufeldt H, Kristjanson P, Thorlakson T, Gassner A, Norton-Griffiths M, Place F, Langford K, 2011. ICRAF Policy Brief 12: Making climate-smart agriculture work for the poor. Nairobi, Kenya. World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF). Oxford University Press. 1987. The World Commission on Environment and Development’s (the Brundtland Commission) report Our Common Future, Oxford. Pretty, J. 2011. Agriclutural Sustainability: Concepts, Principles and Evidence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 363 (1491), 447 – 466. UNEP/FAO. 2013. Final post in the series on food waste, for UNEP/FAO World Environment Day 2013. Reduce your foodprint Think. Eat. Save campaign. Available at http://arebelwithacause.org/2013/02/28/think-eatsave5/ Authors: Emilia Chioreso and Rennie Munyayi Desert Research Foundation of Namibia September, 2015 FOR MORE INFORMATION CONTACT THE ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND CLIMATE CHANGE PROJECT: Hanns Seidel Foundation Namibia, House of Democracy, 70-72 Dr Frans Indongo Street, Windhoek West P.O. Box 90912, Klein Windhoek, Windhoek, Namibia Tel: +264 (0) 61 237373 Fax: +264 (0) 61 232142 Email: [email protected] www.enviro-awareness.org.na #6 FACT SHEET ON: Green Economy The purpose of this fact sheet is to pose some compelling questions and present answers to explain what is a green economy and why it is important for Namibia. “We are determined to build a nation in which no Namibian will be left out….” An excerpt from the State of the Nation Address by H.E President HAGE G. GEINGOB on the 21st April 2015. Introduction When Presidents speak, they pronounce policies, which are guidelines that shape, among others: economic growth, employment creation and poverty alleviation. To better understand this statement by the President, is important to pose some rhetorical questions: • • • What is a green economy? The green economy is an economy that results in improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities. In other words, it is an economy that generates jobs, alleviates poverty, and creates wealth for the country. Social equity means, among other things, that jobs that are created and wealth that is generated by the economy are accessible to and equally shared by all Namibians (i.e. this presents a meaning of “no Namibian should be left behind”). Finally since the green economy is environmental friendly, it means that our country’s natural resources are used efficiently and sustainably so that future generations will also be able to benefit from natural resources. FUNDAMENTAL DIMENSIONS OF A GREEN ECONOMY What did the President actually mean when he said no Namibian should be left behind? How will the President ensure that no Namibian is left behind? What does that mean for government policy on economic development, employment and poverty alleviation? Well there are no clearcut answers to these rhetorical questions. However, globally and even nationally, economist and development specialist are proposing a new concept of economic development, a new way of thinking, a new way of addressing the persistent challenges that Namibia is facing. This concept is called the green economy. The Green Economy is one of the approaches that can be used to achieve sustainable development. There is no one approach to a green economy. A green economy does not favour one political perspective over another; it is relevant to all economies. A GREEN ECONOMY IS LIKE A FOUR WHEEL VEHICLE that can ensure that Namibia achieves its sustainable development aspirations enshrined in Vision 2030. The speed and direction of the vehicle are informed by government policy on development (i.e. the aspirations of the Namibian President) and the four wheels. Each of those four wheels are important for the speed and direction of the vehicle. The two back wheels represent economic development, the source of jobs and wealth. The left front wheel represents the environment, the right front wheel represents social equity or inclusiveness. The two front wheels ensures that the speed of the two back wheels create wealth and jobs that are socially inclusive. Because the front wheels are guiding the two back wheels, this ensures that our vehicle will neither crash nor have a breakdown during the journey to vision 2030 and beyond. Does Namibia need a Green Economy? Yes, because the country’s economic growth in the last decade has not generated sufficient jobs as it should have. Figure 1, shows a comparison of economic growth (i.e. using real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as an indicator) and unemployment rate. Figure 1 shows that although the economy was growing, jobs were not created, and in some periods, jobs were lost. Namibia’s economic development has not been socially inclusive – some Namibians are being leftout. The Namibia’s Gini coefficient, which shows the extent to which the distribution of income among individuals or households within an economy deviates from a perfectly equal distribution, still stands at 61.3 (World Bank, 2015). This implies that the wealth that the economy has been generating is by far not equally shared among citizens. Furthermore, the quality of jobs in the economy is not good. Based on labour statistics from Namibia Statistics Agency: • 59.9% of jobs in Namibia are in the informal sector. These jobs are characterised by no formal contract, no social security cover, no medical cover, long working hours, etc. Thus, the majority of these jobs can be classified • • as not decent according to the International Labour Organization’s decent work guidelines. 73.9% of employees earn a monthly income of N$7,000 and less. This to some extent means that a large proportion of employees can be classified as the working poor. 64.4% of employees do not have social security, and neither do they have a pension fund. This means that most of the employees are likely to retire to poverty, as they would not have a pension to support their livelihoods. Another implication is that government expenditure on pensions is likely to increase. Finally, the structural growth of the Namibian economy is concentrated in sectors that do not directly support the livelihoods of the majority of the population. The key growth sectors of the Namibian economy (excluding government) are wholesale and retail trade and repairs; financial intermediation and insurance; and real estate and business services. These three sectors support less than 21% of livelihoods in Namibia. Growth in sectors have a marginal direct and indirect impact on incomes of poor households. If growth was realised on sectors such as agriculture and sustainable tourism, significant impact on poverty and income distribution would be achieved. What does all this mean to me? A likely shift in government policy towards a green economy would undoubtedly create new opportunities for businesses (entrepreneurs) and careers. For instance, power deficit in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) is creating opportunities for the renewable energy value chain in the Region. A wide range of skills within the context of the green economy are in high demand in Namibia, and globally. Finally, at the person level the green economy is about a change in behaviour, it calls for more responsibility on how we use our endowed natural resources, it is about sustainably increasing the nation’s wealth for the benefit of all Namibians – current and future. Let us educate ourselves and ensure that no Namibian is left behind! GREEN GROWTH IS ECONOMIC GROWTH THAT IS INCLUSIVE AND ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE Does the green economy exist in Namibia? Yes, economic sectors such as sustainable agriculture, trade in non-timber forestry products, indigenous animal and plant products, (i.e. biotrade), fisheries, renewable energy, waste management and sustainable tourism are examples of green economy in Namibia. These are growing sectors, and have the potential for further growth in the future. These sectors are relatively environmentally friendly, and some of them are inclusive. Based on an estimation from the study of the green economy in Namibia, these sectors contributed about N$10.3 Billion (about 10.8% of GDP) to the Namibia economy in 2012. Based on the 2013 labour force survey, only 3.4% of the total employment in Namibia can be classified as green jobs – these are decent jobs that contribute to preservation and or restoration of the environment. (Source: Poverty-Environment Partnership 2012.) Further Reading For more information about the green economy – current initiatives and progress, visit the Green Economy Initiative (GEI) website which is hosted by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) at http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy A number of informative background papers on the green economy in Namibia can be accessed online on the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) website under: www.green-economynamibia.blogspot.com References: Alexander Toto, Suzanne Thalwitzer. 2009. RTEA Namibia Sectoral Paper – EU sanitary Demands for Red Meat Trade: Impact on Sustainable Development in Namibia. http://www.iisd.org/tkn/research/pub.aspx?id=1194 Barnes J.I, Nhuleipo O., Muteyauli P.I, MacGregor J. 2005. Preliminary economic asset and flow accounts for forest resources in Namibia. www.the-eis.com/data/RDPs/ RDP70.pdf von Oertzen, Detlof. 2009. RTEA Namibia Sectoral Paper – Biochar in Namibia: Opportunities to Convert Bush Encroachment into Carbon offsets. http://www.iisd.org/ tkn/research/pub.aspx?id=1192 Namibia Statistics Agency (2013). National Labour Force Survey Report Namibia Statistics Agency (2013). National Accounts UNEP Green Economy Reports http://www.unep.org/ greeneconomy/ UNEP (2014). Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication. http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/Portals/88/ documents/ger/ger_final_dec_2011/Green%20 EconomyReport_Final_Dec2011.pdf World Bank (2015). Gini Index (World bank estimate). Glossary Broad Unemployment All persons within the economically active population or working age group who meet the following two criteria irrespective of whether or not they are actively seeking work: (i) being without work; and (ii) being available for work. Decent Jobs These are jobs that are productive and deliver a fair income, security in the workplace and social protection for families, better prospects for personal development and social integration, freedom for people to express their concerns, organise and participate in the decisions that affect their lives and equality of opportunity and treatment of all women and men. Ecological Scarcities An all-encompassing concept that is used to explain how the loss of relationships between organisms and the environment, and organisms with other organisms, will affect economic development. Green Jobs A human intervention to reduce the human-induced Decent jobs that reduce negative environmental impact, and ultimately lead to environmentally, economically and socially sustainable enterprises and economies. Gini Coefficient This is an index that measures the extent to which the distribution of income (or, in some cases, consumption expenditure) among individuals or households within an economy deviates from a perfectly equal distribution. A Gini coefficient of 0 represents perfect equality, while a coefficient of 1 implies perfect inequality. Gross Domestic Product This is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any product taxes and minus any subsidies not included in the value of the products. It is a widely used indicator for economic growth. Social Equity This is not a concise term, it is a concept whose meaning depends on the context in which it is used. In this fact sheet, social equity is defined to include the universal fulfilment of the most fundamental human needs along with broad access to meaningful work, while respecting the enormous range of life circumstances and personal goals which may drive people to seek different kinds of livelihood. Sustainable Development This is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?page=1 Author: Mwala Lubinda Desert Research Foundation of Namibia October, 2015 FOR MORE INFORMATION CONTACT THE ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND CLIMATE CHANGE PROJECT: Hanns Seidel Foundation Namibia, House of Democracy, 70-72 Dr Frans Indongo Street, Windhoek West P.O. Box 90912, Klein Windhoek, Windhoek, Namibia Tel: +264 (0) 61 237373 Fax: +264 (0) 61 232142 Email: [email protected] www.enviro-awareness.org.na #7 FACT SHEET ON: Land Degradation IMPLICATIONS FOR FOOD SECURITY IN NAMIBIA This fact sheet seeks to discuss what land degradation is, and how it impacts on food security in Namibia. Introduction Land degradation is a growing problem in drylands world-wide (UNEP, 1999), as it generally signifies the temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land. There are various human activities that contribute to land degradation which include unsustainable agricultural land use, poor soil and water management practices, deforestation, removal of natural vegetation, frequent use of heavy machinery, overgrazing, improper crop rotation and poor irrigation practices. Natural disasters, including drought, floods and landslides also contribute to land degradation. In 2013, at the Eleventh Conference of Parties to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the fact that degraded areas amount to one quarter of usable land on earth was raised as a significant concern, and critically the issue is particularly severe in dryland regions. With increasing global population figures and decreasing land availability and quality, the need to ensure sustainability while intensifying productivity on land already in use cannot be overstated. This will contribute to ensuring food security, especially of vulnerable rural communities who are at risk because of limited livelihood options and with a high reliance on natural resources, but it will also combat the far reaching damage that human activity and environmental trends are having on land degradation all over the world. “Global efforts to halt and reserve land degradation are integral to creating the future we want. Sustainable land use is a prerequisite for lifting billions from poverty, enabling food and nutrition security, and safeguarding water supplies. It is a cornerstone of sustainable development. The people who live in the world’s arid lands, which occupy more than 40 percent of our planet’s land area, are among the poorest and most vulnerable to hunger.” (UN Secretary-General Ban Ki Moon) DEGRADED AREAS AMOUNT TO ONE QUARTER OF USABLE LAND ON EARTH NAMIBIA IS STATED TO BE THE DRIEST COUNTRY IN SUBSAHARAN AFRICA, WITH 92% OF ITS LAND CONSIDERED SEMIARID, ARID OR HYPER-ARID, AND HENCE LAND DEGRADATION IS A SERIOUS ISSUE IN THE COUNTRY ONLY ABOUT A THIRD OF THE COUNTRY’S FOOD REQUIREMENTS ARE PRODUCED LOCALLY, AND THE REMAINING TWO-THIRDS ARE IMPORTED TO MEET THE FOOD REQUIREMENTS Namibia is stated to be the driest country in subSaharan Africa, with 92% of its land considered semi-arid, arid or hyper-arid, and hence land degradation is a serious issue in the country - a situation that is further compounded by climate change. It is also important to note that the climatic conditions in Namibia are highly wvariable, fragile and unpredictable (Seely, Hines and Marsh, 1995). In addition, 70% of the rural population are subsistence farmers (DRFN, 2008 and Mendelsohn et al., 2002). The subsistence farmers in centralnorthern Namibia rely on rain-fed crop and livestock production for their livelihood. Therefore, these changes affect them most, thus increasing their vulnerability. Seely and Jacobson (1994) cite that reduction in vegetation cover and subsequent stripping of the soil following intensive grazing can be found in all regions but in particular, in the Erongo, Kunene and central-northern regions of the country. The situation in Namibia is worsened by the fact that only about a third of the country’s food requirements are produced locally, and the remaining two-thirds are imported to meet the food requirements of the nation (Cotthem, 2008). The country does not have any significant influence on global food prices, thus in economic terms Namibia is a ‘price taker’, which leaves the country vulnerable to sharp price fluctuations for cereals and food in general on the global market. Overgrazing - Uncertainty about land reform leading to short-term profit maximisation; low profitability leading to overstocking; and drought relief subsidies which encourage farmers not to destock when the veld condition declines (Dewdney, 1996). Deforestation - Wood is the primary energy source for at least 60% of Namibia’s population. In Zambezi Region 96% of all households use wood for fuel and 80% of all dwellings are made from wood (Ashley and La Franchi, 1997; Mendelsohn and Roberts, 1997). The largest contribution to deforestation emanates from land clearing for agriculture. Deforestation, particularly if it occurs along rivers, impacts heavily on the healthy functioning of wetland ecosystems and is a major cause of soil erosion, declining water quality and flood control (Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 2005). Lack of secure tenure over natural resources - Without secure tenure there is little incentive for communal farmers to conserve rangelands, prevent soil erosion and limit stock numbers. Strategies to combat land degradation and desertification Human population pressure - which results in increasing demand for natural resources (land, wood, water, minerals). There are several opportunities and prospects to diminish land degradation such as: reforestation, adopting sustainable agricultural practices; and creating alternative livelihoods (e.g. ecotourism). It may be stated that for there to be any visible changes there has to be an enabling environment that has removed technical, political, legal, cultural, social, and environmental barriers. These complementary actions must further be sustainably and economically viable, locally targeted and based on economic incentives (ELD, 2013). Poverty and over-dependence on natural resources – poor subsistence communities tend to overly rely on natural resources for their livelihood especially when, in the absence of education, technical aid, credit or employment, they have no choice. This leads to increasing rates of soil erosion, deforestation and overexploitation of wild plants and animals. At a global level, it is important to recognise the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), which by the start of 2001 was ratified by 172 countries marking a turning point in international policy and demonstrating a growing awareness of the importance assigned to the problems of desertification (UNESCO, 2015). The objectives of the UNCCD are to improve Causes of land degradation/desertification There are various reasons that exacerbate land degradation, and these are listed in brief below: land productivity, to restore (or preserve) land, to establish more efficient water usage and to introduce sustainable development in the affected areas and more generally, improve the living conditions of those populations affected by drought and desertification. Impacts of environmental degradation on yield and food According to FAO, food security “exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”. Household food security is the application of this concept to the family level, with individuals within households as the focus of concern. Where there is no food security, this impacts greatly on the nutrition levels of the people concerned, their wellbeing and livelihood. The natural environment, with all its ecosystem services, comprises the entire basis for life on the planet. The state of environment has effects on food production through its role in water, minerals, soils, climate and weather. The state of ecosystems also influences the abundance of pathogens, weeds, and pests all of which have a direct bearing on the quality of available cropland, yields and harvests. Land degradation and conversion of cropland for non-food production including bio-fuels and cotton are major threats that could reduce the available cropland by 8-20% by 2050 (UNEP). In countries such as Namibia the combined effects of competition of land from growing populations, reduced opportunity for migration and rotation along with higher livestock densities, result in frequent overgrazing and hence loss of long term productivity (Bai et al., 2007). It is estimated that land degradation causes a loss of grain worth USD1.2 billion yearly. All over the world, there is loss of cropland area being experienced from loss of land to other uses (such as increasing urbanisation) and land degradation; about 2 billion ha of the world’s agricultural land have been degraded because of deforestation and inappropriate agricultural practices (Pinstrup- Andersen and Pandya-Lorch, 1998). Despite global improvements on some parts of the land, unsustainable land use practices result in net losses of cropland productivity – an average of 0.2% per year. National Approaches The Government of Namibia formulated an EcoSystems Conservation and Protection programme with the objective to improve conditions of food security and nutrition by ensuring the long term sustainable use of the environment and natural resources and conservation of forest, wildlife and Namibia’s fragile eco-system. The Government of Namibia was part of the Country Pilot Partnership Programme (CPP) which was adopted in 2008 with support from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and financing from the Global Environmental Fund (GEF). The CPP programme focused on the development and testing of integrated sustainable land management (SLM) practices that would help Namibia combat its chronic land degradation, manifested through vegetation, habitat and soil productivity losses, particularly as the threats of climate change are expected to bring additional multiple challenges. Additionally the Government of Namibia outlines its policy direction with The Green Plan, National Development Plan 4 and Vision 2030. Namibia’s 10-year Strategic Plan of Action for Sustainable Development through Biodiversity Conservation, reflecting targets such as healthy, productive land with reduced pollution from agriculture and industry, together with productive, diverse and stable farmland and ecosystems which are socially, economically and ecologically sustainable. In spite of past national policy approaches and programmes, it is everyone’s responsibility (from the household level to national policy institutions) to ensure that more concerted efforts are directed towards alleviating land degradation; desertification; and redressing poor agricultural practices because food insecurity does not only affect one individual, but it affects us all as a nation in one way or the other - for example through demands on the nation’s budget thereby also affecting tax payers and other budgetary requirements. Glossary References: Land Degradation Under the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) “land degradation” means reduction or loss, in arid and dry sub-humid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rain-fed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest and woodlands, resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns (www.unccd.int). Ashley, C. and LaFranchi, C. (1997) Livelihood strategies for rural livelihood in Caprivi: Implications for conservancies and natural resource management, DEA Research Discussion Paper No. 20. Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Windhoek. Overgrazing Overgrazing can be defined as the practice of grazing too many livestock for too long a period on land unable to recover its vegetation, or of grazing ruminants on land not suitable for grazing as a result of certain physical parameters such as its slope www.fao.org. Desert Research Foundation of Namibia. (2008). Climate Change Vulnerability Adaptation Assessment Namibia. Windhoek: Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Crop Rotation The system of growing a sequence of different crops on the same ground so as to maintain or increase its fertility www.dictionary.reference.com/browse/ crop+rotation. Desertification A human intervention to reduce the human-induced UNCCD defines desertification as land degradation occurring in arid, semi-arid, dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climate variations and human activities (www.unccd.int/). Deforestation Deforestation implies the long-term or permanent loss of forest cover and implies transformation into another land use such as areas of forest converted to agriculture, pasture, water reservoirs and urban areas (FAO 2001). Land Tenure Land tenure is the relationship, whether legally or customarily defined, among people, as individuals or groups, with respect to land. It defines how access is granted to rights to use, control, and transfer land, as well as associated responsibilities and restraints (FAO, 2002). Ecosystem An ecosystem is a natural system consisting of all plants, animals and microorganisms (biotic factors) in an area functioning together with all the nonliving physical (abiotic) factors of the environment (Christopherson, 1997). Christopherson, R. W. (1997). Geosystems: an introduction to physical geography. Upper Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall. Cotthem, W. V. (2008) Namibia: Addressing Food Security and Increasing Food Prices. Available at https://desertification.wordpress.com/2008/12/20/ namibia-addressing-food-security-and-increasing-food-prices-google-newera/ Dewdney (1996) Dewdney, R. (1996). Policy Factors and DesertificationAnalysis and Proposals. Windhoek: Namibian Programme to Combat Desertification, Steering Committee. Eleventh Conference of Parties. (2013). The Economics of land degradation initiative, United Nations Convention to combat desertification, Windhoek. Available at www.ELD-initiative.org FAO (2001). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000. Main Report. FAO (2002). Land Tenure and Rural Development, Rome: FAO. Mendelsohn, J. and Roberts, C. (1997) An environment profile and atlas of Caprivi, Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek. Mendelsohn, J., Jarvis, A., and Robert., C. (2002). ‘Atlas of Namibia: A Portrait of the land and Its People’. Cape Town: Philip Publishers. Ministry of Environment and Tourism. (2005). Policy review on issues pertinent to the improvement of land management and biodiversity conservation in Namibia. Available at www.met.gov.na Pinstrup-Andersen, P and Pandya-Lorch, R. (1998). Food security and sustainable use of natural resources: A 2020 Vision, Ecological Economics, Volume 26 (1), p1-10. Seely, M. K., Hines, C. and Marsh, A. C. (1995). Effects of Human Activities on the Namibian Environment as a Factor in Drought Susceptibility. In Moorsom, R., Franz, J., and. Mupotola, M (eds). Coping with Aridity: Drought Impacts and Preparedness in Namibia, Frankfurt: Brandes and Apsel. UNEP. (1999). World resources 1998–1999, Oxford University Press, Oxford. www.businessdictionary.com www.dictionary.reference.com/browse/desertification www.fao.org www.wwf.org.au www.unccd.int Authors: Emilia Chioreso and Ben Begbie-Clench Desert Research Foundation of Namibia October, 2015 FOR MORE INFORMATION CONTACT THE ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND CLIMATE CHANGE PROJECT: Hanns Seidel Foundation Namibia, House of Democracy, 70-72 Dr Frans Indongo Street, Windhoek West P.O. Box 90912, Klein Windhoek, Windhoek, Namibia Tel: +264 (0) 61 237373 Fax: +264 (0) 61 232142 Email: [email protected] www.enviro-awareness.org.na #8 FACT SHEET ON: Forests, Rangelands and Climate Change in Namibia The purpose of this factsheet is to provide an overview of the status of issues and actions related to the adaptation to climate change of forest, woodlands and rangeland resources in Namibia. Introduction Namibia, one of the driest countries in the world, has 20% of its surface area (16 million ha) covered by dry forests and woodlands mainly contained in the north eastern region of the country (UNDP/ GEF, 2014). However, the dryland forest resources are under high pressure from agriculture and livestock production. The consequent deforestation and degradation as a result of crop and livestock farming is leading to loss of ecosystem goods and services which form the livelihood support for rural communities and which support economic development, and maintain a variety of endemic and economic plant and animal populations. Namibia’s vulnerability to climate change Namibia is vulnerable to climate change for several reasons, which are explained below: • • • Namibia receives low but highly variable rainfall (25 - 700mm) and is characterised by high temperatures that range from 30C to 400C (Mendelsohn, et al., 2002). Namibia’s climate for the rest of this century will become warmer and drier due to climate change. Seasonal rainfall patterns will be more erratic and Namibia will experience droughts more frequently. Evaporation is anticipated to rise by 5% per degree of warming (MAWF, 2012). Agriculture is the predominant land use in • • • Namibia, and 70% of the population depends directly or indirectly on the natural rangeland resource for their economic well-being and food security. The diverse rangelands, and arable land make up a valuable natural resource base on which the economy of Namibia depends (Karuaihe et al., 2007). These diverse ecosystems provide goods and services that are valuable to both the livelihoods of all Namibians at local as well as national level. Total population is expected to grow by 66% by 2031. Such an increase in population will exert more pressure on the land and other resources. This will worsen the vulnerability of many people as well as natural resources to impacts of climate change (Kuvare et al., 2008). Poverty, lack of income and lack of employment opportunities greatly exacerbate the vulnerability of households to impacts of climate change (Dirkx et al., 2008) because these factors influence the resilience of households to cope with impacts of climate change. Namibia is a world leader in the Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) programme that addresses both sustainable natural resource management and use and socio-economic development (Long et al., 2004). The conservancy approach has led to an increase in wildlife, generation of income for local communities and creation of new jobs (NACSO, 2007). For instance, in 2006, consumptive use of wildlife generated about N$8.3 million from conservancies in Namibia. The above indicates that the economy of Namibia largely depends on its natural resources. Most predicted impacts of climate change will adversely affect natural resources. This makes Namibia very vulnerable to impacts of climate change. Economic, social and environmental functions of forest cover • • • Forests purify the air, preserve catchments and improve water quality and quantity. In addition, forests stabilize soil and prevent erosion, provide natural resources such as timber products and medicinal plants, and are home to many of the world’s most endangered wildlife species. Forests help to protect the planet from climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide (CO2), a major greenhouse gas. In Namibia, direct use of forest resources is largely from harvesting of fuel wood and poles for construction of houses and fences FUELWOOD NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS • • • (mostly consumed by rural households), and consumption of other forest products for craft production, food, medicine and cosmetics (UNDP/GEF, 2014). Domestic forest resources contribute indirectly to arable farming through conservation of soil fertility and water, which is extremely vital given the countries low use of commercial fertilisers and the harshness of the climate. An additional environmental function of forest resources is its support of biological diversity, genetic material and their ability to sequester (absorb) carbon. The current genetic material stored by forest resources and their contribution to agricultural production and medicinal production is vital to the economy. FIGURE 1: Services Provided by Forests and Woodlands BIODIVERSITY CLIMATE REGULATION INDUSTRIAL WOOD WATER PROTECTION SOIL PROTECTION BIOSPHERIC RESOURCE SPIRITUAL FOREST SERVICES ECOLOGICAL AMENITIES CULTURAL SOCIAL HEALTH PROTECTION HISTORICAL SPORT, FISHING, HUNTING ECOTOURISM RECREATION Vulnerability of forests and forest communities to climate change Current trends in deforestation, degradation and damage to ecosystem services in forests and rangelands have been accompanied by a decline in supply of many forest services. These impacts are felt most acutely by rural communities living in or near forests, who suffer a decline in livelihood resources and well-being (Byron and Arnold, 1999). Similar to the global trend, vulnerability of forests in Namibia is as a result of deforestation and desertification; frequent forest fires; changes in forest types, species composition and distribution; and the disappearance of medicinal plants (UNDP/ GEF, 2014). A vulnerability assessment of the Okongo Community Forest and Conservancy done by Munyayi et al., (2014), shows that the most relevant threats affecting forests and specifically community forests are mainly related to changes of the local climate and inadequate human management as shown in table 1 on the next page. UNCONTROLLED VELD FIRES Increasing uncontrolled fires remain one of the key threats to the ecosystem. The constant occurrence of man-induced fires is reducing the productive capacity of the land, damaging property and infrastructure, and destroying resources such as grass for grazing and thatching as well as valuable wood and even wildlife. The most detrimental effects of fire are limiting the recruitment of young trees, killing older and larger trees and/or damaging larger trees. This leads to a change of the forests towards a more savannah-like vegetation and ultimately to the complete loss of vegetation. Loss of trees is posing a serious threat to habitats, carbon sinks capacities and to hydrological and nutrient cycles. Forest resources are harvested to meet various household needs providing both direct and indirect values to rural communities. Loss of forest resources within the Okongo Ecosystem Complex is largely driven by unsustainable harvesting of forest resources for the construction of houses, fences for agricultural fields and kraals. In addition, the key contributing factors, which are driving vulnerabilities in the Okongo Ecosystem Complex, are not related to the ecosystem directly but rather are related to governance systems, poverty and poor targeting of knowledge and awareness raising interventions. Impacts of Climate Change in Namibia In Namibia, some of the expected impacts include livestock losses, reduced grain/ crop production and yields and severe water scarcity due to droughts and increased temperatures. Projections show that rangeland degradation will negatively influence the livelihoods of a large portion of the Namibian nation and will result in a downward trend in the ability of farmers to produce food (MAWF, 2013). Degradation of rangelands in the country are attributed to poor rangeland management practices. This includes too many people and livestock in one place for too long, land clearing for crop farming and in many cases the application of inappropriate cultivation techniques; inappropriate provision of artificial water points and poor range management associated with them; and overexploitation linked to insecure land tenure arrangements. Climate change adaptation measures for forest and woodland management Without adaptation, further climate change combined with factors such as deforestation, forest and rangeland degradation, habitat fragmentation, poor forest and rangeland management and extreme weather events threaten plants and animals. Healthy forests and rangelands are critical both to mitigating climate change and helping people and communities adjust to the impacts of climate change. Table 2 presents forest and woodland management options that promote resilience, reduce vulnerability and enhance adaptation. TABLE 2: Climate Change Adaptation Measures TOPIC ADAPTATION MEASURES I. Food security and sustainable resource base Reassess the location of conservation areas and seed banks; breed pest-resistant genotypes; determine the adaptability of genotypes and their responses to climate change II. Forest protection Manage forest fire and pests to reduce disturbance; restore destroyed forest; protect trees from disease III. Forest regeneration Use drought-tolerant genotypes; use artificial regeneration; control invasive species IV. Silvicultural management Selectively remove poorly adapted trees; adjust rotation periods; manage forest density; adjust species composition and forest structure V. Non-wood resources Minimize habitat fragmentation; conserve wildlife; maintain primary forests and the diversity of functional groups VI. Park and wilderness area management Conserve biodiversity; maintain connectivity between protected areas; employ adaptive management Source: Kleine, Buck and Eastaugh, 2010, adapted from Spittlehouse and Stewart, 2003 and Kalame et al., 2009 OVERGRAZING The carrying capacity of the land for livestock has been exceeded. Grazing in the open common areas, where years of overgrazing have led to poor pastures, indigenous perennial and climax grasses have long disappeared from these open areas. Grass species richness and evenness in the degraded lands has decreased over time with a few undesired species dominating in the rangelands. LOSS OF TREES TABLE 1: Key threats to the Okongo Community Forest Conclusion As weather patterns become more unpredictable and extreme, the role of forest, woodland and rangeland ecosystems in regulating watershed quality and quantity, rainfall, erosion and other services will be increasingly important for sustaining agriculture, energy production, and drinkable water supplies. Thus the urgent call for conservation of these resources, not just for today but also for Namibia’s future generations. Glossary Climate Change Long-term changes to global climate such as increases in temperature, rainfall and increased frequency of drought and flooding due to significant departure of the earth’s climate from average weather conditions. Food security A situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (FAO. 2002). Rangeland Land on which the indigenous vegetation is predominantly grasses, grass-like plants, forbs, or shrubs and is managed as a natural ecosystem. Woodland The type of land cover characterized by trees and shrubs. Forest Ecosystems that are dominated by trees (defined as perennial woody plants taller than 5 metres at maturity), where the tree crown cover exceeds 10% and the area is larger than 0.5 hectares (FAO 2000, 2001a, 2001b). References: Byron, R.N. and J.E.M. Arnold, (1999) What futures for the people of the tropical forests? World Development, 27 (5), 789–805. FAO, (2001a). Forest Resources Assessment homepage. Available on the Internet www.fao.org/forestry/fo/fra/index/jsp. FAO, (2001b). Global Forest Resources Assessment. (2000) Main Report. FAO Forestry Paper 140, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 482 pp. Karuaihe, S., Mfune, J.K., Kakujaha-Matundu O. and E. Naimwhaka (2007). MDG7 and Climate Change: challenges and opportunities: Namibia Country study. Prepared for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Kuvare, U., Maharero, T., and Kamupingene, G. (2008) Research on Farming systems Change to enable adaptation to Climate change. Prepared for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Mendelsohn, J. and el Obeid, S. (2005) Forests and Woodlands of Namibia. Directorate of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry, Windhoek, Namibia. Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry. (2011) A Forest Research Strategy for Namibia (2011–2015). Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry, Windhoek, Namibia Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry (MAWF). (2012) National Rangeland Management Policy (Part I) & Strategy (Part II): Restoring Namibia’s Rangelands June 2012, Windhoek: MAWF Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET). (2011a) ‘National Policy on Climate Change for Namibia 2011’, Windhoek: MET. Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET). (2011b) Namibia Second National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, July 2011, Windhoek: MET. Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET). (2012) Draft Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan for Namibia, Windhoek: MET. Mfune, J.K. and Ndombo, B. (2005) An Assessment of the capacity and needs required to implement Article 6 of the United Nations Framework on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Namibia. Prepared for The Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Government of Namibia Munyayi, R. Kinyaga, V. Lubinda, M. Mutota, E. Faschina, N. Tischtau, C. and Schick, A. (2014) Strategic analysis of risks and vulnerability by applying the MARISCO method on Okongo Conservancy and Community Forest & Omufituwekuta Community Forest, Namibia. Prepared for Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GIZ). Spittlehouse, D.L. & Stewart, R.B. (2003) Adaptation to climate change in forest management. Journal of Ecosystems and Management, 4(1): 1–11. UNDP/GEF. (2014) Sustainable Management of Namibia’s Forested Lands (NAFOLA), Windhoek Authors: Rennie Munyayi Desert Research Foundation of Namibia October, 2015 FOR MORE INFORMATION CONTACT THE ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND CLIMATE CHANGE PROJECT: Hanns Seidel Foundation Namibia, House of Democracy, 70-72 Dr Frans Indongo Street, Windhoek West P.O. Box 90912, Klein Windhoek, Windhoek, Namibia Tel: +264 (0) 61 237373 Fax: +264 (0) 61 232142 Email: [email protected] www.enviro-awareness.org.na #9 FACT SHEET ON: Renewable Energy SHIFTING ENERGY SYSTEMS IN NAMIBIA TOWARDS A MORE SUSTAINABLE PATH selected sustainable energy systems in Namibia. Introduction The coal, oil, and natural gas that power the majority of electricity generation produce more than one-third of global greenhouse gas emissions. More than 1.3 billion people worldwide still lack access to the electricity they need to raise their standard of living, and experts predict that climate change will worsen the situation. In Namibia, most of the energy is consumed in the transport sector and most of the Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions produced by Namibia’s energy sector comes from transportation. The second largest CO2 emission source is fishing, followed by industry, electricity generation and others. According to energy statistics the total CO2 emissions from Namibia’s energy use were 2800 ktCO2 in 2011 (Rämä et al., 2013). The amount of CO2 emissions from the energy sector has been increasing by approximately 4 % per year, on a world scale. According to the Regional power status of Africa 2010 report, Namibia generates about 1,305 GWh, while it consumes more than 3000 GWh per annum. Namibia imports power from South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique to cover the supply gap of electricity between what is generated locally and what is required for the country’s economic activities. (National Planning Commission, 2013). SOMETHING TO REFLECT ON … MAJOR SOURCES OF COMMERCIAL ENERGY IN NAMIBIA ARE: OF ENERGY USED IN NAMIBIA IS IMPORTED AND OF ELECTRICITY IS IMPORTED IN 2009. OF THE POPULATION HAD ACCESS TO ELECTRICITY IN 2009. Source: VO Consulting, 2012 The purpose of this Factsheet is to showcase FIGURE 1: Electricity supply in Namibia between 2000 to 2011 in GWh (Source: Rämä et al., 2013) Renewable Power Production Clean Energy Sources in Namibia Renewable power production will play a significant role in energy systems in years to come. The shift to clean energy offers an opportunity to prevent the worst impacts of climate change, while lessening the toll that fossil fuels have on communities and vital ecosystems. Measures to develop clean energy in Namibia, which reduce greenhouse gas emissions, while also stimulating innovation and promoting growth and jobs, include the following: Namibia is well placed to lead the clean energy development pathway. The country is endowed with natural resources required for (renewable) energy supplies from the sun, wind and biomass from invader bush. These renewable energy resources provide the country with a comparative advantage in terms of supporting clean energy and socio-economic development. The current productive use of these resources is limited, but there is a growing pool of knowledgethat has been developed since Independence in 1990 to inform scaling-up the use of renewable energy and energy efficient technologies. Ruacana is a hydroelectric power station on the Kunene River, which has a generation capacity of 332 MW. It is a run-of-river power station, meaning that its ability to generate electricity remains dependent on continuous water flows from Angola. In the absence of sufficient water flow, Ruacana cannot generate and feed electrical energy into Namibia’s national electricity grid. Plans are underway to develop the 600MW Baynes hydropower plant of which 300 MW will be for Namibia, and the 100MW Orange River project Hydropower (Rämä et al., 2013). FIGURE 2: Ruacana hydropower station To date, the country has about 30,000 wind water pumps installed throughout the country – ranking second on the African continent. There is currently one wind turbine (220 kW) installed which feeds the electricity distribution grid in Erongo Region. Other areas with excellent wind energy potential are the Lüderitz and Hantiesbay areas. Even though there is potential for wind energy growth in Namibia, there is still the concern of wind fluctuations, which may disrupt electricity generation. Thus, further research and investment is required to ensure efficient generation of wind energy in the country. FIGURE 3: 220 kW Wind Energy turbine at Walvis Bay Wind Energy Wind turbines transform the wind’s kinetic energy into electrical energy. Namibia has very favourable wind conditions with long coastlines measuring 1,572 km. Wind energy in the country is sufficient to be harvested and put to good use, however in Namibia the wind energy industry has not been fully developed. Solar Energy Namibia has one of the best solar regimes in the world with an average high direct insolation of 2,200 kWh/m2/a and minimal cloud cover. The southern parts of the country easily experience up to 11 hours of sunshine per day and recorded direct solar radiation of 3,000 kWh/m2/year (IET 1999; cited by Willemse 2004). Solar water heaters, solar photovoltaic technologies, and concentrated solar power plants can contribute to reduce the country’s electricity supply gap. FIGURE 4: An aerial view of the Omburu solar power plant and the Omburu sub station. NAMIBIA’S FIRST INDEPENDENT POWER PRODUCER (IPP) In May 2015, a 4.5 MWp Photovoltaic solar power plant was inaugurated in Omaruru. The ‘Omburu solar power plant’, owned by Franco-Namibian company InnoSun, is the country’s first local Independent Power Producer (IPP). It is projected to generate about 13 500 000 kWh of electricity per year, which represents 1% of the electricity generation in Namibia, and caters for the basic domestic consumption of 20 000 Namibian households (NamPower, 2015). FIGURE 5: Solar PV array of Namibia’s largest solar-diesel hybrid system at Tsumkwe One of the major solar PV applications in Namibia is solar water pumping (PVP) that takes place on cattle farms. Solar PV is also used for rural access to modern energy. It consists of a small system equipped with an inverter and a storage system (batteries) that provide enough electricity for lighting, radio, TV or fans. Households with substantial electricity consumption can utilise larger solar home systems. Bush-to-electricity Significant areas in northern Namibia are infested by invader bush (de Klerk, 2004). Thorny bush and shrub species grow in such abundance that they have a significant effect on the growth of grasses and less prevalent species of bushes and shrubs (Bester, 1998). Such vegetation also dramatically reduces the essential recharge of underground water resources. However, the bush encroachment problem creates possibilities POWER CONSUMPTION OF SOME ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES LCD TV: 30 - 300 W FIGURE 6: Bush to electricity demonstration plant for larger scale bioenergy production in Namibia (NEI, unpublished). Power plants fuelled by biomass from invader bush would have electricity generation characteristics similar to traditional coal-fired power plants (VO Consulting, 2012). The Desert Research Foundation of Namibia piloted the use of invader bush for larger scale energy production, with support from the Europe Union, in a project titled ‘Combating Bush Encroachment for Namibia’s Development’ (CBEND). The project installed the first bush to electricity demonstration plant (250 kW). The technology uses wood gasification and is fuelled by a variety of encroacher bush species. Conclusion The renewable energy sector in Namibia is in a critical development stage. Currently the focus is mostly on eliminating barriers to making the usage of renewable energy technologies more universal in everyday life. In order to successfully shift Namibia’s energy systems to a sustainable development path, more investment should be made in the renewable energy sector in order to improve the economic viability of renewable energy technologies. DESKTOP PC: 300 - 400 W LAPTOP: 40 - 60 W REFRIGERATOR: 150 - 300 W MICROWAVE: 150 - 300 W AIR CONDITIONER: 1 - 2 KW Simplified definitions and conversion units • • • • • Watt is the unit of power (symbol: W). One watt is defined as the energy consumption rate of one joule per second. The kilowatt hour (symbol kWh, kW·h, or kW h) is a unit of energy equal to 1,000 watt-hours, or 3.6 megajoules. An electric heater rated at 1000 watts (1 kilowatt), operating for one hour uses one kilowatt-hour (equivalent to 3.6 megajoules) of energy. A television rated at 100 watts operating for 10 hours continuously uses one kilowatt-hour. A 40-watt light bulb operating continuously for 25 hours uses one kilowatt-hour. References: Bester. B, 1998. Major Problem – Bush Species and Densities in Namibia. Agricola 10: 1-3, 1998. Colin, Christian and Associates, 2010. The Effect of Bush Encroachment on Groundwater Resources in Namibia: A Desk Top Study. Namibia Agricultural Union. Deutsche Energie ConsultIng enieurs gesellschaft mbH,1999. Project Studies for Wind Parks in Walvis Bay and Lüderitz, Project No 97.2119.4-001.02, Terna Namibia, VN 81015042, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). Konrad et al, 2013. Namibia’s Energy future. A Case for Renewables. de Klerk, 2004. Bush Encroachment in Namibia. Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Windhoek, Namibia National Planning Commission, 2013. Energy Demand and Forecasting in Namibia - Energy for Economic Development Available at: http://www.npc.gov.na/?wpfb_dl=229 Accessed 15 September 2015. M. et al., 2013. Development of Namibian energy sector Available at: http://www.vtt.fi/inf/julkaisut/muut/2013/vtt-r-07599-13.pdf Accessed 15 September 2015 Glossary: Renewable energy Renewable energy is energy from a source that is not depleted when used, such as wind or solar power. Energy efficiency Energy efficiency is a way of managing and restraining the growth in energy consumption. Biomass Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms. In the context of biomass for energy this is often used to mean plant based material, but biomass can equally apply to both animal and vegetable derived material. Solar photovoltaic technology Solar cells, also called photovoltaic (PV) cells by scientists, convert sunlight directly into electricity. Concentrated solar power Concentrated solar power systems electricity by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight, or solar thermal energy, onto a small area. Electricity is generated when the concentrated light is converted to heat, which drives a heat engine (usually a steam turbine) connected to an electrical power generator or powers a thermochemical reaction. Nampower, 2015. WattsOn NamPower Newsletter, Edition 1 Available at: http://www.nampower.com.na/public/docs/Wattson/ Watts%20On%20Edition%201%202015.pdf Accessed on 31 August 2015 Le Fol, Yoann, 2012. Renewable Energy Transition for a Sustainable Future in Namibia Available at: http://projekter.aau.dk/projekter/files/63642504/ Master_Thesis_Yoann_Le_Fol.pdf Accessed 2 September 2015. Jerome Kisting. J. 2008. Opportunities in the Renewable Energy Sector in Namibia REEP, 2014. Accessed 1 September 2015. http://www.reeep.org/namibia-2014 Abraham. T, 2014. Accessed 1 September 2015. https://www.newera.com.na/2014/08/07/wind-power-project-getsfresh-impetus/ VO Consulting, 2012. Namibia’s energy future a case for renewables Available at: http://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_34264-1522-2-30. pdf?130503123609 Accessed 31 August 2015 Author: Rennie Munyayi Desert Research Foundation of Namibia Co-authors: Dr. Zivayi Chiguvare and Helvi Ileka; Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency, Polytechnic of Namibia September, 2015 FOR MORE INFORMATION CONTACT THE ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND CLIMATE CHANGE PROJECT: Hanns Seidel Foundation Namibia, House of Democracy, 70-72 Dr Frans Indongo Street, Windhoek West P.O. Box 90912, Klein Windhoek, Windhoek, Namibia Tel: +264 (0) 61 237373 Fax: +264 (0) 61 232142 Email: [email protected] www.enviro-awareness.org.na #10 FACT SHEET ON: Conserving Energy PRACTICAL OPTIONS FOR CONSERVING ENERGY AT HOME The purpose of this fact sheet is to share a few practical tips on how to save and conserve electricity in our homes. is extremely important for industrial development in Namibia hence the need for all of us to play our role in conserving it. Introduction SOME SOURCES OF ENERGY Most of us are familiar with the word “energy’. We often say that someone has a lot of energy. But what is energy and how do we all depend on it? Energy is responsible for the growth of food and for providing warmth and light. It keeps people alive, it transports them, provides fuel for their engines and electricity in their homes. Energy is what keeps economies of the worlds running (DRFN, 1992). SOLAR - Sunlight provides us with most of the energy on the planet. WIND - Wind provides energy to turn windmills (to pump water) and turbines (to generate electricity). Today, people are realising that wind power is one of the most Primary energy sources take many forms, including nuclear energy, fossil energy (e.g. oil, coal and natural gas) and renewable sources such as wind, solar and hydropower. These primary sources are converted into electricity, which flows through power lines and other transmission infrastructure to the end user. In Namibia, energy is a composition of liquid fuels, electricity, geothermal energy, gas, coal, solar water heaters and cookers, charcoal and wood (Republic of Namibia, 2013). The most dominant energy sector in Namibia is the liquid fuel, which includes petrol and diesel. It accounts for about 63% of total energy net consumption, followed by electricity with 17% net consumption, followed by coal with 5%. The remaining 15% is from other types of energy such as solar, wood, wind energy among others (Energy White Policy Paper, 1998). Namibia only has 3 major power generation stations, with an installed capacity of about 500 MW. The potential for social and economic development in Namibia depends on the country’s ability to generate adequate energy (DRFN, 1992). Electricity promising energy sources that can serve as an alternative to fossil fuel-generated electricity. ELECTRICITY - It is a secondary source of energy because it is generated by the conversion of a primary source. NUCLEAR - Nuclear power is the use of sustained nuclear fission to generate heat and electricity. Nuclear power plants provide about 6% of the world's energy and 13 to 14% of the world's electricity (US Department of Energy, 2015). I n FOSSIL - These are non-renewable resources that formed when prehistoric plants and animals died and were gradually buried by layers of rock. Over millions of years, different types of fossil fuels formed, depending on what combination of organic matter was present, how long it was buried and what temperature and conditions existed as time passed. pressure Namibia, energy is a composition of liquid fuels, electricity, geothermal energy, gas, coal, solar water heaters and cookers, charcoal and wood (Republic of Namibia, 2013). The most dominant energy sector in Namibia is the liquid fuel, which includes petrol and diesel. It accounts for about 63% of total energy net consumption, followed by electricity with 17% net consumption, followed by coal with 5%. The remaining 15% is from other types of energy such as solar, wood, wind energy among others (Energy White Policy Paper, 1998). Namibia only has 3 major power generation stations, with an installed capacity of about 500 MW. The potential for social and economic development in Namibia depends on the country’s ability to generate adequate energy (DRFN, 1992). Electricity is extremely important for industrial development in Namibia hence the need for all of us to play our role in conserving it. • Use solar energy • • • Electricity Saving Tips • Florescent lamps last 8 to 10 times longer than ordinary bulbs and provide 4 to 5 times the amount of light. LED lights are also becoming very popular. Switch Off • • • Turn the lights off when you leave a room. Never leave your personal computer on when not in use as it burns a large amount of energy. Turn your television off at the wall when not in use. A television on standby is still using 80% of its power. Use natural heat • In summer, use light coloured curtains to reflect the sun and heat outward and use dark Solar water heating can reduce household electricity by about 40-50%. Solar photo-voltaic (PV) panels generate electricity from sunlight. Although a whole house system may be a once-off expensive option, small panels can be used efficiently to power certain appliances in the house. You can bake, boil and steam your family meals using the sun’s energy. The outdoor Sun Oven can cook food at temperatures over 200OC and can be used during all seasons. Be energy savvy with your refrigerator by: Opt for florescent bulbs/low energy light bulbs • coloured curtains in winter to trap heat inside. In winter close your curtains when it starts getting dark to reduce the mount of heat escaping through the windows. • • • • • Do not open the fridge door unnecessarily and make sure the seal around the door is intact. Close the door on a piece of paper, if you can pull the paper easily, the seal should be replaced A refrigerator operates at peak efficiency when filled to capacity, but be sure to leave spaces and gaps between items in order to allow old air to circulate freely When you upgrade or purchase a new fridge or freezer, make sure it is an energy efficient model. An A++ rating denotes the best energy efficiency. If it is practical, place your fridge away from your cooker and make sure it isn’t in direct sunlight - it will operate more efficiently if it’s in a cool spot. Keep your fridge at between 3 and 5°C and your freezer at -18 °C. Maintaining these temperatures consistently will keep your food cool and you energy bills down. Only one tenth of a freezer’s capacity should be used for freezing fresh food at any one time, therefore add a new load of fresh food only after the previous load is completely frozen. • Keep the freezer as full as possible to prevent heavy icing and never allow frost build-up to exceed 0.6 to 1.3cm in thickness Be energy savvy with your cooker(stove) by: • Be energy savvy with your water geyser by: • • • • Install a hot water system as close as possible to the points of most frequent use, usually the kitchen or bathroom, and insulate the hot water pipe properly. Wrap up your geyser. Fitting insulation around your geyser is one of the cheapest and easiest ways to improve your energy efficiency. Set your thermostat at 60OC as your water does not need to be boiling. • • • Use pots and pans with flat bottoms and tight fitting lids and be sure that they completely cover the stove plates. Where possible, cover up your pots and pans. This will help your food to cook more quickly and generates a higher temperature allowing you to turn down the stove. Only use as much water as you need in a pot. Every extra drop requires more energy to heat and will increase the cooking time. Do not open the oven door often to check your food. Each time you open the door the oven temperature drops by 25 degrees. Watch the clock or use a timer instead. Occasionally check the seal on your oven door for cracks or tears. Even a small tear or gap can allow heat to escape. In addition, a clean seal will retain heat more effectively. Glossary: References: Biogas A gas produced by the fermentation of animal and human dung and crop residues. Alternative energy. Alternative energy like the wind. (2015). Available at http://www.altenergy.org/renewables/wind/ Retrieved on 21 September 2015 Biomass Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms. In the context of biomass for energy this is often used to mean plant based material, but biomass can equally apply to both animal and vegetable derived material. Biomass Fuel Any substance which forms part of a living organism or is produced by a living organism, that can provide heat and light by burning. Convert To change from one thing or state to another. Efficiency A measure of how much energy applied to a device is converted into useful work. DRFN .(1992). Burning the candle at both ends. Energy and the Namibian environment Republic of Namibia - Ministry of Mines and Energy, (1998). Energy White Policy Paper. Republic of Namibia – National Planning Commission. (2013). Energy Demand and Forecasting in Namibia. Energy for economic Development Namibia Ministry of Mines and Energy. (2010). Rural electrification in Namibia – Bringing electricity to rural communities An information brochure United states Department of Energy. Energy sources. (2015). Available at http://energy.gov/science-innovation/energy-sources Retrieved on 19 September 2015 Electricity A type of energy. A type of electric current for lighting, heating etc. Energy The capacity to do work. Insulator A substance which does not efficiently conduct heat or an electric current. Organism Anything that is living. Renewable Source A natural resource that, through careful management, will replace itself as fast as it is used. The term is also used to describe energy sources that will never run out like wind, and solar. Author: Greater Mukumbira Desert Research Foundation of Namibia October, 2015 FOR MORE INFORMATION CONTACT THE ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND CLIMATE CHANGE PROJECT: Hanns Seidel Foundation Namibia, House of Democracy, 70-72 Dr Frans Indongo Street, Windhoek West P.O. Box 90912, Klein Windhoek, Windhoek, Namibia Tel: +264 (0) 61 237373 Fax: +264 (0) 61 232142 Email: [email protected] www.enviro-awareness.org.na