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IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide KnowledgeCheckanswers PLEASENOTE:Thisdocumentcontainssuggestedmodelanswersthatwouldachieveagoodmark ifprovidedinanexam.Theyaredesignedtohelpguideandinstructyoubutshouldnotbe considereddefinitive. PLEASEALSONOTE:Thesuggestedessayanswersarefor12markanswers.Moreevaluationis requiredwhenanswering16markessayquestions-oneortwofurthercriticalpoints. 1.Socialinfluence P11 1 Internalisationiswhenapersongenuinelyacceptsgroupnorms.Thisresultsinaprivateaswellaspublicchange ofopinions/behaviour.Thischangepersistsintheabsenceofgroupmembers. Identificationiswhenwewanttobecomepartofgroupwevaluesowepublicallychangeouropinions/behaviour,evenif wedon’tprivatelyagreewitheverythingthegroupstandsfor. Complianceinvolves‘goingalongwithothers’inpublic,butprivatelynotchangingopinions/behaviour.Thisresultsinonly asuperficialchangeandtheopinion/behaviourstopsassoonasgrouppressureceases. 2 ISIisaboutinformation,adesiretoberight.Oftenweareuncertainaboutwhatbehaviourorbeliefsarerightor wrongespeciallyinneworambiguoussituationssoweconformtothegroupnormaswebelieveothersareright.Youmay notknowtheanswertoaquestioninclass,butifmostoftheotherstudentsagree,yougoalongwiththembecauseyou feeltheyareprobablyright. NSIconcernswhatis‘normal’ortypicalbehaviourforasocialgroup(i.e.norms).NSIisbasedontheideathatpeople prefersocialapprovalratherthanrejectionandwantto‘fitin’.Itisimportantwithpeopleyouknowratherthanstrangers becausepeoplearemoreconcernedaboutthesocialapprovaloffriends. 3 AlimitationofISIisthatthereareindividualdifferences.Asch(1955)foundthatstudentswerelessconformist (28%)thanotherparticipants(37%).PerrinandSpencer(1980)alsofoundlessconformityinstudentsinareplicationofthe Aschstudy.Inthisstudytheywereengineeringstudents(i.e.confidentaboutprecision).Peoplewhoareknowledgeable and/ormoreconfidentarelessinfluencedbytheapparently‘right’viewofamajority.Thereforetherearedifferencesin howindividualsrespondtoISI. AstrengthofNSIisthatthereisresearchsupport.Asch(1951)askedparticipantstoexplainwhytheyagreedwiththe wronganswer.Somesaidtheyfeltself-consciousgivingtherightanswerandwereafraidofdisapproval.WhenAschasked participantstowritedowntheiranswers,conformityratesfellto12.5%.Thissupportstheparticipants’ownreportsthat theywereconformingbecauseofNSI. 4 ISIisaboutinformation,adesiretoberight.Oftenweareuncertainaboutwhatbehaviourorbeliefsarerightor wrongespeciallyinneworambiguoussituationssoweconformtothegroupnormaswebelieveothersareright.Youmay notknowtheanswertoaquestioninclass,butifmostofotherstudentsagree,yougoalongwiththembecauseyoufeel theyareprobablyright. NSIconcernswhatis‘normal’ortypicalbehaviourforasocialgroup(i.e.norms).NSIisanemotionalratherthancognitive process–peopleprefersocialapprovalratherthanrejection.Itisimportantwithpeopleyouknowratherthanstrangers becausepeopleareconcernedaboutthesocialapprovaloffriends.Someonemaybepersuadedtotrysmokingbecauseall theirfriendsare,eventhoughtheyknowitisanunhealthybehaviour. AstrengthofISIisthatthereisresearchsupport.Lucasetal.(2006)askedstudentstogiveanswerstoeasyandmore difficultmathsproblems.Therewasmoreconformitytoincorrectanswerswhentheproblemsweredifficult.Thiswas mosttrueforstudentswhoratedtheirmathsabilityaspoor.Peopleconforminsituationswheretheyfeeltheydon’tknow theanswer(ISI).Welooktoothersandassumetheyknowbetterthanusandmustberight. 1 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers AlimitationofISIandNSIisthatthe‘two-process’approachisoversimplified.Thisapproachstatesthatbehaviourisdueto eitherNSIorISI.However,conformitywasreducedwhentherewasadissentingpartnerintheAschexperiment.This dissentermayreducethepowerofNSI(byprovidingsocialsupport)orreducethepowerofISI(becausetheyarean alternativesourceofinformation). AlimitationofNSIisthatthereareindividualdifferences.Peoplewhocaremoreaboutbeinglikedaremoreaffectedby NSI.TheyarenAffiliators–peoplewhohaveagreaterneedforsocialrelationships.McGheeandTeevan(1967)foundthat studentswhowerenAffiliatorsweremorelikelytoconform.Thedesiretobelikedunderliesconformityforsomepeople morethanothers.Onegeneraltheorydoesnotcoverthefacttherearedifferences. P13 1 Aschrecruited123Americanmalestudents.Eachwastestedindividuallywithagroupofbetweensixandeight confederates.Oneachtrial,participantsidentifiedthelengthofastandardline.Onthefirstfewtrialsconfederatesgave correctanswersbutthenallselectedthesamewronganswers.Eachparticipantcompleted18trials.On12‘criticaltrials’ confederatesgavethewronganswer. Thenaïveparticipantsgaveawronganswer36.8%ofthetime(i.e.theproportionofcriticaltrialswhentheparticipants agreedwiththeconfederates’wronganswers).Therewereconsiderableindividualdifferences:25%oftheparticipants nevergaveawronganswer,so75%conformedatleastonce.Afewparticipantsconformedmostofthetime. 2 Groupsize:Withtwoconfederates,conformitytothewronganswerwas14%;withthreeitroseto32%.Adding anymoreconfederatesmadelittledifference. Unanimity:Thepresenceofadissentingconfederatereducedconformity,whetherthedissenterwasgivingtherightor wronganswer.Thefigurewas,onaverage,25%wronganswers. Taskdifficulty:Conformityincreasedwhenthetaskwasmoredifficult(thecomparisonlineswerecloserinlength).So informationalsocialinfluenceplaysagreaterrolewhenthetaskbecomesharder. 3 OnelimitationisthatAsch’sfindingsmaybea‘childofthetimes’.PerrinandSpencer (1980)foundjustoneconformingresponsein396trials.Participants(UKengineeringstudents)feltmoreconfident measuringlinesthanAsch’soriginalsample,sowerelessconformist.Also,the1950swereaconformisttimeinAmerica andpeoplemightbelesslikelytoconforminsubsequentdecades.TheAscheffectisnotconsistentovertime,soisnotan enduringfeatureofhumanbehaviour. Asecondlimitationisthatthesituationandtaskwereartificial.Participantsknewtheywereinastudysomayhavejust respondedtodemandcharacteristics.Thelinetaskwastrivialsotherewasnoreasonnottoconform.Also,thenaïve participantswereina‘group’,butnotlikegroupsfoundineverydaylife.Findingsdonotgeneralisetoeverydaysituations whereconsequencesofconformityareimportant,andwhereweinteractwithgroupsmoredirectly. 4 Aschrecruited123Americanmalestudents.Eachwastestedindividuallywithagroupofbetweensixandeight confederates.Oneachtrialparticipantsidentifiedthelengthofastandardline.Onthefirstfewtrialsconfederatesgave correctanswersbutthenallselectedthesamewronganswers.Eachparticipantcompleted18trials.On12‘criticaltrials’ confederatesgavethewronganswer. Thenaïveparticipantsgaveawronganswer36.8%ofthetime(i.e.theproportionofcriticaltrialswhentheparticipants agreedwiththeconfederates’wronganswers).Therewereconsiderableindividualdifferences:25%oftheparticipants nevergaveawronganswer,so75%conformedatleastonce.Afewparticipantsconformedmostofthetime.Thissuggests thatparticipantswereconformingduetonormativesocialinfluence–theyknewtheanswerwaswrongbutgavethe wronganswertoreceivesocialapproval. Alimitationisthatthefindingsonlyapplytocertaingroups.OnlymenweretestedbyAsch.Neto (1995)suggestedthatwomenmightbemoreconformist,possiblybecausetheyaremoreconcernedaboutsocial relationships(andbeingaccepted).ParticipantswerefromtheUSA,anindividualistculture(peoplearemoreconcerned withthemselvesthantheirsocialgroup).SmithandBond(1998)suggestthatconformityratesarehigherincollectivist cultures(e.g.China)whicharemoreconcernedwithgroupneeds.Thissuggeststhatconformitylevelsaresometimeseven higherthanAschfound;hisfindingsmaybelimitedtoAmericanmen. Anotherlimitationisthatthefindingsonlyapplytocertainsituations.Participantsansweredoutloudandwerewitha groupofstrangerstheywantedtoimpress.Conformitycouldbehigherthanusual.ButWilliamsandSogon(1984)found conformitywashigherwhenthemajoritywerefriendsratherthanstrangers.ThereforetheAscheffectvariesdepending oncircumstances. 2 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers ThereareethicalissuesassociatedwithAsch’sresearch.Naïveparticipantsweredeceived.Theythoughttheothersinthe procedure(confederates)weregenuine.Butthisethicalcostshouldbeweighedagainstthebenefitsofthestudy.Themain benefitwashighlightingpeople’ssusceptibilitytogroupconformityandthevariablesaffectingit. P15 1 Zimbardoandhiscolleagues(Haneyetal.1973)setupamockprisoninthebasementofthepsychology departmentatStanfordUniversity.Theyrecruited24‘emotionallystable’studentsdeterminedbypsychologicaltesting– randomlyassignedrolesofguardsorprisoners.Theprisoners’dailyroutineswereheavilyregulated.Therewere16rules tofollow,enforcedbyguardsworkinginshifts,threeatatime. Withintwodays,theprisonersrebelledagainsttheirtreatment.Theyrippedtheiruniformsandshoutedandsworeatthe guards,whoretaliatedwithfireextinguishers.Guardsharassedtheprisonersconstantlybyconductingfrequent headcounts,sometimesinthemiddleofthenight.Aftertherebellionwasputdown,theprisonersbecamesubdued, anxiousanddepressed.Threeprisonerswerereleasedearlybecausetheyshowedsignsofpsychologicaldisturbance.One prisonerwentonhungerstrikeandthestudyhadtobestoppedafter6days. 2 Zimbardoandhiscolleagues(Haneyetal.1973)setupamockprisoninthebasementofthepsychology departmentatStanfordUniversity.Theyrecruited24‘emotionallystable’studentsdeterminedbypsychologicaltesting– randomlyassignedrolesofguardsorprisoners.Withintwodays,theprisonersrebelledagainsttheirtreatment.Afterthe rebellionwasputdown,theprisonersbecamesubdued,anxiousanddepressedwhilsttheguardssteppedupbrutalityand aggressiononeachday.Threeprisonerswerereleasedearlybecausetheyshowedsignsofpsychologicaldisturbance,one prisonerwentonhungerstrikeandthestudyhadtobestoppedafter6days. 3 AstrengthoftheSPEisthattheresearchershadsomecontrolovervariables.Emotionallystableparticipants wererecruitedandrandomlyassignedtherolesofguardorprisoner.Theguardsandprisonershadthoserolesonlyby chance.Sotheirbehaviourwasduetothepressuresofthesituationandnottheirpersonalities.Controlincreasesthe study’sinternalvalidity.Wecanbemoreconfidentindrawingconclusionsabouttheinfluencesofsocialroleson behaviour. AlimitationwiththeSPEisalackofrealism.BanuaziziandMohavedi(1975)suggestparticipantswereplay-acting.Their performancesreflectedstereotypesofhowprisonersandguardsaresupposedtobehave.Oneguardbasedhisroleona characterfromthefilmCoolHandLuke.Prisonersriotedbecausetheythoughtthatiswhatrealprisonersdid.But Zimbardo’sdatashowed90%oftheprisoners’conversationswereaboutprisonlife.Thesimulationseemedrealtothem, increasingthestudy’sinternalvalidity. 4 Zimbardoandhiscolleagues(Haneyetal.1973)setupamockprisoninthebasementofthepsychology departmentatStanfordUniversity.Theyrecruited24‘emotionallystable’studentsdeterminedbypsychologicaltesting– randomlyassignedrolesofguardsorprisoners.Theprisoners’dailyroutineswereheavilyregulated.Therewere16rules tofollow,enforcedbyguardsworkinginshifts,threeatatime. Withintwodays,theprisonersrebelledagainsttheirtreatment.Theyrippedtheiruniformsandshoutedandsworeatthe guards,whoretaliatedwithfireextinguishers.Guardsharassedtheprisonersconstantlybyconductingfrequent headcounts,sometimesinthemiddleofthenight.Aftertherebellionwasputdown,theprisonersbecamesubdued, anxiousanddepressed.Threeprisonerswerereleasedearlybecausetheyshowedsignsofpsychologicaldisturbance.One prisonerwentonhungerstrikeandthestudyhadtobestoppedafter6days. Thesimulationrevealedthepowerofthesituationtoinfluencepeople’sbehaviour.Guards,prisonersandresearchersall conformedtotheirsocialroleswithintheprison(identification). Fromm(1973)arguesthatZimbardounderstateddispositionalinfluences.Onlyathirdoftheguardsbehavedbrutally. Anotherthirdappliedtherulesfairly.Therestsupportedtheprisoners,offeringthemcigarettesandreinstatingprivileges. Zimbardo’sconclusion–thatparticipantsconformedtosocialroles–maybeover-stated,exaggeratingthepowerofthe situation.Thedifferencesintheguards’behaviourshowthattheycouldexerciserightandwrongchoices,despite situationalpressurestoconformtoarole. SPElacksresearchsupportandhasbeencontradictedbysubsequentresearch.ReicherandHaslam (2006)partiallyreplicatedtheSPE,withdifferentfindings.Prisonerseventuallytookcontrol.Tajfel’s(1981)socialidentity theory(SIT)explainsthis.Guardsinthereplicationfailedtodevelopsharedsocialidentityasagroup,butprisonersdidand refusedtoacceptthelimitsoftheirassignedroles.SothebrutalityoftheguardsintheoriginalSPEwasduetoashared socialidentityasacohesivegroup,ratherthanconformitytotheirsocialroles. 3 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers AlimitationisthatthereweremajorethicalissueswiththeSPE.Oneissuearosebecause Zimbardowasbothleadresearcherandprisonsuperintendent.Astudentwhowantedtoleavethestudyspoketo Zimbardo,whorespondedasasuperintendentworriedabouttherunningofhisprisonratherthanasaresearcher.This limitedZimbardo’sabilitytoprotecthisparticipantsfromharmbecausehissuperintendentroleconflictedwithhislead researcherrole. P17 1 StanleyMilgramrecruited40maleparticipantsthroughnewspaperads.Theadsaidhewaslookingfor participantsforamemorystudy.Participantswereagedbetween20and50yearsandweregiven$4.50forjustturningup. Aconfederate(‘MrWallace’)wasalwaysthe‘learner’whilethetrueparticipantwasthe‘teacher’.Thelearnerwas strappedintoachairinanotherroomandwiredwithelectrodes.Theteacherhadtogivethelearneranincreasinglysevere electric‘shock’eachtimehemadeamistakeonatask(learningwordpairs).Theteacherswerenottoldthattheshocks wereallfakeandthatMrWallacewasanactor.The‘teacher’wasencouragedtocontinuebytheprofessor/authority figurewhogaveaseriesof‘verbalprods’. 2 Noparticipantstoppedbelow300volts.Five(12.5%)stoppedat300volts;65%continuedto450volts. Observations(qualitativedata)indicatedthatparticipantsshowedsignsofextremetension;manywereseento‘sweat, tremble,bitetheirlips,groananddigtheirfingernailsintotheirhands’.Threehad‘full-blownuncontrollableseizures’. 3 AlimitationofMilgram’sstudyisthatitlackedinternalvalidity.OrneandHolland(1968)suggestparticipants guessedtheelectricshockswerefake.SoMilgramwasnottestingwhatheintendedtotest(i.e.obedience). AstrengthofMilgram’sresearchisthatithasgoodexternalvalidity.Milgramarguedthatthelab-basedrelationship betweenexperimenterandparticipantreflectedwiderreal-lifeauthorityrelationships. ReplicationshavesupportedMilgram’sresearchfindings.InaFrenchdocumentary,contestantsinarealityTVgameshow werepaidtogive(fake)electricshocks–whenorderedbythepresenter–tootherparticipants(actors).80%gavethe maximum450voltstoanapparentlyunconsciousman,whichlendssupporttoMilgram’soriginalfindings. 4 Milgramrecruited40maleparticipantsthroughnewspaperads.Theadsaidhewaslookingforparticipantsfora memorystudy.Participantswereagedbetween20and50yearsandweregiven$4.50forjustturningup.Aconfederate (‘MrWallace’)wasalwaysthe‘learner’whilethetrueparticipantwasthe‘teacher’.Thelearnerwasstrappedintoachair inanotherroomandwiredwithelectrodes.Theteacherhadtogivethelearneranincreasinglysevereelectric‘shock’each timehemadeamistakeonatask(learningwordpairs).Theteacherswerenottoldthattheshockswereallfakeandthat MrWallacewasanactor.The‘teacher’wasencouragedtocontinuebytheprofessor/authorityfigurewhogaveaseriesof ‘verbalprods’. Noparticipantstoppedbelow300volts.Five(12.5%)stoppedat300volts;65%continuedto450volts. AlimitationofMilgram’sstudyisthatitlackedinternalvalidity.OrneandHolland(1968)suggestparticipantsguessedthe electricshockswerefake.SoMilgramwasnottestingwhatheintendedtotest(i.e.obedience).However,Sheridanand King’s(1972)participantsgaverealshockstoapuppy;54%ofmalesand100%offemalesdeliveredwhattheythoughtwas afatalshock.SotheobedienceinMilgram’sstudymightbegenuine,70%ofMilgram’sparticipantsthoughttheshocks weregenuine. Socialidentitytheory(SIT)isanalternativeexplanationtoMilgram’s.Obedienceisaboutgroupidentification.Milgram’s participantsidentifiedwiththeexperimenter(thescienceofthestudy).Whenobediencelevelsfell,theparticipants identifiedmorewiththevictim.HaslamandReicher (2012)suggestthefirstthree‘prods’areappealsforhelpwithscience(‘experimentrequiresyoucontinue’).Onlythe4th proddemandsobedience.Everytimethiswasused,theparticipantquit.Theparticipantsdidnotgiveshocksdueto obedience,butduetotheiridentificationwiththeexperimenterasascientist(asexplainedbysocialidentitytheory). AlimitationisthereareethicalissuesassociatedwithMilgram’sresearch.Baumrind(1964)criticisedMilgram’sdeceptions. Participantsbelievedtheallocationofroleswasrandomlyassigned,butitwasfixed.Themostsignificantdeceptionwas thatparticipantsbelievedtheelectricshockswerereal.Baumrindobjectedbecausedeceptionisabetrayaloftrustthat damagesthereputationofpsychologistsandtheirresearch.Deceptionofparticipantsmayalsomakethemlesslikelyto volunteerforfutureresearch. P19 1 InMilgram’soriginalstudy,theteacherandlearnerwereinadjoiningrooms.Theteachercouldhearthelearner butnotseehim.Intheproximityvariation,teacherandlearnerwereinthesameroomandtheobedienceratedropped 4 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers from65%to40%.Inthetouchproximityvariation,theteacherhadtoforcethelearner’shandontoashockplate.The obedienceratedroppedto30%. Theroleoftheexperimenterwastakenoverbyan‘ordinarymemberofthepublic’ineverydayclothesratherthanalab coat.Theobedienceratedroppedto20%,thelowestofthevariations. Thissuggeststhatuniformdoesactasastrongvisualauthoritysymbolandacuetobehaveinanobedientmanner. 2 Thereisresearchsupportfortheinfluenceofsituationalvariables.Bickman(1974)lookedattheeffectof authorityonobedience(confederatedressedinjacket/tie,milkmanorsecurityguard).Theconfederateaskedpassers-by toprovideacoinfortheparkingmeter,forexample.Peopleweretwiceaslikelytoobeythe‘securityguard’thanthe ‘jacket/tie’confederate.ThissupportsMilgram’sconclusionthatauniformconveysauthorityandisasituationalfactor producingobedience. AlimitationisMilgram’svariationsmaylackinternalvalidity.OrneandHolland(1968)suggestparticipantsinMilgram’s variationswereevenmorelikelytorealisetheprocedurewasfakedbecauseoftheextraexperimentalmanipulation.Inthe variationwheretheexperimenterwasreplacedby‘amemberofthepublic’,evenMilgramrecognisedthiswasso contrivedthatsomeparticipantsmayhaveworkeditout.Soitisunclearwhethertheresultsareduetoobedienceor becausetheparticipantssawthedeceptionand‘play-acted’. 3 InMilgram’soriginalstudy,theteacherandlearnerwereinadjoiningrooms.Theteachercouldhearthelearner butnotseehim.Intheproximityvariation,teacherandlearnerwereinthesameroomandtheobedienceratedropped from65%to40%.Inthetouchproximityvariation,theteacherhadtoforcethelearner’shandontoashockplate.The obedienceratedroppedto30%. Thelocationoftheobediencestudywasarun-downbuildingratherthantheprestigiousuniversitysettingwhereitwas originallyconducted(YaleUniversity).Obediencefellto47.5%.Thisindicatesthattheexperimenterhadlessauthorityin thissetting. Theroleoftheexperimenterwastakenoverbyan‘ordinarymemberofthepublic’ineverydayclothesratherthanalab coat.Theobedienceratedroppedto20%,thelowestofthevariations. Thissuggeststhatuniformdoesactasastrongvisualauthoritysymbolandacuetobehaveinanobedientmanner. AstrengthisthatMilgram’sresearchhasbeenreplicatedinothercultures.Mirandaetal.(1981)foundover90% obedienceinSpanishstudents.Milgram’sfindingsarenotlimitedtoAmericanmales.However,SmithandBond(1998) notethatmostreplicationshavetakenplaceinWesternsocieties(e.g.Spain),culturallynotthatdifferentfromtheUSA.It isprematuretoconcludethatMilgram’sfindingsaboutproximity,locationanduniformapplytopeopleeverywhere. AstrengthisthatMilgram’sresearchhascontrolofvariables.Milgramsystematicallyalteredonevariableatatimetotest effectsonobedience.Othervariableswerekeptconstantasthestudywasreplicatedmanytimeswithover1000 participants.Thiscontrolgivesusmorecertaintythatchangesinobediencewerecausedbythevariablemanipulated(e.g. location),showingcauseandeffectrelationships. AlimitationisthatMilgram’sconclusionsprovidean‘obediencealibi’.Milgram’sfindingsarean‘excuse’forobedience– suggestingthatitisthesituationnotthepersonwhoisresponsible.Mandel(1998)claimsthisisoffensivetoHolocaust survivorstosuggestthattheNazissimplyobeyedordersandwerevictimsofsituationalfactorsbeyondtheircontrol. Milgram’ssituationalperspectiveisdangerousbecauseitignorestherolesthatdiscrimination,racismandprejudiceplayed intheHolocaust. P21 1 Milgramproposedthatobediencetodestructiveauthorityoccursbecauseapersonbecomesan‘agent’, someonewhoactsfororinplaceofanother.Inanagenticstateapersonfeelsnopersonalresponsibilityfortheiractions. Apersoninanautonomousstatebehavesaccordingtotheirownprinciplesandfeelsresponsiblefortheirownactions. Theshiftfromautonomytobeingan‘agent’iscalledtheagenticshift.Milgramsuggestedthatthisoccurswhenwe perceivesomeoneelseasanauthorityfigure.Thispersonhaspowerbecauseoftheirpositioninasocialhierarchy.Binding factorsareaspectsofasituationthatallowthepersontoignoreorminimisethedamagingeffectoftheirbehaviourand reducethe‘moralstrain’theyfeel.Milgramproposedanumberofstrategiestheindividualuses,suchasshiftingthe responsibilitytothevictimordenyingthedamagetheyaredoingtovictims. 2 BlassandSchmidt(2001)showedstudentsafilmofMilgram’sstudyandaskedthemtoidentifywhowas responsibleforharmtothelearner.Studentsblamedthe‘experimenter’ratherthantheparticipant.Thisresponsibility wasduetolegitimateauthority(the‘experimenter’wastopofthehierarchy)butalsotoexpertauthority(hewasa scientist).Thestudentsrecognisedlegitimateauthorityasthecauseofobedience,supportingthisexplanation. 5 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers 3 Mostsocietiesarestructuredhierarchically.Peopleincertainpositionsholdauthorityovertherestofus. Parents,teachers,policeofficers,nightclubbouncers,allhavesomekindofauthorityoverusattimes.Theauthoritythey wieldislegitimateinthesensethatitisagreedbysociety.Mostofusacceptthatauthorityfiguresshouldexercisesocial poweroverothersbecausethisallowssocietytofunctionsmoothly.Oneconsequenceoflegitimateauthorityisthatsome peoplearegrantedthepowertopunishothers.Wegiveupsomeofourindependencetopeoplewetrusttoexercisetheir authorityappropriately.Welearnedtoacceptauthorityfromparentsandteachersduringchildhood. 4 Milgramproposedthatobediencetodestructiveauthorityoccursbecauseapersonbecomesan‘agent’, someonewhoactsfororinplaceofanother.Inanagenticstateapersonfeelsnopersonalresponsibilityfortheiractions. Apersoninanautonomousstatebehavesaccordingtotheirownprinciplesandfeelsresponsiblefortheirownactions. Theshiftfromautonomytobeingan‘agent’iscalledtheagenticshift.Milgramsuggestedthatthisoccurswhenwe perceivesomeoneelseasanauthorityfigure.Thispersonhaspowerbecauseoftheirpositioninasocialhierarchy. Mostsocietiesarestructuredhierarchically.Peopleincertainpositionsholdauthorityovertherestofus.Parents, teachers,policeofficers,nightclubbouncers,allhavesomekindofauthorityoverusattimes.Theauthoritytheywieldis legitimateinthesensethatitisagreedbysociety.Mostofusacceptthatauthorityfiguresshouldexercisesocialpower overothersbecausethisallowssocietytofunctionsmoothly.Wegiveupsomeofourindependencetopeoplewetrustto exercisetheirauthorityappropriately. Alimitationistheagenticshiftdoesn’texplainmanyoftheresearchfindings.Someparticipantsdidnotobey–humansare socialanimalsinsocialhierarchiesandthereforeshouldallobey.Also,inHoflingetal.’s(1966)study,nursesshouldhave shownanxietyastheygaveresponsibilityovertothedoctor,becausetheyunderstoodtheirroleinadestructiveprocess. Butthiswasnotthecase.Soagenticshiftcanonlyaccountforsomesituationsofobedience. AlimitationistheagenticstatecannotaccountforthebehaviouroftheNazis.Mandel(1998)describedGermanReserve PoliceBattalion101–menshotciviliansinasmalltowninPoland(WorldWar2).Theydidthiseventhoughtheywerenot directlyorderedto(theyweretoldtheycouldbeassignedotherduties).Thischallengestheagenticstateexplanation becausetheReservePolicewerenotpowerlesstodisobey. Astrengthisthatlegitimacyofauthoritycanexplainreal-lifeobedience.KelmanandHamilton (1989)suggesttheMyLaimassacre(VietnamWar)isexplainedbythepowerhierarchyofthe USArmy.ThearmyhasauthorityrecognisedbytheUSgovernmentandthelaw.Soldiersassumeordersgivenbythe hierarchytobelegal;evenorderstokill,rapeanddestroyvillages.Thelegitimacyofauthorityexplanationisabletogive reasonswhydestructiveobedienceiscommitted. P23 1 Authoritarianpersonalityformsinchildhoodthroughharshparentingandextremelystrictdiscipline.Adornoet al.suggestedthatpeoplewithanauthoritarianpersonalityhaveexaggeratedrespectforauthorityandexpresscontempt forpeopleofinferiorsocialstatus. 2 Adornoetal.(1950)investigatedunconsciousattitudestowardsotherracialgroupsofmorethan2000middleclasswhiteAmericans.Severalscalesweredeveloped,includingthepotentialforfascismscale(F-scale).Authoritarians (whoscoredhighontheF-scaleandothermeasures)identifiedwith‘strong’peopleandwerecontemptuousofthe‘weak’. Theywereconsciousoftheirownandothers’status,showingexcessiverespectanddeferencetothoseofhigherstatus. 3 Thereissupportforthelinkbetweenauthoritarianpersonalityandobedience.ElmsandMilgram(1966) interviewedfullyobedientparticipants–allscoredhighlyontheF-scale.However,thislinkisjustacorrelationbetween measuredvariables.Wecannotconcludefromthisthatauthoritarianpersonalitycausesobedience.A‘thirdfactor’maybe involved.Bothobedienceandauthoritarianpersonalitymaybecausedbyalowerlevelofeducation(HymanandSheatsley 1954). Theauthoritarianpersonalityexplanationislimited.MillionsofindividualsinGermanydisplayedobedientandanti-Semitic behaviour–butdidn’thavethesamepersonality.ItseemsunlikelythemajorityofGermany’spopulationpossessedan authoritarianpersonality.Analternativeexplanationismorerealistic–socialidentitytheory.MostGermansidentifiedwith theanti-SemiticNazistateandadopteditsviews. 4 Adornoetal.(1950)wantedtounderstandtheanti-SemitismoftheHolocaust.Theybelievedthatunquestioning obedienceisapsychologicaldisorder,andtriedtofinditscausesintheindividual’spersonality.Adornoetal.suggested thatpeoplewithanauthoritarianpersonalityareespeciallyobedienttoauthority.Theyhaveexaggeratedrespectfor authorityandsubmissivenesstoitandexpresscontemptforpeopleofinferiorsocialstatus.Authoritarianpersonality formsinchildhoodthroughharshparenting:extremelystrictdiscipline,expectationofabsoluteloyalty,impossiblyhigh 6 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers standards,andseverecriticism.Itisalsocharacterisedbyconditionallove–parents’lovedependsentirelyonhowtheir childbehaves.Theseexperiencescreateresentmentandhostilityinthechild,buttheycannotexpressthesefeelings directlyagainsttheirparentsbecausetheyfearreprisals.Sothefeelingsaredisplacedontootherswhoareseenasweaker –knownasscapegoating. AlimitationisthattheF-scale(whichwasusedbyAdornotomeasureauthoritarianism)ispoliticallybiased.Christieand Jahoda(1954)suggesttheF-scaleaimstomeasuretendencytowardsextremeright-wingideology.Butright-wingandleftwingauthoritarianism(e.g.ChineseMaoism)bothinsistoncompleteobediencetopoliticalauthority.Adorno’stheoryis notacomprehensivedispositionalexplanationofobediencetoauthoritybecauseitdoesn’texplainobediencetoleft-wing authoritarianism,i.e.itispoliticallybiased. Alimitationisthattheexplanationisbasedonaflawedmethodology.Greenstein(1969)suggeststheF-scaleis‘acomedy ofmethodologicalerrors’,forexampleitemsarewordedinthesame‘direction’sothescalejustmeasuresthetendencyto agreetoeverything.Also,researchersknewtheparticipants’testscoreswhentheyinterviewedthem.Sotheyknewwho hadauthoritarianpersonalities.Theyalsoknewthestudy’shypothesis,whichmakesbiasedresultslikely.Thissuggests thatthedatacollectedismeaninglessandtheconceptofauthoritarianpersonalitylacksvalidity. Afurtherlimitationisthatmuchoftheresearchusescorrelations.Adornomeasuredmanyvariablesandfoundsignificant correlationsbetweenthem(e.g.authoritarianismcorrelatedwithprejudiceagainstminoritygroups).Nomatterhow strongacorrelationbetweentwovariablesis,itdoesnotmeanthatonecausestheother.ThereforeAdornocouldnot claimthatharshparentingstylecauseddevelopmentofanauthoritarianpersonality. P25 1 Pressuretoconformisreducedifotherpeoplearenotconforming.Asch’sresearchshowedthatthedissenter doesn’thavetogivethe‘right’answer.Simplysomeoneelsenotfollowingthemajorityfreesotherstofollowtheirown conscience.Thedissenteractsasa‘model’. Pressuretoobeycanbereducedifanotherpersonisseentodisobey.InMilgram’sstudy,independentbehaviour increasedinthedisobedientpeercondition(from35%to90%).Theparticipantmaynotfollowthedisobedientpeerbut thedissenter’sdisobediencefreestheparticipanttoactfromtheirownconscience. 2 Rotter(1966)describedinternalversusexternallocusofcontrol.Internalsbelievethingsthathappentothemare largelycontrolledbythemselves.Externalsbelievethingshappenoutsidetheircontrol. PeoplewithinternalLOCaremorelikelytoresistpressurestoconformorobey.Ifsomeonetakespersonalresponsibility fortheiractionsandexperiences(goodorbad)theyaremorelikelytobasetheirdecisionsontheirownbeliefs.People withhighinternalLOCaremoreself-confident,moreachievement-oriented,havehigherintelligenceandlessneedfor socialapproval.Thesepersonalitytraitsleadtogreaterresistance. 3 Pressuretoconformisreducedifotherpeoplearenotconforming.Asch’sresearchshowedthatthedissenter doesn’thavetogivethe‘right’answer.Simplysomeoneelsenotfollowingthemajorityfreesotherstofollowtheirown conscience.Thedissenteractsasa‘model’.Pressuretoobeycanbereducedifanotherpersonisseentodisobey.In Milgram’sstudy,independentbehaviourincreasedinthedisobedientpeercondition(from35%to90%).Theparticipant maynotfollowthedisobedientpeerbutthedissenter’sdisobediencefreestheparticipanttoactfromtheirown conscience. Rotter(1966)describedinternalversusexternallocusofcontrol.Internalsbelievethingsthathappentothemarelargely controlledbythemselves.Externalsbelievethingshappenoutsidetheircontrol.PeoplewithinternalLOCaremorelikelyto resistpressurestoconformorobey.Ifsomeonetakespersonalresponsibilityfortheiractionsandexperiences(goodor bad)theyaremorelikelytobasetheirdecisionsontheirownbeliefs.PeoplewithhighinternalLOCaremoreselfconfident,moreachievement-oriented,havehigherintelligenceandlessneedforsocialapproval.Thesepersonalitytraits leadtogreaterresistance. Researchevidencesupportstheroleofdissentingpeersinresistingconformity.AllenandLevine(1971)found independenceincreasedwithonedissenterinanAsch-typestudy.Thisoccurredevenifthedissenterworethickglasses andsaidhehadproblemswithvision(hecouldn’tjudgethelinelengths).Soresistanceisnotmotivatedbyfollowingwhat someoneelsesaysbutitenablessomeonetobefreeofpressurefromthegroup. Researchevidencesupportstheroleofdissentingpeersinresistingobedience.Gamsonetal.(1982)foundhigherlevelsof rebellion(i.e.independentbehaviour)thanMilgramdid.Gamson’sparticipantswereingroups(toproduceevidencethat anoilcompanywouldusetorunasmearcampaign).InGamson’sstudy29outof33groupsofparticipants(88%)rebelled. Thisshowsthatpeersupportislinkedtogreaterresistance. 7 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers ResearchevidencesupportsthelinkbetweenLOCandresistancetoobedience.Holland(1967)repeatedtheMilgramstudy andmeasuredwhetherparticipantswereinternalsorexternals:37%ofinternalsdidnotcontinuetothehighestshock level(theyshowedindependence).Only23%ofvalidityoftheLOCexplanationandourconfidencethatitcanexplain resistance. P27 1 Minorityinfluencereferstohowonepersonorsmallgroupinfluencesthebeliefsandbehaviourofotherpeople. Theminoritymayinfluencejustoneperson,oragroupofpeople(themajority)–thisisdifferentfromconformitywhere themajoritydoestheinfluencing. 2 Moscovici(1969):Agroupofsixpeopleviewedasetof36blue-greencolouredslidesvaryinginintensity,then statedwhethertheslideswereblueorgreen. Thestudyhadthreeconditions: 1.Confederatesconsistentlysaidtheslidesweregreen. 2.Confederateswereinconsistentaboutthecolouroftheslides. 3.Acontrolgroup–noconfederates. Consistentminoritycondition:participantsgavethesamewrongansweron8.42%oftrials;32%gavethesameansweron atleastonetrial. Inconsistentminoritycondition:agreementfellto1.25%. Controlgroup:participantswronglyidentifiedcolour0.25%ofthetime. 3 Consistency:Iftheminorityisconsistentthismakesothersrethinktheirownviews(‘Maybethey’vegotapointif theyallthinkthiswayandtheyhavekeptsayingit’). Commitment:Theminority’activitiesmustcreatesomerisktodemonstratecommitmenttothecause(‘Wow,hemust reallybelieveinwhathe’ssaying,soperhapsIoughttoconsiderhisview’–augmentationprinciple). Flexibility:Beingconsistentandrepeatingthesameargumentsandbehavioursisseenasrigidandoff-puttingtothe majority.Instead,theminorityshouldadapttheirpointofviewandacceptreasonablecounter-arguments. 4 Therearethreeprocessesthatmakeminoritiesmorelikelytoconvincemajoritiesoftheirview.Consistency makesothersrethinktheirownviews(‘Maybethey’vegotapointiftheyallthinkthiswayandtheyhavekeptsayingit’). ThisisillustratedbytheMoscovici(1969)studyinwhichaconsistentminoritypersuadedamajorityto‘see’blueslidesas green.Commitment:activitiesmustcreatesomerisktotheminoritytodemonstratecommitmenttothecause(‘Wow,he mustreallybelieveinwhathe’ssaying,soperhapsIoughttoconsiderhisview’–augmentationprinciple).Flexibility:being consistentandrepeatingthesameargumentsandbehavioursisseenasrigidandoff-puttingtothemajority.Instead,the minorityshouldadapttheirpointofviewandacceptreasonablecounter-arguments. Researchevidenceshowschangetominoritypositioninvolvesdeeperthought.Martinetal.(2003)gaveparticipantsa messagesupportingaparticularviewpoint,andattitudesmeasured.Thentheyheardanendorsementoftheviewfrom eitheraminorityoramajority.Finallytheyheardaconflictingview;attitudesmeasuredagain.Peoplewerelesswillingto changetheiropinionstothenewconflictingviewiftheyhadlistenedtoaminoritygroupthaniftheylistenedtoamajority group.Thissuggeststhattheminoritymessagehadbeenmoredeeplyprocessedandhadamoreenduringeffect. Alimitationisminorityinfluenceresearchofteninvolvesartificialtasks.Moscovici’staskwasidentifyingthecolourofa slide,farremovedfromhowminoritiestrytochangemajorityopinioninreallife.Injurydecisionmakingandpolitical campaigning,outcomesarevastlymoreimportant,maybeamatteroflifeordeath.Findingsofstudieslackexternal validityandarelimitedinwhattheytellusabouthowminorityinfluenceworksinreal-lifesituations. Applicationsofminorityinfluenceresearcharelimited.Studiesmakeacleardistinctionbetweenmajorityandminority,but real-lifesituationsaremorecomplicated.Thedifferenceisaboutmorethanjustnumbers.Majoritiesusuallyhavepower andstatus.Minoritiesarecommittedandtight-knitgroupswhosemembersknowandsupporteachother.Minority influenceresearchrarelyreflectsthedynamicsofthesegroupssofindingsmaynotapplytoreal-lifeminorityinfluence situationswhichexertamorepowerfulinfluence. P29 1 Thisoccurswhenwholesocietiesratherthanjustindividualsadoptnewattitudes,beliefsandwaysofdoing things.ExamplesincludeacceptingthattheEarthorbitstheSun,gayrightsorenvironmentalissues. 8 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers 2 Minorityinfluenceresearchcanbeappliedtosocialchange.Minoritiesdrawattentiontotheissue,suchascivil rightsmarchesIntheUSdrewattentiontothesegregationofblacksandwhites.EventhoughaminorityoftheAmerican populationwasarguingforcivilrights,theydisplayedconsistencyofmessageandintent.Thisattentionmeantthatmany peoplewhohadacceptedthestatusquobeganthinkingabouttheunjustnessofit(deeperprocessing).Civilrightsactivists showedtheircommitmenttothecausebyplacingthemselvesatrisk(theaugmentationprinciple).Manywerebeatenand subjecttomobviolence.Overtime–withtheforceofargumentadvancedbykeyfiguressuchasMartinLutherKing–the minoritybecamethemajorityview(thesnowballeffect). 3 Minorityinfluenceisonlyindirectlyeffectiveincreatingsocialchange.Nemeth(1986)suggeststheeffectsof minorityinfluenceareindirectanddelayed.Ittookdecadesforattitudesagainstdrink-drivingandsmokingtoshift. Indirect:themajorityisinfluencedonlyonmattersrelatedtothecentralissue,andnottheissueitself;delayed:effectsnot seenforsometime.Usingminorityinfluencetoexplainsocialchangeislimitedbecauseitshowsthateffectsarefragile anditsroleinsocialinfluencenarrow. Alimitationisthenatureofdeeperprocessinghasbeenquestioned.Moscovicisuggestedthatminorityinfluencecauses individualstothinkdeeply–whichisadifferentcognitiveprocessfrommajorityinfluence.Mackie(1987)disagrees, arguingthatmajorityinfluencecreatesdeeperprocessingifyoudonotsharetheirviews.Webelievethatothersthinkin thesamewaysasus;whenwefindthatamajoritybelievesdifferently,weareforcedtothinkhardabouttheirarguments. Soacentralelementofminorityinfluenceischallengedandmaybeincorrect,castingdoubtonthevalidityofMoscovici’s theory. 4 Minorityinfluenceresearchsuggeststhatminoritiescandrawtheattentionofmajoritiestowardssocialchange issuesandareespeciallypersuasiveiftheydemonstratecommitment(theaugmentationprinciple)andconsistency(as evidencedinMoscovici’s(1969)studyinwhichconsistentminoritiespersuadedamajoritygrouptoreportseeingblue slidesasgreen).Minoritiesmayadvanceargumentsthatencouragedeeperprocessingoftheissueleadingtoagradual changeinmajorityopinionovertime(thesnowballeffect). Environmentalandhealthcampaignsexploitconformitybyappealingtonormativesocialinfluence.Theyprovide informationaboutwhatothersaredoing,e.g.reducinglitterbyprintingnormativemessagesonbins(‘Binit–othersdo’). Socialchangeisencouragedbydrawingattentiontothemajority’sbehaviour. Researchsupportforroleofnormativesocialinfluence(NSI)insocialchange.Nolanetal.(2008)hungmessagesonfront doorsofhouses.Thekeymessagewasmostresidentsaretryingtoreduceenergyusage.Significantdecreasesinenergy usecomparedtocontrolgroupwhosawmessagestosaveenergywithnoreferencetootherpeople’sbehaviour.So conformitycanleadtosocialchangethroughtheoperationofNSI. Identificationisanimportantvariableoverlookedinminorityinfluenceresearch.Bashiretal.(2013)suggestpeopleare lesslikelytobehaveinenvironmentallyfriendlywaysbecausetheywantedtoavoidlabelofbeingminority ‘environmentalists’.Participantsratedenvironmentalactivistsnegatively(‘treehuggers’).Minoritieswantingsocialchange shouldavoidbehavinginwaysthatreinforcestereotypes;off-puttingtothemajority.Thissuggeststhatbeingableto identifywithaminoritygroupisjustasimportantasagreeingwiththeirviewsintermsofchangingbehaviour. Alimitationistherearemethodologicalissuesinthisareaofresearch.Explanationsofsocialchangerelyonstudiesby Moscovici,AschandMilgram.Thesecanbeevaluatedintermsofmethodology,mainlyovertheartificialnatureofthe tasksandwhetherthegroupdynamicsreflectreallife.Thesecriticismsapplytotheevaluationofexplanationsforthelink betweensocialinfluenceprocessesandsocialchange. 2.Memory P31 1 Short-termmemoryisatemporarymemorystorewithadurationofaround30secondsandacapacityof7+/-2 items.Longtermmemoryisapotentiallypermanentmemorystorewithaninfinitecapacity. 2 PetersonandPeterson(1959)investigatedthedurationofSTM:24studentsweregivenaconsonantsyllable(e.g. YCG)torememberanda3-digitnumbertocountbackwardsfor3,6,9,12,15or18seconds.Accuraterecallofthesyllable wasrecordedforeachdifferenttimeperiod. 3 Jacobs(1887)testedthecapacityofSTMusingthedigitspantechnique.Theresearcherreadfourdigitsand increaseduntiltheparticipantcouldrecalltheordercorrectly.Onaverage,participantscouldrepeatback9.3numbersand 7.3lettersinthecorrectorderimmediatelyaftertheywerepresented. 9 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers 4 InBahrick’s(1975)study,participantstested48yearsaftergraduationwereabout70%accurateinphoto recognition.Freerecallwaslessaccurate. 5 Baddeley(1966)testedcodinginSTMandLTM.Participantswerepresentedwithacousticallysimilarwords(e.g. cat,cab)oracousticallydissimilarwords(e.g.pit,few)andwereaskedtorecallthesewordsinorder.Participantswere alsopresentedwithsemanticallysimilarwords(e.g.large,big)orsemanticallydissimilarwords(e.g.good,hot)andasked torecalltheseinorder.Immediaterecallwasworsewithacousticallysimilarwords,suggestingthatSTMreliesonan acousticcode.Recallafter20minuteswasworsewithsemanticallydissimilarwords,suggestingthatLTMisreliesona semanticcode. 6 Jacobs(1887)testedthecapacityofSTMusingthedigitspantechnique.Theresearcherreadfourdigitsand increaseduntiltheparticipantcouldrecalltheordercorrectly.Onaverage,participantscouldrepeatback9.3numbersand 7.3lettersinthecorrectorderimmediatelyaftertheywerepresented.ThissuggeststhatSTMhasalimitedcapacityof around7–9items. ThisissupportedbyMiller’s(1956)researchwhomadeobservationsofeverydaypractice.Forexample,henotedthat thingscomeinsevens:thereare7notesonthemusicalscale,7daysoftheweek,7deadlysins,andsoon.Heconcluded thatSTMfunctionsbestwhendealingwith7items(the‘magicnumberseven’). PetersonandPeterson(1959)24studentsweregivenaconsonantsyllable(e.g.YCG)torememberanda3-digitnumberto countbackwardsfor3,6,9,12,15or18seconds.Studentsrecalled(onaverage)about80%ofthesyllablescorrectlywitha 3-secondinterval.Averagerecallafter18secondsfelltoabout3%.SuggestingthatdurationofSTMwithoutrehearsalis about18to 30seconds. AlimitationofJacobs’studyisthatitwasconductedalongtimeago.Earlyresearchinpsychologyoftenlackedadequate controlofextraneousvariables.Forexample,someparticipantsmayhavebeendistractedwhiletheywerebeingtestedso theydidn’tperformaswellastheymight.Thiswouldmeanthattheresultsmaynotbevalidbecausetherewere confoundingvariablesthatwerenotcontrolled.However,theseresultshavebeenconfirmedinotherresearch,supporting itsvalidity. AlimitationofMiller’sresearchisitmayhaveoverestimatedcapacityofSTM.Forexample,Cowan(2001)reviewedother research.HeconcludedthatthecapacityofSTMwasonlyabout4chunks.ThissuggeststhatthelowerendofMiller’s estimate(5items)ismoreappropriatethan7items. AlimitationofPetersonandPeterson’sstudyistheartificialstimulus.Tryingtomemoriseconsonantsyllablesdoesnot reflectmostreal-lifememoryactivitieswherewhatwetrytorememberismeaningful.Soitcouldbearguedthatthisstudy lackedexternalvalidity.Ontheotherhand,wedosometimestrytorememberfairlymeaninglessthings,suchasphone numbers.Sothestudyisnottotallyirrelevant. P33 1 TheSRtakesinstimulifromtheenvironmentandisnotasinglestorebutfive,oneforeachsense.Theduration isverybrief(lessthanhalfasecond)butthecapacityisverylarge,e.g.overonehundredmillioncellsinoneeye,each storingdata. 2 TheMSMdescribeshowinformationflowsthroughthememorysystem.Memoryismadeofthreestoreslinked byprocessing.Thesensoryregistertakesinstimulifromtheenvironmentandisnotasinglestorebutfive,oneforeach sense.Thedurationisverybrief(lessthanhalfasecond)butthecapacityisverylarge.Ifattentionispaidtoinformationin theSR,thistransferstoshort-termmemory.ThedurationofSTMisabout18to30secondsunlesstheinformationis rehearsed.Thecapacityisbetween5and9itemsanditisbasedonanacousticcode.WecankeepinformationinSTMas longaswerehearseit.Ifwerehearseitlongenough,itpassesintolong-termmemory–apermanentmemorystore.The durationofLTMispotentiallyuptoalifetime;ithasanunlimitedcapacityandisbasedonasemanticcode. 3 AlimitationofMSMisthatevidencesuggeststhereismorethanonetypeofSTM.ShalliceandWarrington (1970)studiedKF,apatientwithamnesia.HisSTMfordigitswaspoorwhentheyreadthemoutloudtohim.Buthisrecall wasmuchbetterwhenhereadthedigitshimself.TheMSMstatesthatthereisonlyonetypeofSTM(unitarystore).But theKFstudysuggeststheremustbeoneshort-termstoretoprocessvisualinformationandanothertoprocessauditory information.Theworkingmemorymodelisabetterexplanationforthisfindingbecauseitincludesseparatestores. AnotherlimitationoftheMSMisthatitonlyexplainsonetypeofrehearsal.CraikandWatkins(1973)arguedtherearetwo typesofrehearsal–maintenanceandelaborative.MaintenanceistheonedescribedintheMSMbutthisdoesnottransfer informationintoLTM.Elaborativerehearsalisneededforlong-termstorage.Thisoccurswhenyoulinkinformationtoyour 10 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers existingknowledge,orprocessitmeans.ThisisaveryseriouslimitationoftheMSMbecauseitisanotherresearchfinding thatcannotbeexplainedbythemodel. 4 TheMSMdescribeshowinformationflowsthroughthememorysystem.Memoryismadeofthreestoreslinked byprocessing.Thesensoryregistertakesinstimulifromtheenvironmentandisnotasinglestorebutfive,oneforeach sense.Thedurationisverybrief(lessthanhalfasecond)butthecapacityisverylarge.Ifattentionispaidtoinformationin theSR,thistransferstoshort-termmemory.ThedurationofSTMisabout18to30secondsunlesstheinformationis rehearsed.Thecapacityisbetween5and9itemsanditisbasedonanacousticcode.WecankeepinformationinSTMas longaswerehearseit.Ifwerehearseitlongenough,itpassesintolong-termmemory–apermanentmemorystore.The durationofLTMispotentiallyuptoalifetime;ithasanunlimitedcapacityandisbasedonasemanticcode. TheMSMissupportedbyresearchshowingSTMandLTMaredifferent.Baddeley(1966)foundthatwetendtomixup wordsthatsoundsimilarwhenusingourSTMs.ButwemixupwordsthathavesimilarmeaningswhenweuseourLTMs. ThisclearlyshowsthatcodinginSTMisacousticandinLTMitissemantic.ThissupportstheMSM'sviewthatthesetwo memorystoresareseparateandindependent. AlimitationisthatresearchstudiessupportingtheMSMuseartificialmaterials.Researchersoftenaskedparticipantsto recalldigits,lettersandsometimeswords.PetersonandPeterson(1959)evenusedconsonantsyllableswhichhaveno meaning.Ineverydaylifeweformmemoriesrelatedtoallsortsofusefulthings–people'sfaces,theirnames,facts,places, etc.ThissuggeststheMSMlacksexternalvalidity.Researchfindingsmayreflecthowmemoryworkswithmeaningless materialinlabtesting,butdoesnotreflecthowmemorymainlyworksineverydaylife. AfurtherlimitationoftheMSMisthatitoversimplifiesLTM.ThereisalotofresearchevidencethatLTMisnotaunitary store.WehaveoneLTMstoreformemoriesoffactsabouttheworld(semantic),andadifferentoneformemoriesofhow torideabike(episodic).TheMSMislimitedbecauseitdoesnotreflectthesedifferenttypesofLTM. P35 1 Episodicmemoryismemoryforeventsinaperson'slife,forexample,knowingwhatyoudidyesterday. 2 Episodicmemoryisaformofdeclarativememory:detailsofepisodicmemoriesareveryeasytoputintowords. However,proceduralarenon-declarativememories:theyarestoredasasequenceofmotormovementsthataredifficult toexpressinwords. 3 Semanticmemorystoresourknowledgeoftheworld.Thisislikeacombinationofanencyclopaediaanda dictionary.Forexample,itincludesknowledgeofsuchthingsasapplyingtouniversity,thetasteofanorange,andthe meaningofwords.Semanticmemoriesarenottimestamped;forexample,wedonotusuallyrememberwhenwefirst learnedabout‘JustinBieber’. 4 Asabove. 5 Episodicmemorystoreseventsfromourlives.Thisstorehasbeenlikenedtoadiaryofdailyhappenings.For example,yourmostrecentvisittothedentist,thepsychologyclassyouhadyesterday,thebreakfastyouatethismorning. Theyaretime-stamped–yourememberwhentheyhappenedandtheyinvolveseveralelements–people,places,objects andbehavioursarewovenintoonememory.Semanticmemorystoresourknowledgeoftheworld.Thisislikea combinationofanencyclopaediaandadictionary.Forexample,itincludesknowledgeofsuchthingsasapplyingto university,thetasteofanorange,andthemeaningofwords.Semanticmemoriesarenottimestamped;forexample,we donotusuallyrememberwhenwefirstlearnedabout‘JustinBieber’.Proceduralmemorystoresmemoriesforactionsand skills.Thesearememoriesofhowwedothings,forexampledrivingacarorplayingtabletennis.Thesearethesortsof skillswemightevenfindquitehardtoexplaintosomeoneelsebecausewerecallthesememorieswithoutconscious awareness. AstrengthisthatbrainscanstudiesshowthattherearedifferentLTMstores.Tulvingetal.(1994)hadparticipantsperform variousmemorytaskswhiletheirbrainswerescannedwithaPETscanner.Episodicandsemanticmemorieswereinthe prefrontalcortex;semanticinleftsideandepisodicinrightprefrontalcortex.Thisshowsaphysicalrealityinthebrainto thedifferenttypesofLTM,confirmedinmanyresearchstudies,supportingitsvalidity. AstrengthisthatidentifyingdifferentLTMstoreshasreal-lifeapplications.Psychologistscantargetcertainkindsof memoryinordertoimprovepeople'slives.Bellevilleetal.(2006)foundthatepisodicmemoriescanbeimprovedinolder peoplewithmildcognitiveimpairments.Trainingledtoimprovements(comparedtocontrolgroup).Thishighlightsthe benefitofdistinguishingbetweendifferenttypesofLTM–itallowsspecifictreatmentstobedeveloped. 11 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers AlimitationofTulving’sapproachisthattheremaybeonlytwotypesofLTM.CohenandSquire(1980)arguedthat episodicandsemanticmemoriesarestoredtogetherinoneLTMstorecalleddeclarativememory(memoriesthatcanbe consciouslyrecalled).CohenandSquireagreethatproceduralmemoryisadistinctlydifferentkindofmemoryto semantic/episodic,andcallitnon-declarative.Itisimportanttogetthedistinctionbetweensemanticandepisodic memoriesrightbecausethewaywedefinetheminfluenceshowmemorystudiesareconducted. P37 1 Thephonologicalloopdealswithauditoryinformationandpreservestheorderinwhichtheinformationarrives. Itissubdividedintothephonologicalstore(storesthewordsyouhear)andthearticulatoryprocess(allowsmaintenance rehearsal). Theepisodicbufferisatemporarystoreforinformation.Itintegratesvisual,spatialandverbalinformationfromother storesandlinksSTMtoLTM. 2 WorkingmemoryisanexplanationofhowSTMisorganisedandhowitfunctions. Forexample,WMMisconcernedwiththepartofthemindthatisactivewhenworkingonanarithmeticproblemor playingchessorcomprehendinglanguage,etc.Thecentralexecutive (CE)isinoverallchargeandallocatesattentionalresourcestoslavesystemsdependingonthetask.Ithasaverylimited storagecapacity.Thevisuo-spatialsketchpad(VSS)storesvisualand/orspatialinformationwhenrequired(e.g.recalling howmanywindowsyourhousehas).Logie(1995)subdividedtheVSSintothevisualcache(storesvisualdata)andthe innerscribe(recordsthearrangementofobjectsinthevisualfield).Thephonologicalloopdealswithauditoryinformation andpreservestheorderinwhichtheinformationarrives.Itissubdividedintothephonologicalstore(storesthewordsyou hear)andthearticulatoryprocess(allowsmaintenancerehearsal).Theepisodicbufferisatemporarystoreforinformation. Itintegratesvisual,spatial,andverbalinformationfromotherstoresandlinksSTMtoLTM. 3 AstrengthoftheWMMisthatthecaseofKFsupportsseparateSTMstores.ShalliceandWarrington(1970) carriedoutacasestudyofpatientKFwhohadbraindamage.HehadpoorSTMabilityforverbalinformationbutcould processvisualinformationnormally(difficultywithsoundsbutcouldrecallletters/digits).Sohisphonologicalloophad beendamagedbutotherareasofmemorywereintact.Thissuggeststhereareseparatevisualandacousticstores. AnotherstrengthisthatdualtaskperformancestudiessupporttheVSS.Baddeleyetal.(1975)foundparticipantshadmore difficultydoingtwovisualtasks(trackingalightanddescribingtheletterF)thandoingavisualandverbaltaskatthesame time.Thegreaterdifficultyisbecausebothvisualtaskscompeteforthesamelimitedresources.Whendoingaverbaland visualtasksimultaneously,thereisnocompetition.Thereforedualtaskperformanceactivityprovidesevidenceforthe existenceofthevisuo-spatialsketchpad.Themulti-storemodelcannotexplainthis. 4 WorkingmemoryisanexplanationofhowSTMisorganisedandhowitfunctions. Forexample,WMMisconcernedwiththepartofthemindthatisactivewhenworkingonanarithmeticproblemor playingchessorcomprehendinglanguage,etc.Thecentralexecutive (CE)isinoverallchargeandallocatesattentionalresourcestoslavesystemsdependingonthetask.Ithasaverylimited storagecapacity.Thevisuo-spatialsketchpad(VSS)storesvisualand/orspatialinformationwhenrequired(e.g.recalling howmanywindowsyourhousehas).Logie(1995)subdividedtheVSSintothevisualcache(storesvisualdata)andthe innerscribe(recordsthearrangementofobjectsinthevisualfield).Thephonologicalloopdealswithauditoryinformation andpreservestheorderinwhichtheinformationarrives.Itissubdividedintothephonologicalstore(storesthewordsyou hear)andthearticulatoryprocess(allowsmaintenancerehearsal).Theepisodicbufferisatemporarystoreforinformation. Itintegratesvisual,spatial,andverbalinformationfromotherstoresandlinksSTMtoLTM. AlimitationoftheWMMisalackofclarityoverthecentralexecutive.CognitivepsychologistssuggestthattheCEis unsatisfactoryanddoesn'treallyexplainanything.TheCEshouldbemoreclearlyspecifiedthanjustbeingsimply 'attention'.Somepsychologistsbelieveitmayconsistofseparatecomponents.ThismeansthattheWMMhasn'tbeenfully explained. Astrengthisthatthewordlengtheffectsupportsthephonologicalloop.Baddeleyetal.(1975)foundpeoplehavemore difficultyrememberingalistoflongwords(e.g.'association')thanshortwords.Thisisthewordlengtheffect.Thisis becausethereislimitedspaceforrehearsalinthearticulatoryprocess(probablyabouttwoseconds).Wordlengtheffect disappearsifapersonisgivenarepetitivetasktyingupthearticulatoryprocess,demonstratingtheprocessatwork. Afurtherstrengthofthemodelissupportfrombrainscanningstudies.Braveretal.’s(1997)participantsdidtasksinvolving theCEwhiletheywerehavingabrainscan.Activityseeninanareaknownastheprefrontalcortex.Activityinthisarea increasedasthetaskbecameharder.ThismakessenseintermsoftheWMM:asdemandsontheCEincrease,ithasto workhardertofulfilitsfunction.SothisstudyprovidesevidencethattheCEmayhaveaphysicalrealityinthebrain. 12 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers P39 1 Retroactiveinterferenceiswhennewinformationconflictswith/disruptspreviouslystoredinformation.For example,ateacherlearnsmanynewnamesthisyearandcan’trememberthenamesofherpreviousstudents. 2 Proactiveinterferenceiswhenpreviouslystoredinformationconflictswith/disruptsnewinformation.For example,ateacherlearnsmanynamesinthepastandcan’tremembernamesofhercurrentclass. 3 Alimitationoftheresearchintointerferenceistheuseofartificialmaterials.Thestimulusmaterialusedisoften wordlists.Thisismorerealisticthanconsonantsyllables,butisstillquitedifferentfromthingswerememberineveryday life. Anotherlimitationoftheresearchisthetimeallowedbetweenlearning.Timeperiodsbetweenlearninglistsofwordsand recallingthemarequiteshortinlabstudies.Aparticipantmightlearntwolistswithin20minutes.Researchreducesthe wholeexperienceoflearningintoashorttimeperiodwhichdoesnotreflecthowwelearnandremembermost informationinreallife. 4 McGeoghandMcDonald(1931)gaveparticipantslistsofwordstorecallto100%accuracy. Thentheyweregivenanewlisttolearn.Thenewmaterialvariedinthedegreetowhichitwassimilartotheold: Group1–wordshadsamemeaningsastheoriginals. Group2–wordshadoppositemeaningstotheoriginals. Group3–wordsunrelatedtotheoriginalones. Group4–nonsensesyllables. Group5–three-digitnumbers. Group6–nonewlist. Performancedependedonthenatureofthesecondlist.Themostsimilarmaterial(synonyms)producedtheworstrecall. Whentheparticipantsweregivenverydifferentmaterial,suchasthree-digitnumbers,themeannumberofitemsrecalled increased. 5 Interferenceoccurswhentwopiecesofinformationareinconflict.ThiscausesforgettinginLTMbecausewe can’tgetaccesstomemorieseventhoughtheyareavailable.Proactiveinterferenceiswhenpreviouslystoredinformation conflictswith/disruptsnewinformation.Forexample,ateacherlearnedmanynamesinthepastandcan’tremember namesofhercurrentclass.Retroactiveinterferenceiswhennewinformationconflictswith/disruptspreviouslystored information.Forexample,ateacherlearnsmanynewnamesthisyearandcan’trememberthenamesofherprevious students.Interferenceisworsewhenmemoriesaresimilar.ThismaybebecauseinPIpreviouslystoredinformationmakes newinformationmoredifficulttostore,orinRInewinformationoverwritespreviousmemorieswhicharesimilar. Evidencefromlabstudiesconsistentlydemonstratesinterferenceinmemory.Manylabexperimentshavebeencarriedout intointerferenceandmostofthesestudiesshowthatbothtypesofinterferenceareverylikelycausesofforgettingfrom LTM.Labexperimentscontroltheeffectsofextraneousvariablesandsogiveusconfidencethatinterferenceisavalid explanation. Anotherstrengthisthatreal-lifestudieshavesupportedtheinterferenceexplanation.BaddeleyandHitch(1977)asked rugbyplayerstorecallthenamesofteamstheyhadplayedsofarinthatseason,weekbyweek.Accuraterecalldidnot dependonhowlongagothematchtookplace.Moreimportantwasthenumberofgamesplayedinthemeantime.This studyshowsthatinterferenceexplanationscanapplytoatleastsomeeverydaysituations. Alimitationisthatinterferenceeffectsmaybeovercomeusingcues.TulvingandPsotka(1971)gaveparticipantsfivelists of24words,eachorganisedintosixcategories(e.g.metals,fruit,etc.).Categorieswerenotexplicitbutitwasassumed theywouldbeobviouswhenpresented.Recallwasabout70%forthefirstlist,butthisfellaseachadditionallistwas learned,presumablyduetointerference.However,whengivenacuedrecalltest(toldthenamesofthecategories)recall roseagaintoabout70%.ThememoriesofthewordswerestoredinLTMbutinterferencepreventedaccesstothem.When givenacue,itwaseasiertoaccesstheforgottenwords. P41 1 Lackofcuescancauseretrievalfailure.Wheninformationisinitiallyplacedinmemory,associatedcuesare storedatthesametime.Ifthesecuesarenotavailableatthetimeofrecall,youmightnotbeabletoaccessmemoriesthat areactuallythere. 2 Lackofcuescancauseretrievalfailure.Wheninformationisinitiallyplacedinmemory,associatedcuesare storedatthesametime.Ifthesecuesarenotavailableatthetimeofrecall,youmightnotbeabletoaccessmemoriesthat 13 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers areactuallythere.Tulving(1983)suggestedthatcueshelpretrievalifthesamecuesarepresentatencoding(i.e.‘coding’, whenwelearnthematerial)andatretrieval(whenwearerecallingit).Theclosertheretrievalcuetotheoriginalcue,the betterthecueworks.Thisiscalledtheencodingspecificityprinciple. 3 Alimitationisthatcontexteffectsareactuallynotverystronginreallife.Baddeley(1966)arguedthatdifferent contextshavetobeverydifferentindeedbeforeaneffectisseen(e.g.onlandversusunderwater).Learningsomethingin oneroomandrecallingitinanotherisunlikelytoresultinmuchforgettingbecausetheenvironmentsarenotdifferent enough.Sothereal-lifeapplicationsofretrievalfailureduetocontextualcuesdon'tactuallyexplainmuchforgetting. Anotherlimitationiscontexteffectsonlyoccurwhenmemoryistestedincertainways.GoddenandBaddeley(1980) replicatedtheirunderwaterexperimentusingarecognitiontestinsteadofrecall.Therewasnocontext-dependenteffect. Performancewasthesameinallfourconditionswhethertheenvironmentalcontextsforlearningandrecallmatchedor not.Thislimitsretrievalfailureasanexplanationforforgettingbecausethepresenceorabsenceofcuesonlyaffects memorywhenyoutestrecallratherthanrecognition. 4 GoddenandBaddeley(1975)gavedeep-seadiverslistofwordstolearnandrecall. Group1:Learnonland–recallonland. Group2:Learnonland–recallunderwater. Group3:Learnunderwater–recallonland. Group4:Learnunderwater–recallunderwater. Whentheenvironmentalcontextsoflearningandrecalldidnotmatch(i.e.conditions2and3)accuraterecallwas40% lowerthanwhentheydidmatch(i.e.conditions1and4).Thisstudydemonstratescontext-dependentforgettingbecause informationwasnotaccessible(i.e.wasforgotten)whencontextatrecalldidnotmatchcontextatlearning. 5 Lackofcuescancauseretrievalfailure.Wheninformationisinitiallyplacedinmemory,associatedcuesare storedatthesametime.Ifthesecuesarenotavailableatthetimeofrecall,youmightnotbeabletoaccessmemoriesthat areactuallythere.Somecuesarelinkedtothematerial-to-be-rememberedinameaningfulway.Forexample,thecue ‘STM’mayleadyoutorecallallsortsofinformationaboutshorttermmemory.Othercuesarealsoencodedatthetimeof learningbutnotinameaningfulway.Context-dependentforgettingiswhenmemoryretrievalisdependentonan external/environmentalcue(e.g.theweatheroraplace).State-dependentforgettingiswhenmemoryretrievalis dependentonaninternalcue,stateofmind(e.g.feelingupset,beingdrunk).Tulving(1983)suggestedthatcueshelp retrievalifthesamecuesarepresentatencoding(i.e.‘coding’,whenwelearnthematerial)andatretrieval(whenweare recallingit).Theclosertheretrievalcuetotheoriginalcue,thebetterthecueworks.Thisiscalledtheencodingspecificity principle. Animpressiverangeofevidencesupportsthisexplanationofforgetting,forexampleGoddenandBaddeley'sresearchwith deepseadivers.Infact,Eysenck(2010)goessofarastoarguethatretrievalfailureisperhapsthemainreasonfor forgettinginLTM.Supportingevidenceincreasesthevalidityofanexplanation,especiallywhenconductedinreal-life situationsaswellasthehighlycontrolledconditionsofthelab. Alimitationisthattheencodingspecificityprinciple(ESP)cannotbetestedandleadstocircularreasoning.Whenacue producessuccessfulrecallofaword,weassumethecuemusthavebeenpresentatthetimeoflearning.Ifacuedoesnot resultinsuccessfulrecall,thenweassumethatthecuewasnotencodedatthetimeoflearning.Butthereisnowayto independentlyestablishwhetherornotthecuehasreallybeenencoded. Astrengthisthatcontext-relatedcueshaveusefuleverydayapplications.Peopleoftenreporttheseexperiences:they wereupstairsandwentdownstairstogetanitembutforgotwhattheycamedownstairsfor.Butwhentheygoback upstairs,theyrememberagain!Theapplicationisthatwhenwehavetroublerememberingsomething,itisprobablyworth makingtheefforttorevisittheenvironmentinwhichyoufirstexperiencedit.Thisisabasicprincipleofthecognitive interview,amethodofgettingeyewitnessestorecallmoreinformationaboutcrimesbyusingatechniquecalled'context reinstatement'. P43 1 Eyewitnesstestimonyistheabilityofpeopletorememberthedetailsofevents,suchasaccidentsandcrimes, whichtheythemselveshaveobserved.AccuracyofEWTcanbeaffectedbyfactorssuchasmisleadinginformation,leading questionsandanxiety. 2 Incorrectinformationgiventotheeyewitnessusuallyaftertheevent.Itcantakemanyformssuchasleading questionsandpost-eventdiscussionbetweenco-witnessesand/orotherpeople. 3 Aleadingquestionisonethatsuggestsacertainanswerbecauseofthewayitisphrased.Forexample,‘Wasthe knifeinhislefthand?’Thisimpliestheansweris‘lefthand’. 14 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers Inpost-eventdiscussion(PED),witnessestoaneventdiscusswhattheyhaveexperienced.Thiscouldaffecttheaccuracyof theirrecallifthey‘suggest’aparticulardetailoftheeventtoeachotherwhichdidnothappen. 4 LoftusandPalmer(1974)showed45participants(students)filmclipsofcaraccidentsandthenaskedthem questionsaboutspeed.Thecriticalquestionwas'Abouthowfastwerethecarsgoingwhentheyhiteachother?'Five groupsofparticipantswereeachgivenadifferentverbinthecriticalquestion:hit,contacted,bumped,collidedor smashed.Theverb'contacted'producedameanestimatedspeedof31.8mph.Fortheverb'smashed',themeanwas40.5 mph.Theleadingquestion(verb)biasedeyewitnessrecallofanevent.Theverb'smashed'suggestedafasterspeedofthe carthan‘contacted’. 5 Gabbertetal.(2003)gotpairedparticipantstowatchavideoofthesamecrime,butitwasfilmedinawaythat eachparticipantcouldseeelementsintheeventthattheothercouldnot. Bothparticipantsdiscussedwhattheyhadseenonthevideobeforeindividuallycompletingatestofrecall;71%ofthe participantsmistakenlyrecalledaspectsoftheeventthattheydidnotseeinthevideobuthadpickedupinthepost-event discussion.Inacontrolgroup,wheretherewasnodiscussion,therewerenoerrors. 6 Misleadinginformationmaycomeintwoforms:leadingquestionsandpost-eventdiscussion.Aleadingquestion isonethatsuggestsacertainanswerbecauseofthewayitisphrased.Forexample,‘Wastheknifeinhislefthand?’This impliestheansweris‘lefthand’. LoftusandPalmer(1974)showed45participants(students)filmclipsofcaraccidentsandthenaskedthemquestions aboutspeed.Thecriticalquestionwas'Abouthowfastwerethecarsgoingwhentheyhiteachother?'Fivegroupsof participantswereeachgivenadifferentverbinthecriticalquestion:hit,contacted,bumped,collidedorsmashed.Theverb 'contacted'producedameanestimatedspeedof31.8mph.Fortheverb'smashed',themeanwas40.5mph.Theleading question(verb)biasedeyewitnessrecallofanevent.Theverb'smashed'suggestedafasterspeedofthecarthan ‘contacted’suggestingthatleadingquestionscanaffectthereliabilityofEWT. Inpost-eventdiscussion(PED),witnessestoaneventdiscusswhattheyhaveexperienced.Thiscouldaffecttheaccuracyof theirrecallifthey‘suggest’aparticulardetailoftheeventtoeachotherwhichdidnothappen. Astrengthisthatresearchintomisleadinginformationhasreal-lifeapplications.Theresearchhasledtoimportant practicalusesforpoliceofficersandinvestigators,importantbecausetheconsequencesofinaccurateEWTcanbevery serious.Loftus(1975)claimedthatleadingquestionscanhavesuchadistortinginfluenceonmemorythatpoliceofficers needtobecarefulabouthowtheyphrasequestionswheninterviewingeyewitnesses.ResearchintoEWTisonearea wherepsychologistscanmakeanimportantdifferencetothelivesofrealpeople,e.g.byimprovinghowthelegalsystem worksandactingasexpertwitnesses. AlimitationistheremaybeindividualdifferencesinaccuracyofEWT.AnastasiandRhodes (2006)foundthatolderpeoplewerelessaccuratethanyoungerpeoplewhengivingeyewitnessreports.However,they alsofoundthatallagegroupsweremoreaccuratewhenidentifyingpeopleoftheirownagegroup(own-agebias). Researchstudiesoftenuseyoungerpeopleasthetargettoidentify.Sosomeagegroupsmayseemlessaccuratebutthisis notreallythecase. AfurtherlimitationisthatmanyEWTresearchstudieslackexternalvalidity.Fosteretal.(1994)arguethatwhatyou rememberasaneyewitnesscanhaveimportantconsequencesintherealworld,butthesameisnottrueinresearch studies.Realeyewitnessessearchtheirmemorywithmoreeffortbecausetheirtestimonymayleadtoasuccessful conviction(orwrongfulifinaccurate).Thisisnottrueinresearchstudies.ThereforeEWTaccuracymaybegreaterinthe realworldbecauseoftheseriousnesswitheyewitnessesundertaketheirrole. P45 1 Inareal-lifecrimeagun-shopownershotathiefdead.Therewere21witnesses,13agreedtoparticipateinthe study.Participantswereinterviewed4–5monthsaftertheincident.Accountswerecomparedtothepoliceinterviewsat thetimeoftheshooting.Witnessesratedhowstressedtheyfeltatthetimeoftheincident. Witnesseswereveryaccurateandtherewaslittlechangeafter5months.Somedetailswerelessaccurate,e.g.coloursof items,andage/weight/height.Participantswhoreportedthehighestlevelsofstressweremostaccurate(about88% comparedto75%fortheless-stressedgroup). 2 YerkesandDodson(1908)arguethattherelationshipbetweenaccuracyofeyewitnesstestimonyand arousal/stressiscurvilinearratherthanlinear,aninvertedUrelationship.Deffenbacher(1983)foundthatlowerlevelsof 15 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers anxietydidproducelowerlevelsofrecallaccuracy.Recallaccuracyincreaseswithanxietyuptoanoptimalpoint.Adrastic declineinaccuracyisseenwhenaneyewitnessexperiencesmoreanxietythantheoptimalpoint. 3 Anxietymayhavenegativeandpositiveeffectsonrecall.JohnsonandScott(1976)involvedparticipantshearing anargumentinthenextroom.Inthelow-anxietycondition,amanwalkedthroughthewaitingroomcarryingapenwith greaseonhishands.Inthehigh-anxietycondition,theheatedargumentwasaccompaniedbythesoundofbreakingglass. Amanthenwalkedthroughtheroomholdingapaperknifecoveredinblood.49%ofparticipantsinthelow-anxiety conditionwereabletoidentifythemanfromasetofphotographswhentestedlater.Thecorrespondingfigureforhighanxietyparticipantswasjust33%.Thetunneltheoryofmemoryarguesthatawitness'sattentionisontheweapon (weaponfocus),becauseitisasourceofdangerandanxiety. Incontrast,YuilleandCutshall(1986)foundveryaccuraterecallofareal-lifeshootingupto5monthsaftertheevent. Participantswhoreportedthehighestlevelsofstressweremostaccurate(about88%comparedto75%forthelessstressedgroup).ThissuggeststhatanxietycanenhanceaccuracyofEWT. YerkesandDodson(1908)arguethattherelationshipbetweenaccuracyofeyewitnesstestimonyandarousal/stressis curvilinearratherthanlinear,aninvertedUrelationship.Deffenbacher(1983)foundthatlowerlevelsofanxietydid producelowerlevelsofrecallaccuracy.Recallaccuracyincreaseswithanxietyuptoanoptimalpoint.Adrasticdeclinein accuracyisseenwhenaneyewitnessexperiencesmoreanxietythantheoptimalpoint. AlimitationofJohnsonandScott’sstudyisthatitmaytestsurprisenotanxiety.Participantsmayfocusonaweapon becausetheyaresurprisedatwhattheyseeratherthanbecausetheyarescared.Pickel(1998)usedscissors,handgun, walletandrawchickenashand-helditemsinahairdressingsalon.EWTaccuracywaspoorerforhighunusualness(chicken andhandgun).Sotheweaponfocuseffectisduetounusualnessratherthananxiety/threatandthereforetellsusnothing specificallyabouttheeffectsofanxietyonEWT. Anotherlimitationisthatthereareethicalissuesinthisresearcharea.Creatinganxietyinparticipantsispotentially unethicalbecauseitmaysubjectpeopletopsychologicalharmpurelyforresearchpurposes.Soreal-lifestudiesare beneficial:psychologistsinterviewpeoplewhohavealreadywitnessedanevent,sothereisnoneedtocreateit.Ethical issuesdon’tchallengethefindingsofstudies(e.g.JohnsonandScott)buttheydoraisequestionsaboutconductingsuch research. Theinverted-Uexplanationislimitedbecauseitistoosimplistic.Anxietyisdifficulttodefineandmeasurebecauseithas manyelements–cognitive,behavioural,emotionalandphysical.Theinverted-Uexplanationassumesthatoneoftheseis linkedtopoorperformance–physiological(physical)arousal.Theexplanationfailstoaccountforotherfactors;for exampletheeffectoftheemotionalexperienceofwitnessingacrime(e.g.terror,fear)ontheaccuracyofmemory. P47 1 Amethodofinterviewingeyewitnessestohelpthemretrievemoreaccuratememories.Itusesfourmain techniques,allbasedonwell-establishedpsychologicalknowledgeofmemory–reporteverything,reinstatethecontext, reversetheorder,andchangeperspective. 2 ToimprovetheaccuracyofEWT,thecognitiveinterviewusesfourtechniques. Reporteverything:witnessesareencouragedtoincludeeverydetailofanevent,evenifitseemsirrelevantorthewitness isnotconfidentaboutit.Seeminglytrivialdetailscouldbeimportantandmaytriggerothermemories. Reinstatethecontext:thewitnessreturnstotheoriginalcrimescene‘intheirmind’andimaginestheenvironment(e.g. theweather,whattheycouldsee)andtheiremotions(e.g.whattheyfelt)asthismaytriggerrecallasincontextdependentforgetting. Reversetheorder:eventsarerecalledinadifferentchronologicalorder(e.g.fromtheendbacktothebeginning,orfrom themiddletothebeginning).Thispreventspeopleusingtheirexpectationsofhowtheeventmusthavehappenedrather thantheactualevents. Changeperspective:witnessesrecalltheincidentfromotherpeople’sperspectives.Thispreventstheinfluenceof expectationsandschemaonrecall.Schemaarepackagesofinformationdevelopedthroughexperience.Theygeneratea frameworkforinterpretingincominginformation. 3 Reporteverything:witnessesareencouragedtoincludeeverydetailofanevent,evenifitseemsirrelevantor thewitnessisnotconfidentaboutit.Seeminglytrivialdetailscouldbeimportantandmaytriggerothermemories. Reinstatethecontext:thewitnessreturnstotheoriginalcrimescene‘intheirmind’andimaginestheenvironment(e.g. theweather,whattheycouldsee)andtheiremotions(e.g.whattheyfelt)asthismaytriggerrecallasincontextdependentforgetting. 4 See2above. 16 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers 5 ToimprovetheaccuracyofEWT,thecognitiveinterviewusesfourtechniques. Reporteverything:witnessesareencouragedtoincludeeverydetailofanevent,evenifitseemsirrelevantorthewitness isnotconfidentaboutit.Seeminglytrivialdetailscouldbeimportantandmaytriggerothermemories. Reinstatethecontext:thewitnessreturnstotheoriginalcrimescene‘intheirmind’andimaginestheenvironment(e.g. theweather,whattheycouldsee)andtheiremotions(e.g.whattheyfelt)asthismaytriggerrecallasincontextdependentforgetting. Reversetheorder:eventsarerecalledinadifferentchronologicalorder(e.g.fromtheendbacktothebeginning,orfrom themiddletothebeginning).Thispreventspeopleusingtheirexpectationsofhowtheeventmusthavehappenedrather thantheactualevents. Changeperspective:witnessesrecalltheincidentfromotherpeople’sperspectives.Thispreventstheinfluenceof expectationsandschemaonrecall.Schemaarepackagesofinformationdevelopedthroughexperience.Theygeneratea frameworkforinterpretingincominginformation. AstrengthisthatsomeelementsofthefullCIareuseful.MilneandBull(2002)foundthateachindividualelementofthe CIwasequallyvaluable.However,theyalsofoundthatacombinationof'reporteverything'and'contextreinstatement' producedbetterrecallthananyoftheothertechniquesindividually.Soatleastthesetwoelementsshouldbeusedto improvepoliceinterviewingofeyewitnessesevenifthefullCIisn'tused. AlimitationoftheCIisthatitistime-consuming.PolicearereluctanttouseCIbecauseittakesmuchmoretimethanthe standardpoliceinterview.Moretimeisneededtoestablishrapportwiththewitnesstoallowthemtorelax.Kebbelland Wagstaff(1997)pointoutthattheCIalsorequiresspecialtrainingandmanyforceshavenotbeenabletoprovidemore thanafewhours.Thismeansitisunlikelythatthe'proper'versionoftheCIisactuallyused(whichmayexplainwhypolice havenotbeenthatimpressedbyit). AnotherlimitationisthatCIproducesanincreaseininaccurateinformation.Thetechniquesofthe CIaimtoincreasetheamountofcorrectinformationrecalled,buttherecallofincorrectinformationmayalsobe increased.Köhnkenetal.(1999)foundan81%increaseincorrectinformationbutalsoa61%increaseinincorrect information(falsepositives)whentheenhancedCIwascomparedtoastandardinterview.Theincreaseincorrect informationimpliesthatpoliceshouldcontinuetouseCI.However,theresultsalsosuggestthatpoliceneedtotreatall informationcollectedwithcaution. 3.Attachment P49 1 Reciprocity:Fromaroundthreemonths,reciprocalinteractiontendstobeincreasinglyfrequent,wheneach personrespondstotheotherandelicitsaresponsefromthem.Itinvolvescloseattentiontoeachother’sverbalsignals andfacialexpressions. Interactionalsynchrony:twopeoplearesaidtobe‘synchronised’whentheycarryoutthesameactionsimultaneously. Interactionalsynchronycanbedefinedas‘thecoordinationofmicro-levelbehaviour’(Feldman2007).Ittakesplacewhen motherandinfantinteractinsuchawaythattheiractionsandemotionsmirrortheother. 2 Isabellaetal.(1989)observed20mothersandinfantstogetherandassessedthedegreeofsynchronyandthe qualityofmother–infantattachment.Theresearchersfoundthathighlevelsofsynchronywereassociatedwithbetter qualitymother–infantattachment(e.g.theemotionalintensityoftherelationship). 3 MeltzofandMoore(1977)observedthebeginningsofinteractionalsynchronyandreciprocityininfantsasyoung astwoweeksold.Anadultdisplayedoneofthreefacialexpressionsoroneofthreedistinctivegesturesandthechild’s responsewasfilmed.Anassociationwasfoundbetweentheexpression/gestureandtheactionofthechild. 4 Frombirth,babiesandtheirmothers(orothercarers)spendalotoftimeinintenseandpleasurableinteraction. Babieshaveperiodic‘alertphases’andsignaltheyarereadyforinteraction,whichmothersrespondtoaroundtwo-thirds ofthetime(FeldmanandEidleman2007). Onefeatureofcaregiver–infantinteractionisinteractionalsynchronywhichcanbedefinedas‘thecoordinationofmicrolevelbehaviour’(Feldman2007).Ittakesplacewhenmotherandinfantinteractinsuchawaythattheiractionsand emotionsmirrortheother.Synchronyprovidesthenecessaryfoundationforthemotherandinfantconnectionwhichcan bebuiltuponinsubsequentyears.Isabellaetal.(1989)observed20mothersandinfantstogetherandassessedthedegree ofsynchronyandthequalityofmother–infantattachment.Theresearchersfoundthathighlevelsofsynchronywere associatedwithbetterqualitymother–infantattachment(e.g.theemotionalintensityoftherelationship). 17 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers Reciprocityiswhenonepersonrespondstotheother.Fromaroundthreemonthsreciprocalinteractiontendstobe increasinglyfrequent,wheneachpersonrespondstotheotherandelicitsaresponsefromthem.Itinvolvescloseattention toeachother’sverbalsignalsandfacialexpressions.Brazletonetal.(1975)describedthisinteractionasa‘dance’because itisjustlikeacouple’sdancewhereeachpartnerrespondstoeachother’smoves. Alimitationofresearchintocaregiver–infantinteractionisthatitishardtoknowwhatishappeningwhenobserving infants.Manystudiesintomother–infantinteractionshaveshownthesamepatternsofbehaviour(Gratier2003). However,whatisbeingobservedismerelyhandmovementsorchangesinexpression.Itisdifficulttobesure,basedon theseobservations,whatistakingplacefromtheinfant'sperspective.Forexample,istheinfant'simitationofadultsignals consciousanddeliberate?Thismeanswecannotbecertainthatbehavioursseeninmother–infantinteractionshavea specialmeaning. Astrengthoftheresearchisthatituseswell-controlledprocedures.Mother–infantinteractionsareusuallyfilmed,often frommultipleangles.Veryfinedetailsofbehaviourcanberecordedandanalysedlater.Alsobabiesdon'tknowtheyare beingobserved,sotheirbehaviourdoesnotchangeinresponsetoobservation(generallythemainproblemfor observationresearch).Thisisastrengthofthislineofresearchbecauseitmeansthestudieshavegoodvalidity. However,observationsdon'ttellusthepurposeofsynchronyandreciprocity.Feldman(2012)pointsoutthatsynchrony (andbyimplicationreciprocity)simplydescribebehavioursthatoccuratthesametime.Thesearerobustphenomenain thesensethattheycanbereliablyobserved,butthismaynotbeparticularlyusefulasitdoesnottellustheirpurpose. However,thereissomeevidencethatreciprocityandsynchronyarehelpfulinthedevelopmentofmother–infant attachment,stressresponses,empathy,languageandmoraldevelopment. P51 1 InSchafferandEmerson’s(1964)study,75%ofchildreneventuallyformedsecondaryattachmentswiththeir fatherat18months.Thiswasindicatedbythefacttheinfantsprotestedwhentheirfatherwalkedaway,asignof attachment. InGrossman’s(2002)study,thequalityoffathers’playwithinfantswasrelatedtochildren’sattachments.Thissuggests thatfathershaveadifferentroleinattachment,onethatismoretodowithplayandstimulationandlesstodowith nurturing. 2 SchafferandEmerson(1964)foundthatthemajorityofbabiesbecameattachedtotheirmotherfirst(this happensaround7months).Inonly3%ofcaseswasthefatherthefirstsoleobjectofattachment.In27%ofcasesthe fatherwasthejointfirstobjectofattachmentwiththemother.Withinafewweeksormonthstheythenformedsecondary attachmentstootherfamilymembers,includingthefather. Grossmann(2002)carriedoutalongitudinalstudylookingatparents’behaviouranditsrelationshiptothequalityof children’sattachmentsintotheirteens.Thisresearchfoundthatqualityofattachmentwiththefatherwaslessimportant intheattachmenttypeoftheteenagersthanqualityofattachmentwiththemother.Thereforefathersmaybeless importantinlong-termemotionaldevelopment. 3 SchafferandEmerson(1964)foundthatthemajorityofbabiesbecameattachedtotheirmotherfirst(this happensaround7months).Inonly3%ofcaseswasthefatherthefirstsoleobjectofattachment.In27%ofcasesthe fatherwasthejointfirstobjectofattachmentwiththemother.Withinafewweeksormonthstheythenformedsecondary attachmentstootherfamilymembers,includingthefather. Grossmann(2002)carriedoutalongitudinalstudylookingatparents’behaviouranditsrelationshiptothequalityof children’sattachmentsintotheirteens.Thisresearchfoundthatqualityofattachmentwiththefatherwaslessimportant intheattachmenttypeoftheteenagersthanqualityofattachmentwiththemother.Thereforefathersmaybeless importantinlong-termemotionaldevelopment. Alimitationisresearchersareinterestedindifferentresearchquestions.Somepsychologistswanttounderstandtherole offathersassecondaryattachmentfigures.Butothersaremoreconcernedwithfathersasaprimaryattachmentfigure. Theformerhavetendedtoseefathersasbehavingdifferentlyfrommothersandhavingadistinctrole.Thelatterhave foundthatfatherscantakeona'maternal'role.Thisisalimitationbecauseitmeanspsychologistscannoteasilyanswer thesimplequestion:whatistheroleofthefather? Researchfailstoprovideaclearansweraboutfathersandprimaryattachments.Theanswercouldberelatedtotraditional genderroles,inwhichwomenareexpectedtobemorecaringandnurturingthanmen.Therefore,fatherssimplydon'tfeel theyshouldactinanurturingway.Oritcouldbethatfemalehormones(e.g.oestrogen)createhigherlevelsofnurturing andthereforewomenarebiologicallypredisposedtobeprimaryattachmentfigures. 18 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers Afurtherlimitationisthatsocialbiasespreventobjectiveobservation.Preconceptionsabouthowfathersbehaveare createdbycommondiscussionsaboutmothers’andfathers’parentingbehaviour.Thesestereotypes(e.g.fathersaremore playful,stricter,etc.)maycauseunintentionalobserverbiaswherebyobservers'see'whattheyexpectratherthan recordingactualreality.Assuch,conclusionsontheroleofthefatherinattachmentarehardtodisentanglefromsocial biasesabouttheirrole. P53 1 Multipleattachmentsareattachmentstotwoormorepeople.Mostbabiesappeartodevelopmultiple attachmentsoncetheyhaveformedonetrueattachmenttoamaincaregiver. 2 Intheasocialstage(firstfewweeks),thebaby’sbehaviourtowardsinanimateobjectsandhumansisquite similar.Thereissomepreferenceforfamiliaradults–babiesaremoreeasilycalmedbythem.Intheindiscriminate attachmentstage(2–7months),babiesnowdisplaymoreobservablesocialbehaviour,withapreferenceforpeoplerather thaninanimateobjects.Theyrecogniseandpreferfamiliaradultsbutdonotshowstrangerorseparationanxiety. Attachmentisindiscriminatebecauseit’sthesametowardsall.Inthespecificattachmentstage(fromaround7months), strangeranxietyandseparationanxietyareseenwhenseparatedfromoneparticularadult(theprimaryattachment figure).Babyissaidtohaveformedaspecificattachmentwiththeprimaryattachmentfigure.Thisisthebiologicalmother in655ofcases.Inthemultipleattachmentsstage(oneyear),secondaryattachmentswithotheradultsformshortlyafter. InSchafferandEmerson’sstudy,29%ofbabieshadsecondary(multiple)attachmentswithinamonthofformingaprimary (specific)attachment.Bytheageofoneyearthemajorityofinfantshadmultiplesecondaryattachments. 3 Onelimitationisthatthereisaprobleminstudyingtheasocialyear.SchafferandEmersondescribethefirstfew weeksasthe'asocial'stage,althoughimportantinteractionstakeplace.Butyoungbabieshavepoorcoordinationandare fairlyimmobile,makingitdifficulttomakejudgmentsbasedonobservationsoftheirbehaviour.Itmaybethebabiesare actuallyquitesocialbut,becauseofflawedmethodstheyappeartobeasocial. Evidenceonthetimingofmultipleattachmentsisconflicting.Bowlby(1969)arguesthatmost(orall)babiesform attachmentstoasinglemaincarerbeforetheyareabletodevelopmultipleattachments.Butmultipleattachmentsappear fromtheoutsetincultureswheremultipleattachmentsarethenorm(basedonresearchbyvanIjzendoorn1993).Such culturesarecalledcollectivistbecausefamiliesworktogetherjointlyineverything(e.g.producingfoodandraising children). 4 SchafferandEmerson(1964)studied60babiesfromGlasgow,mostfromworking-classfamilies.Babiesandtheir motherswerevisitedathomeeverymonthforayearandat 18months.Separationanxietywasmeasuredbyaskingmothersabouttheirchildren’sbehaviourduringeveryday separations(e.g.adultleavingtheroom).Strangeranxietywasmeasuredbyaskingmothersquestionsabouttheir children’sanxietyresponsetounfamiliaradults. 50%ofbabiesshowedseparationanxietytowardsaparticularadultbetween25and32weeksofage.Thisspecific (primary)attachmentwasusuallywiththemother.Attachmenttendedtobetothecaregiverwhowasmostinteractive andsensitivetoinfantsignalsandfacialexpressions(i.e.reciprocity).Thiswasnotnecessarilythepersontheinfantspent mosttimewith. 5 Intheasocialstage(firstfewweeks),thebaby’sbehaviourtowardsinanimateobjectsandhumansisquite similar.Thereissomepreferenceforfamiliaradults–babiesaremoreeasilycalmedbythem.Intheindiscriminate attachmentstage(2–7months),babiesnowdisplaymoreobservablesocialbehaviour,withapreferenceforpeoplerather thaninanimateobjects.Theyrecogniseandpreferfamiliaradultsbutdonotshowstrangerorseparationanxiety. Attachmentisindiscriminatebecauseit’sthesametowardsall.Inthespecificattachmentstage(fromaround7months), strangeranxietyandseparationanxietyareseenwhenseparatedfromoneparticularadult(theprimaryattachment figure).Babyissaidtohaveformedaspecificattachmentwiththeprimaryattachmentfigure.Thisisthebiologicalmother in655ofcases.Inthemultipleattachmentsstage(oneyear),secondaryattachmentswithotheradultsformshortlyafter. InSchafferandEmerson’sstudy,29%ofbabieshadsecondary(multiple)attachmentswithinamonthofformingaprimary (specific)attachment.Bytheageofoneyearthemajorityofinfantshadmultiplesecondaryattachments. AstrengthofSchafferandEmerson'studyisthatithasexternalvalidity.Mostoftheobservations(notstrangeranxiety) weremadebyparentsduringordinaryactivitiesandreportedtoresearchers.Sothebehaviourofthebabieswasunlikely tobeaffectedbythepresenceofobservers.Itishighlylikelythattheparticipantsbehavednaturallywhilebeingobserved. Onelimitationisthatthereisaprobleminstudyingtheasocialyear.SchafferandEmersondescribethefirstfewweeksas the'asocial'stage,althoughimportantinteractionstakeplace.Butyoungbabieshavepoorcoordinationandarefairly 19 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers immobile,makingitdifficulttomakejudgmentsbasedonobservationsoftheirbehaviour.Itmaybethebabiesareactually quitesocialbut,becauseofflawedmethodstheyappeartobeasocial. Evidenceonthetimingofmultipleattachmentsisconflicting.Bowlby(1969)arguesthatmost(orall)babiesform attachmentstoasinglemaincarerbeforetheyareabletodevelopmultipleattachments.Butmultipleattachmentsappear fromtheoutsetincultureswheremultipleattachmentsarethenorm(basedonresearchbyvanIjzendoorn1993).Such culturesarecalledcollectivistbecausefamiliesworktogetherjointlyineverything(e.g.producingfoodandraising children). 6 SchafferandEmerson(1964)studied60babiesfromGlasgow,mostfromworking-classfamilies.Babiesandtheir motherswerevisitedathomeeverymonthforayearandat 18months.Separationanxietywasmeasuredbyaskingmothersabouttheirchildren’sbehaviourduringeveryday separations(e.g.adultleavingtheroom).Strangeranxietywasmeasuredbyaskingmothersquestionsabouttheir children’sanxietyresponsetounfamiliaradults. 50%ofbabiesshowedseparationanxietytowardsaparticularadultbetween25and32weeksofage.Thisspecific (primary)attachmentwasusuallywiththemother.Attachmenttendedtobetothecaregiverwhowasmostinteractive andsensitivetoinfantsignalsandfacialexpressions(i.e.reciprocity).Thiswasnotnecessarilythepersontheinfantspent mosttimewith. AstrengthofSchafferandEmerson'studyisthatithasexternalvalidity.Mostoftheobservations(notstrangeranxiety) weremadebyparentsduringordinaryactivitiesandreportedtoresearchers.Sothebehaviourofthebabieswasunlikely tobeaffectedbythepresenceofobservers.Itishighlylikelythattheparticipantsbehavednaturallywhilebeingobserved. Anotherstrengthofthestudyisthatitwascarriedoutlongitudinally.Thismeansthatthesamechildrenwerefollowed-up andobservedregularly.Thequickeralternativewouldhavebeentoobservedifferentchildrenateachage.Thisiscalled cross-sectionaldesign.Butlongitudinaldesignshavebetterinternalvaliditybecausetheydonothavetheconfounding variableofindividualdifferencesbetweenparticipants(participantvariables). However,theremaybeaproblemwithhowmultipleattachmentisassessed.Justbecauseababygetsdistressedwhenan individualleavestheroomdoesnotnecessarilymeanthattheindividualisa'true'attachmentfigure.Bowlby(1969) pointedoutthatchildrenmaybedistressedwhenaplaymateleavestheroom,butthisdoesnotsignifyattachmentto them.SoSchafferand Emerson'sresearchdoesnotdistinguishbetweenbehaviourshowntowardssecondaryattachmentfiguresandtowards playmates. P55 1 HarryHarlow(1958)reared16rhesusmonkeyswithtwowiremodel‘mothers’.Inonecondition,milkwas dispensedbytheplainwire‘mother’.Inasecondcondition,itwasdispensedbythecloth-covered‘mothers’.Themonkeys’ preferencesweremeasured.Asafurthermeasureofattachment-likebehaviour,thereactionsofthemonkeystomore frighteningsituationswereobserved.Forexample,Harlowaddedanoisemakingteddybeartotheenvironment. Babymonkeyscuddledthesoftobjectinpreferencetothewireoneandregardlessofwhichdispensedmilk.Thissuggests thatcontactcomfortwasofmoreimportancethanfoodwhenitcametoattachmentbehaviour.Themonkeyssought comfortfromtheclothwiremotherwhenfrightened.Asadults,themonkeysthathadbeendeprivedoftheirrealmothers sufferedsevereconsequences:theyweremoreaggressive,lesssociableandlessskilledinmatingthanothermonkeys. Theyalsoneglectedandsometimeskilledtheirownoffspring. 2 KonradLorenz(1952)randomlydivided12gooseeggs,halfhatchedwiththemothergooseintheirnatural environmentandtheotherhalfhatchedinanincubatorwherethefirstmovingobjecttheysawwasLorenz.Hethenmixed allthegoslingstogethertoseewhomtheywouldfollow.Lorenzalsoobservedbirdsandtheirlatercourtshipbehaviour. TheincubatorgroupfollowedLorenz,thecontrolgroupfollowedthemother.Lorenzidentifiedacriticalperiodinwhich imprintingneedstotakeplace,e.g.fewhoursafterhatching.Ifimprintingdidnotoccurwithinthattime,chicksdidnot attachthemselvestothemotherfigure.Sexualimprintingalsooccurswherebythebirdsacquireatemplateofthe desirablecharacteristicsrequiredinamate. 3 OnelimitationofLorenz’sworkisgeneralisingfindingsandconclusionsfrombirdstohumans.Themammalian attachmentsystemisquitedifferentfromthatinbirds.Forexample,mammalianmothersshowmoreemotional attachmenttotheiryoung.ThismeansthatitisnotappropriatetogeneraliseLorenz'sideastohumans. 20 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers Guiton(1966)foundthatchickensimprintedonyellowwashing-upglovestriedtomatewiththemasadults.Butwith experiencetheylearnedtomatewiththeirownkind.ThisstudysuggeststhattheeffectsofimprintingarenotaslonglastingasLorenzbelieved. 4 Lorenz(1952)randomlydivided12gooseeggs,halfhatchedwiththemothergooseintheirnaturalenvironment andtheotherhalfhatchedinanincubatorwherethefirstmovingobjecttheysawwasLorenz.Hethenmixedallthe goslingstogethertoseewhomtheywouldfollow.Lorenzalsoobservedbirdsandtheirlatercourtshipbehaviour.The incubatorgroupfollowedLorenz,thecontrolgroupfollowedthemother.Lorenzidentifiedacriticalperiodinwhich imprintingneedstotakeplace,e.g.fewhoursafterhatching. Harlow(1958)reared16rhesusmonkeyswithtwowiremodel‘mothers’.Inonecondition,milkwasdispensedbytheplain wire‘mother’.Inasecondcondition,itwasdispensedbythecloth-covered‘mothers’.Themonkeys’preferenceswere measured.Babymonkeyscuddledthesoftobjectinpreferencetothewireoneandregardlessofwhichdispensedmilk. Thissuggeststhatcontactcomfortwasofmoreimportancethanfoodwhenitcametoattachmentbehaviour. AstrengthofLorenz’sworkissupportfortheconceptofimprinting.Guiton(1966)foundthatchicksimprintedonyellow washingupgloveswouldtrytomatewiththemasadults.Thissuggeststhatyounganimalsarebornwithaninnate mechanismtoimprintonamovingobjectpresentinthecriticalwindowofdevelopment.Thissuggeststhereisaninnate mechanismcausingayounganimaltoimprintonamovingobjectduringinthecriticalperiodofdevelopment. AstrengthisthatHarlow'sresearchhasimportantpracticalapplications.Ithashelpedsocialworkersunderstandrisk factorsinchildabuseandsointervenetopreventit(Howe1998).Wealsonowunderstandtheimportanceofattachment figuresforbabymonkeysinzoosandbreedingprogrammesinthewild.TheusefulnessofHarlow'sresearchincreasesits value. However,Harlowfacedseverecriticismfortheethicsofhisresearch.Rhesusmonkeysaresimilarenoughtohumansforus togeneralisefindings,whichalsomeanstheirsufferingwaspresumablyhuman-like.Harlowhimselfwasawareofthe sufferingcaused.Hereferredtothewiremothersas'ironmaidens’,namedafteramedievaltorturedevice.ThecounterargumentisthatHarlow'sresearchwassufficientlyimportanttojustifytheprocedures. P57 1 Thisissometimescalledthe'cupboardlove'explanationbecauseitemphasisestheimportanceoffoodin attachmentformation.Childrenlearntolovewhoeverfeedsthem. Classicalconditioninginvolveslearningtoassociatetwostimuli.InattachmenttheUCS(food)leadstoUCR(afeelingof pleasure).Acaregiver(e.g.mother)startsasaneutralstimulusbutbyprovidingfoodovertimebecomesassociatedwith food.SotheneutralstimulusbecomesaCS.OnceconditioninghastakenplacethesightofthecaregiverproducesaCRof pleasure.Accordingtoalearningtheorist,thisisthebasisofattachmentlove. Operantconditioningexplainswhybabiescryforcomfort(animportantbuildingblockforattachment).Cryingleadstoa responsefromthecaregiver(e.g.feeding).Aslongasthecaregiverprovidesthecorrectresponse,cryingisreinforced becauseitproducesapleasurableconsequence.Atthesametimeasthebabyisreinforcedforcrying,thecaregiver receivesnegativereinforcementbecausethecryingstops. 2 Animalstudiesprovideevidenceagainstfoodasthebasisofattachment.Lorenz'simprintedgeesemaintained attachmentsregardlessofwhofedthem.Harlow'smonkeysattachedtoasoftsurrogateinpreferencetoawireonewith milk.Inboththeseanimalstudies,attachmentdidnotdevelopasaresultoffeeding.Thesamemustbetrueforhumans (thatfooddoesnotcreatetheattachmentbond).Afterall,learningtheoristsbelievethatnon-humananimalsandhumans areequivalent. Learningtheoryignoresotherfactorslinkedwithattachment.Researchshowsthatqualityofattachmentisassociatedwith developingreciprocityandgoodlevelsofinteractionalsynchrony.Studiesalsoshowthatthebestqualityattachmentsare withsensitivecarerswhopickupinfantsignalsandrespondappropriately.Itisveryhardtoreconcilethesefindingswith theideathatattachmentdevelopsprimarilythroughfeeding. 3 Thisissometimescalledthe'cupboardlove'explanationbecauseitemphasisestheimportanceoffoodin attachmentformation.Childrenlearntolovewhoeverfeedsthem. Classicalconditioninginvolveslearningtoassociatetwostimuli.InattachmenttheUCS(food)leadstoUCR(afeelingof pleasure).Acaregiver(e.g.mother)startsasaneutralstimulusbutbyprovidingfoodovertimebecomesassociatedwith food.SotheneutralstimulusbecomesaCS.OnceconditioninghastakenplacethesightofthecaregiverproducesaCRof pleasure.Accordingtoalearningtheorist,thisisthebasisofattachmentlove. 21 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers Operantconditioningexplainswhybabiescryforcomfort(animportantbuildingblockforattachment).Cryingleadstoa responsefromthecaregiver(e.g.feeding).Aslongasthecaregiverprovidesthecorrectresponse,cryingisreinforced becauseitproducesapleasurableconsequence.Atthesametimeasthebabyisreinforcedforcrying,thecaregiver receivesnegativereinforcementbecausethecryingstops. Humanresearchshowsthatfeedingisnotanimportantfactor.SchafferandEmerson(1964)showedthatformanybabies aprimaryattachmentwasnottothepersonwhofedthem.Thisshowsthatfeedingisnotthekeyelementtoattachment andsothereisnounconditionedstimulusorprimarydriveinvolved.Theevidencesuggeststhatotherfactorsaremore importantthanfoodintheformationofattachment. Astrengthisthatsomeelementsofconditioningcouldstillbeinvolved.Themainproblemwithlearningtheoryistheidea thatfeedingprovidestheunconditionedstimulus,reinforcementorprimarydrive.However,manyaspectsofhuman developmentareaffectedbyconditioning,soitseemsplausiblethatitcouldstillplayaroleinattachment(butnotin relationtofeeding).Forexample,associations(classicalconditioning)betweentheprimarycaregiverandprovisionof comfortandsocialinteractioncouldbepartofwhatbuildsattachment. Thereisanewerlearningexplanationbasedonsociallearningtheory(SLT).HayandVespo(1988)suggestthatparents teachchildrentolovethembymodellingattachmentbehaviours(e.g.huggingthemandotherfamilymembers).Andalso byrewardingthemwithapprovalwhentheydisplaytheirownattachmentbehaviours('that'salovelysmile',etc.).Inthis version,babieshavelearnedattachmentbehavioursasaresultoftheirinteractions,whichfitswithresearchonthe importanceofinteractionalsynchronyandreciprocity. P59 1 Criticalperiod–Bowlbyproposedthatthereisacriticalperiodwhentheinfantattachmentsystemisactive.A childismaximallysensitiveuptotheageoftwoyears.Ifanattachmenthasnotformedinthistime,heorshewillfindit muchhardertoformonelater. Internalworkingmodel–Bowlbyarguedthatthechildformsamentalrepresentationoftherelationshipwiththeir primaryattachmentfigure.Thisinternalworkingmodelisa‘template’forwhatrelationshipsarelike.Achildwhosefirst experienceisalovingrelationshipwithareliablecaregiverwilltendtoformanexpectationthatallrelationshipsarelike this. 2 Bowlbyarguedthatattachmentisinnate,likeimprintingandprovidestheinfantwithasurvivaladvantage.He introducedtheconceptofmonotropy,theideathatthechildwillattachtooneprimaryattachmentfigure(usuallythe mother),andthatthisattachmentisdifferentfromothersandmoreimportant.Bowlbybelievedthatthemoretimeababy spentwiththisprimaryattachmentfigure/mother-figure(notnecessarilythebiologicalmother)thebetter. Babiesarebornwithsocialreleasers–asetofinnate‘cute’behaviours(e.g.smiling,cooing,gripping,etc.)thatencourage attentionfromadults.Thepurposeofthesesocialreleasersistoactivatetheadultattachmentsystem(i.e.makeanadult feellovetowardsthebaby);Bowlbyrecognisedthatattachmentisareciprocalsystem. Bowlbyproposedthatthereisacriticalperiodofabouttwoyearswhentheinfantattachmentsystemisactiveandthe childismaximallysensitivetoforminganattachment.Ifanattachmenthasnotformedinthistime,thechildwillfindit muchhardertoformonelater. Finally,thefirstattachmentformsaninternalworkingmodelofrelationships.Bowlbyarguedthatthechildformsamental representationoftherelationshipwiththeirprimaryattachmentfigureandthatthisservesasa‘template’forwhat relationshipsarelike. 3 Theevidenceformonotropyismixed.SchafferandEmerson(1964)foundthatmostbabiesdidattachtoone personatfirst,butasignificantminorityformedmultipleattachmentsatthesametime.ThiscontradictsBowlby's assertionthatbabiesformoneattachmenttoaprimarycaregiverandthatthisattachmentisunique.Attachmentto mothers(notfathers)betterpredictslaterbehaviour,butthismaybebecausemotheristheprimaryattachment,notthe differentattachmentquality. 4 Bowlbyarguedthatattachmentisinnate,likeimprintingandprovidestheinfantwithasurvivaladvantage.He introducedtheconceptofmonotropy,theideathatthechildwillattachtooneprimaryattachmentfigure(usuallythe mother),andthatthisattachmentisdifferentfromothersandmoreimportant.Bowlbybelievedthatthemoretimeababy spentwiththisprimaryattachmentfigure/mother-figure(notnecessarilythebiologicalmother)thebetter. 22 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers Babiesarebornwithsocialreleasers–asetofinnate‘cute’behaviours(e.g.smiling,cooing,gripping,etc.)thatencourage attentionfromadults.Thepurposeofthesesocialreleasersistoactivatetheadultattachmentsystem(i.e.makeanadult feellovetowardsthebaby);Bowlbyrecognisedthatattachmentisareciprocalsystem. Bowlbyproposedthatthereisacriticalperiodofabouttwoyearswhentheinfantattachmentsystemisactiveandthe childismaximallysensitivetoforminganattachment.Ifanattachmenthasnotformedinthistime,thechildwillfindit muchhardertoformonelater. Finally,thefirstattachmentformsaninternalworkingmodelofrelationships.Bowlbyarguedthatthechildformsamental representationoftherelationshipwiththeirprimaryattachmentfigureandthatthisservesasa‘template’forwhat relationshipsarelike. Thereisclearevidencetosupporttheexistenceandvalueofsocialreleasers.Brazletonetal.(1975)instructedprimary attachmentfigurestoignoretheirbabies'socialreleasers(cuteinfantbehaviours).Babies(whowerepreviouslyshownto benormallyresponsive)initiallyshowedsomedistress,buteventuallysomecurledupandlaymotionless.Thissupports Bowlby'sideasaboutthesignificanceofinfantsocialbehaviourelicitingcaregivingfromadultsandtheroleofreleasersin initiatingsocialinteraction. Thereisalsosupportfortheideaofaninternalworkingmodel.Theideaofinternalworkingmodelspredictsthatpatterns ofattachmentwillbepassedfromonegenerationtothenext.Baileyetal.(2007)studied99mothers;thosewithpoor attachmenttotheirownparentsweremorelikelytohaveone-yearoldswhowerepoorlyattached.ThissupportsBowlby’s ideaofaninternalworkingmodelofattachmentasitisbeingpassedthroughfamilies. Monotropyissociallysensitivebecauseofimplicationsformothers'lifestyle.Bowlbyarguedthatsubstantialtimeapart fromaprimaryattachmentfigurerisksapoorqualityattachmentthatwilldisadvantagethechildinarangeofways. Feminists(e.g.Burman1994)arguethatmothersareblamedforanythingthatgoeswronginachild'slifeandpushes mothersintomakinglifestylechoices,e.g.notreturningtoworkwhenachildisborn.However,thiswasnotBowlby's intention. Hesawhimselfasboostingthestatusofmothersbyemphasisingtheimportanceoftheirrole. P61 1 Secure–thechildishappytoexplorebutseeksproximitywiththecaregiver(securebase).Thechildshows moderateseparationanxietyandstrangeranxiety. Insecure–avoidant–thechildexploresfreelybutdoesnotseekproximity(nosecurebase).Itshowslittle/noseparation andstrangeranxiety. Insecure–resistant–thechildexploreslessandseeksgreaterproximity.Itshowsextremestrangerandseparationanxiety. 2 Insecure–avoidantinfantsdonotrequirecomfortfromthecaregiveruponreunionwhereasinsecure–resistant infantsresistcomfortonreunion. 3 Ainsworth(1969)developedtheStrangeSituationasawayofassessingthequalityofachild’sattachmenttoa caregiver.Itisacontrolledobservationprocedureinalab(acontrolledenvironment)withatwo-waymirrorthroughwhich psychologistscanobserveaninfant’sbehaviour.Theprocedurehasseven‘episodes’,eachlastingthreeminutes.This includesthecaregiverleavingthechildonitsownandastrangerenteringandtryingtointeractwiththechild.Thechild’s responsetobeingleftalone,thestrangerandreunionwiththemotherisobserved.Onthebasisofthechild’sbehaviour theyarejudgedtobeoneofthreeattachmenttypes:secure,insecure–avoidantandinsecure–resistant. 4 AlimitationisthattheStrangeSituationmaybeaculture-boundtest.Thetestmightnothavethesamemeaning incountriesoutsideWesternEuropeandtheUSA.Culturaldifferencesinchildren’sexperiencesmeantheyrespond differently.Alsocaregiversfromdifferentculturesbehavedifferently.Takahashi(1990)notesthatJapanesemothersare rarelyseparatedfrominfants,thustheinfantsshowhighlevelsofseparationanxietyandwouldbejudgedas‘insecure’i.e. not‘normal’,usingAinsworth’smethod. 5 Ainsworth(1969)developedtheStrangeSituationasawayofassessingthequalityofachild’sattachmenttoa caregiver.Itisacontrolledobservationprocedureinalab(acontrolledenvironment)withatwo-waymirrorthroughwhich psychologistscanobserveaninfant’sbehaviour.Theprocedurehasseven‘episodes’,eachlastingthreeminutes.This includesthecaregiverleavingthechildonitsownandastrangerenteringandtryingtointeractwiththechild.Thechild’s responsetobeingleftalone,thestrangerandreunionwiththemotherisobserved.Basedonthechild’sbehaviourthey arejudgedtobeoneofthreeattachmenttypes:secure,insecure–avoidantandinsecure–resistant. 23 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers Secureinfantsarehappytoexplorebutseekproximitywiththecaregiver(securebase).Thesechildrenshowsmoderate separationanxietyandstrangeranxiety.Insecure–avoidantchildrenexplorefreelybutdonotseekproximity(nosecure base).Theyshowlittle/noseparationandstrangeranxiety.Insecure–resistantinfantsexplorelessandseekgreater proximity.Theyshowsextremestrangerandseparationanxiety. ThereispredictivevalidityofattachmenttypesintheStrangeSituation.Itseemsattachmenttypepredictslater development;forexample,securebabiestypicallyhavegreatersuccessatschoolandmorelastingromanticrelationships. Incontrast,insecure–resistantattachmentisassociatedwiththeworstoutcomes,e.g.bullying(Kokkinos2007)andadult mentalhealthproblems(Wardetal.2006).Thisisevidenceforthevalidityoftheconceptbecauseitcanexplainfuture outcomes. AstrengthisthattheStrangeSituationshowsverygoodinter-raterreliability.Differentobserverswatchingthesame childrengenerallyagreeonattachmenttype.Bicketal.(2012)found94%agreementinoneteam.Thismaybebecausethe StrangeSituationtakesplaceundercontrolledconditionsandbecausethebehaviouralcategoriesareeasytoobserve.So wecanbeconfidentthattheattachmenttypeofaninfantidentifiedintheStrangeSituationdoesnotjustdependonwho isobservingthem. Anotherlimitationisthattemperamentmaybeaconfoundingvariable.Ainsworthassumedthatthemaininfluenceon separationandstrangeranxietywasthequalityoftheattachment.ButKagan(1982)suggeststhattemperament(the child’sgeneticallyinfluencedpersonality)isamoreimportantinfluenceonbehaviourintheStrangeSituation.This challengesthevalidityoftheStrangeSituationbecauseitsintentionistomeasurethequalityofattachment,notthe temperamentofthechild(i.e.aconfoundingvariable). P63 1 Culturalvariationsaredifferencesinnormsandvaluesthatexistbetweenpeopleindifferentgroups.In attachmentresearchitisconcernedwiththedifferencesintheproportionofchildrenofdifferentattachmenttypes. 2 VanIjzendoornandKroonenberg(1988)conductedameta-analysisof32studiesofattachmentwherethe StrangeSituationhadbeenused.Thesewereconductedineightcountries,15intheUSA.Overallthestudiesyielded resultsfor1,990children. Secureattachmentwasthemostcommonclassificationinallcountries,butrangedfrom50%inChinato75%inBritain.In individualistculturesratesofinsecure–resistantattachmentweresimilartoAinsworth’soriginalsample(allunder14%) butthiswasnottrueforthecollectivistsamplesfromChina,JapanandIsraelwhererateswereabove25%(andwhere ratesofinsecure–avoidantattachmentwerereduced). 3 Simonellietal.(2014)assessed7612-montholdsusingtheStrangeSituationtoseewhethertheproportionof attachmenttypesstillmatchedpreviousstudiesinItaly.Motherswerereasonablyvariedintermsoftheireducationlevels (57%universitydegree,40%highschool,2%didnotfinishhighschool)andtheirprofessions(48%employees,13% professionals,39%didnotworkorworkedpart-time). 4 VanIzjendoornandKroonenberg(1988)–secureattachmentwasthemostcommonclassificationinall countries,butrangedfrom50%inChinato75%inBritain.Inindividualistculturesratesofinsecure–resistantattachment weresimilartoAinsworth’soriginalsample(allunder14%)butthiswasnottrueforthecollectivistsamplesfromChina, JapanandIsraelwhererateswereabove25%(andwhereratesofinsecure–avoidantattachmentwerereduced). Variationsbetweenresultsofstudieswithinthesamecountrywereactually150%greaterthanthosebetweencountries.In theUSA,onestudyfound46%securelyattachedcomparedtoonesampleashighas90%. 5 VanIjzendoornandKroonenberg(1988)conductedameta-analysisof32studiesofattachmentwherethe StrangeSituationhadbeenused.Thesewereconductedineightcountries,15intheUSA.Overallthestudiesyielded resultsfor1,990children. Secureattachmentwasthemostcommonclassificationinallcountries,butrangedfrom50%inChinato75%inBritain.In individualistculturesratesofinsecure–resistantattachmentweresimilartoAinsworth’soriginalsample(allunder14%) butthiswasnottrueforthecollectivistsamplesfromChina,JapanandIsraelwhererateswereabove25%(andwhere ratesofinsecure–avoidantattachmentwerereduced). Variationsbetweenresultsofstudieswithinthesamecountrywereactually150%greaterthanthosebetweencountries.In theUSA,onestudyfound46%securelyattachedcomparedtoonesampleashighas90%. Alimitationisthatthesamplesusedmaynotberepresentativeofcultures.VanIjzendoornandKroonenberg’smetaanalysismadecomparisonsbetweencountries,notcultures.Withinanycountrytherearedifferentcultureseachwith 24 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers differentchildrearingpractices.Forexample,vanIjzendoornandSagi(2001)foundattachmenttypesinurbanTokyoin similarproportionstoWesternstudies.Amoreruralsampleoverrepresentedinsecure–resistantindividuals.Thismeans thatcomparisonsbetweencountries(suchasItalyorKorea)mayhavelittlemeaning.Theparticularculturalcharacteristics (andthuscaregivingstyles)ofthesampleneedtobespecified. TheStrangeSituationmethodmaybebiasedtowardsAmerican/Britishculture.TheStrangeSituationwasdesignedbyan Americanresearcher(Ainsworth)basedonaBritishtheory(Bowlby).Thistheoryandassessmentmaynotbeapplicableto othercultures.Tryingtoapplyatheoryortechniquedesignedforoneculturetoanotherisknownasimposedetic(etic meansculturaluniversals)whichdisregardsthenotionofculturalemic(culturaluniqueness).Theideathatalackof pleasureonreunionindicatesinsecureattachmentisanimposedetic.InGermanythisbehaviourmightbeseenmoreas independencethanavoidanceandnotasignofinsecurity. Thereisanalternativeexplanationforthesimilaritiesfoundbetweencultures.Bowlby'sexplanationforculturalsimilarities wasthatattachmentisinnateanduniversalsoproducesthesamekindofbehavioursallovertheworld.VanIjzendoorn andKroonenbergproposedanalternativepossibility.Theysuggestthatsmallcross-culturaldifferencesmayreflectthe effectsofthemassmedia.ManybooksandTVprogrammesarebroadcastaroundtheworldandcreateparentingnorms, sosimilaritiesinchildrearinghavebecomemorecommon. P65 1 Theemotionalandintellectualconsequencesofseparationbetweenachildandhis/hermotherormother substitute,includingloweredIQ,delinquentbehaviourandaffectionlesspsychopathy. 2 Bowlbyarguedthatcontinuousemotional(maternal)carefromamotherormother-substituteisnecessaryfor normalemotionalandintellectualdevelopment.Ifachildisseparatedfromtheirmother(withoutsubstituteemotional care)foranextendedtimeduringthefirst30months,thenpsychologicaldamageisinevitable.Forinstance,thechildwill suffermentalretardationandabnormallylowIQ.Maternaldeprivationmayalsoleadtoaffectionlesspsychopathy–the inabilitytoexperienceguiltorstrongemotionforothers.Thispreventsthepersondevelopingnormalrelationshipsandis associatedwithcriminality. 3 Alimitationisthatsourcesofevidenceformaternaldeprivationareflawed.Goldfarbstudiedwarorphanswho weretraumatisedandoftenhadpooraftercare.Thesefactorsmayhavecausedlaterdevelopmentaldifficultiesratherthan separation.Similarly,childrengrowingupfrombirthinpoorqualityinstitutionsweredeprivedofmanyaspectsofcare,not justmaternalcare.Bowlbycarriedouttheassessmentsforaffectionlesspsychopathyandthefamilyinterviewshimself, knowingwhathehopedtofind.Thismayhaveproducedbiasedresults. Thereisalsocounter-evidencewhichdoesnotsupportBowlby'sfindings.Lewis(1954)partiallyreplicatedthe44thieves studyonalargerscale,lookingat500youngpeople.Earlyprolongedmaternalseparationdidnotpredictcriminalityor difficultyformingcloserelationships.ThisisalimitationofBowlby’stheorybecauseitsuggeststhatotherfactorsmay affecttheoutcomeofearlymaternalseparation. 4 ThesampleinBowlby’s(1944)studywas44delinquentteenagersaccusedofstealing. Familieswerealsointerviewedtoestablishanyprolongedseparationsfrommothers.All‘thieves’wereinterviewedfor signsofaffectionlesspsychopathy:characterisedbyalackofaffection,guiltandempathy. Ofthe44thieves,14couldbedescribedasaffectionlesspsychopaths.Ofthese,12hadexperiencedprolongedseparation fromtheirmothersinthefirsttwoyearsoftheirlives.Incontrastonly5oftheremaining30'thieves'hadexperienced separations.Thissuggestsprolongedearlyseparation/deprivationcausedaffectionlesspsychopathy. 5 AccordingtoBowlby,continuousemotional(maternal)carefromamotherormother-substituteisnecessaryfor normalemotionalandintellectualdevelopment.Ifachildisseparatedfromtheirmother(withoutsubstituteemotional care)foranextendedtimeduringthefirst30months–thecriticalperiod–thenpsychologicaldamageisinevitable. Maternaldeprivation,amongstotherthings,lowersIQ.Ifachildisdeprivedofmaternalcarefortoolongduringthecritical periodtheywillsuffermentalretardationandabnormallylowIQ.Goldfarb(1947)foundlowerIQsinchildrenfrom institutionscomparedtofosteredchildren.Lackofemotionalcaremayalsoleadtoaffectionlesspsychopathy–the inabilitytoexperienceguiltorstrongemotionforothers.Thispreventsthepersondevelopingnormalrelationshipsandis associatedwithcriminality.Bowlby’s(1944)44thievesstudydemonstratedhowjuveniledelinquentswhoexperienced prolongedseparationfromtheirmothersduringtheirearlyyearsweremorelikelytoshowevidenceofthispersonality type. Astrengthofthetheoryisthatanimalstudieshavedemonstratedmaternaldeprivation.Mostpsychologistsarecriticalof thematernaldeprivationtheory,butonelineofresearchsupportstheideathatmaternaldeprivationcanhavelong-term effects.Levyetal.(2003)showedthatseparatingbabyratsfromtheirmotherforasalittleasadayhadapermanent 25 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers effectonsocialdevelopment.However,thereisalwayssomedoubtovertheextenttowhichanimalstudieslikethiscanbe generalisedtohumanbehaviour. Laterresearchsuggeststhatthecriticalperiodismoreofasensitiveperiod.Koluchová’s(1976)casestudyofCzechtwin boysisolatedfromage18months(lockedinacupboard).Latertheywerelookedafterbytwolovingadultsandappeared torecoverfully.Showsthatseveredeprivationcanhavepositiveoutcomesprovidedthechildhassomesocialinteraction andgoodaftercare.CasesliketheCzechtwinsshowthattheperiodidentifiedbyBowlbymaybea'sensitive'onebutit cannotbecritical. AlimitationisthatBowlbydidn’tdistinguishbetweendeprivationandprivation.Rutter(1981)distinguishedbetween deprivation(thelossoftheprimaryattachmentfigureafterattachmenthasdeveloped)andprivation(thefailuretoform anyattachmentatall).Rutterarguesthattheseverelong-termdamageBowlbyassociatedwithdeprivationisactually morelikelytobetheresultofprivation.Manyofthe44thievesinBowlby'sstudyhadmovedfromhometohomeduring theirchildhoodsomayhaveneverformedattachmentsinthefirstplace.Thiscouldbethecauseoftheiraffectionless psychopathyratherthandeprivation. P67 1 Aninstitutionreferstoaplacelikeahospitaloranorphanagewherechildrenliveforlong,continuousperiods.In suchplaces,thereisverylittleemotionalcareprovidedandthismayhavelong-termeffectsonthechild’sdevelopment. 2 Rutteretal.(2011)followedagroupof165Romanianorphanswhoexperiencedverypoorconditionsbefore beingadoptedinBritain.Physical,cognitiveandemotionaldevelopmenthasbeenassessedat4,6,11and15years.The studyalsofollowedacontrolgroupof52adoptedBritishchildren. HalfoftheorphansshowedmentalretardationwhentheycametotheUK.Atage11,recoveryrateswererelatedtotheir ageofadoption:ThoseadoptedbeforesixmonthshadameanIQof102.Thoseadoptedbetweensixmonthsandtwo yearshadameanIQof86.ThoseadoptedaftertwoyearshadameanIQof77. 3 SeeQ2. 4 Rutteretal(2011)followedagroupof165Romanianorphanswhoexperiencedverypoorconditionsbefore beingadoptedinBritain.Physical,cognitiveandemotionaldevelopmenthasbeenassessedat4,6,11and15years.The studyalsofollowedacontrolgroupof52adoptedBritishchildren. HalfoftheorphansshowedmentalretardationwhentheycametotheUK.Atage11recoveryrateswererelatedtotheir ageofadoption:ThoseadoptedbeforesixmonthshadameanIQof102.Thoseadoptedbetweensixmonthsandtwo yearshadameanIQof86.ThoseadoptedaftertwoyearshadameanIQof77. Frequencyofdisinhibitedattachmentrelatedtotheageofadoption.Itwasapparentinchildrenadoptedaftertheywere sixmonthsold:theyshowedclinginess,attention-seekingandindiscriminateaffectiontostrangers.Itwasrareinchildren adoptedbeforetheageofsixmonths.Thesefindingssupporttheviewthatthereisasensitiveperiodinthedevelopment ofattachments–afailuretoformanattachmentbeforetheageofsixmonthsappearstohavelong-lastingeffects. StudyingRomanianorphanshasimportantpracticalapplications.Resultsfromthisresearchhaveledtoimprovementsin thewaychildrenarecaredforininstitutions(Langton2006).Children'shomesnowavoidhavinglargenumbersof caregiversforeachchild.Theyhaveoneortwo'keyworkers'whoplayacentralrole.Thisgivesthechildachanceto developnormalattachmentsandavoiddisinhibitedattachments,immenselyvaluableinpracticalterms. Alimitationisthatchildrenwerenotrandomlyassignedtoconditions.Rutteretal.didnotinterferewiththeadoption process,sothosechildrenadoptedearlymayhavebeenmoresociableones,aconfoundingvariable.Tocontrolforsuch variables,theBucharestEarlyInterventionstudydidrandomlyassigntheorphanstoinstitutionalcareorfostering.Thisis methodologicallybetterbecauseitremovestheconfoundingvariableofsomechildrenbeingselectedbyparents,butit raisesethicalissues. Thelong-termeffectsofearlyexperiencearenotyetclear.Itistoosoontosayforcertainwhetherchildrensufferedshort- orlong-termeffectsbecausetheadoptedorphanshaveonlybeenfollowedintotheirmid-teens.Thechildrenwhospent longerininstitutionsandcurrentlylagbehindinintellectualdevelopmentordisplayattachmentdifficultiesmaystill'catch up'asadults.Equally,early-adopted/fosteredchildrenwhoappeartohavenoissuesnowmayexperienceemotional problemsasadults. P69 26 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers 1 Bowlbyarguedthatthechildformsamentalrepresentationoftherelationshipwiththeirprimaryattachment figure.Thisinternalworkingmodelisa‘template’forwhatrelationshipsarelike.Achildwhosefirstexperienceisaloving relationshipwithareliablecaregiverwilltendtoformanexpectationthatallrelationshipsarelikethis. 2 Thequalityofachild'sfirstattachmentiscrucialbecauseitprovidesatemplatethatwillaffectthenatureoftheir futurerelationships.Thisisduetotheinfluenceoftheinternalworkingmodelcreatedbythatfirstattachment.Achild whosefirstexperienceisofalovingrelationshipwithareliablecaregiverassumesthisishowallrelationshipsaremeantto be.Theywillthenseekoutfunctionalrelationshipsandbehavefunctionallywithinthem.Achildwithbadexperiencesof theirfirstattachmentwillbringtheseexperiencestobearonlaterrelationships.Thismaymeantheystruggletoform relationshipsinthefirstplaceortheydonotbehaveappropriatelyinthem.Securelyattachedinfantstendtogoontoform thebestqualitychildhoodfriendships(Kerns1994). Securelyattachedinfantsarelesslikelytobeinvolvedinbullyingwhereasinsecure–avoidantchildrenaremostlikelytobe victimsandinsecure–resistantaremostlikelytobebullies(Myron-WilsonandSmith1998). 3 HazanandShaver(1987)analysed620repliestoa‘lovequiz’printedinanAmericanlocalnewspaper.Thequiz assessedthreedifferentaspectsofrelationships: •Respondents’currentandmostimportantrelationship. •Generalloveexperiences. •Attachmenttype. 56%ofrespondentswereidentifiedassecurelyattached,with25%insecure–avoidantand19%insecure–resistant.Their attachmenttypewasreflectedintheirromanticrelationships.Securerespondentswerethemostlikelytohavegoodand longerlastingromanticrelationships.Avoidantrespondentstendedtobejealousandfearintimacy. 4 Thequalityofachild'sfirstattachmentiscrucialbecauseitprovidesatemplatethatwillaffectthenatureoftheir futurerelationships(internalworkingmodel).Achildwithbadexperiencesoftheirfirstattachmentwillbringthese experiencestobearonlaterrelationships.Thismaymeantheystruggletoformrelationshipsinthefirstplaceortheydo notbehaveappropriatelyinthem.Securelyattachedinfantstendtogoontoformthebestqualitychildhoodfriendships (Kerns1994). Securelyattachedinfantsarelesslikelytobeinvolvedinbullyingwhereasinsecure–avoidantchildrenaremostlikelytobe victimsandinsecure–resistantaremostlikelytobebullies(Myron-WilsonandSmith1998). Peoplebasetheirparentingstyleontheirinternalworkingmodelsoattachmenttypetendstobepassedonthrough generationsofafamily.HazanandShaver(1987)foundthatattachmenttypewasreflectedinlaterromanticrelationships. SecurerespondentstotheLoveQuizwerethemostlikelytohavegoodandlongerlastingromanticrelationships.Avoidant respondentstendedtobejealousandfearintimacy. Alimitationisthattheevidenceoncontinuityofattachmentismixed.Internalworkingmodelspredictthatattachment typeininfancyisusuallythesameasthatcharacterisingtheperson'sfuturerelationships.However,Zimmerman(2000) assessedinfantattachmenttypeandadolescentattachmentstoparents.Therewasverylittlerelationshipbetweenquality ofinfantandadolescentattachment.Thisisalimitationbecauseitisnotwhatwewouldexpectifinternalworkingmodels wereimportantindevelopment. Severalstudiesindicateassociationsbutthisisnotthesameascausation.Therearealternativeexplanationsforthe continuitythatoftenexistsbetweeninfantandlaterrelationships.Thechild'stemperamentmayinfluencebothinfant attachmentandthequalityoflaterrelationships.ThisisalimitationbecauseitiscountertoBowlby'sviewthattheinternal workingmodelcausedtheseoutcomes. Theinfluenceofinfantattachmentonfuturerelationshipsisexaggerated.ClarkeandClarke(1998)describetheinfluence ofinfantattachmentonlaterrelationshipsasprobabilistic.Peoplearenotdoomedtoalwayshavebadrelationships becausetheyhadattachmentproblems.Theyjusthaveagreaterriskofproblems.Byover-emphasisingthisriskwe becometoopessimisticaboutpeople'sfutures. Approaches P71 1 Thefirstsystematicexperimentalattempttostudythemindbybreakingupconsciousawarenessintobasic structuresofthoughts,imagesandsensations.Isolatingthestructureofconsciousnessinthiswayiscalledstructuralism. 2 In1879,Wundtopenedthefirstexperimentalpsychologylabwiththeaimofdescribingthenatureofhuman consciousness(the‘mind’).Hepioneeredthemethodofintrospection–thefirstattempttostudythemindbybreakingup consciousawarenessintobasicstructuresofthoughts,imagesandsensations.Isolatingthestructureofconsciousnessin thiswayiscalledstructuralism.Thesamestandardisedinstructionsweregiventoallparticipantssoprocedurescouldbe 27 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers repeated(replicated).Forinstance,participantsweregivenatickingmetronomeandtheywouldreporttheirthoughts, imagesandsensations,whichwerethenrecorded. Wundtrecordedtheintrospectionswithinacontrolledlabenvironmentandallparticipantsweretestedinthesameway. Forthisreason,Wundt'sresearchcanbeconsideredaforerunnertothelaterscientificapproachesinpsychology.Other aspectsofthisresearchwouldbeconsideredunscientific,however.Wundtreliedonparticipantsself-reportingtheir 'private'mentalprocesses.Suchdataissubjectiveandparticipantsmaynothavewantedtorevealsomeofthethoughts theywerehaving.Participantswouldalsonothavehadexactlythesamethoughtseverytime,soestablishinggeneral principleswouldnothavebeenpossible(oneofthekeyaimsofscience). 3 Watson(1913)arguedthatintrospectionwassubjective,inthatitvariedfrompersontoperson.Accordingtothe behaviouristapproach,‘scientific’psychologyshouldonlystudyphenomenathatcanbeobservedandmeasured.B.F. Skinner(1953)broughtthelanguageandrigourofthenaturalsciencesintopsychology.Thebehaviourists’focuson learning,andtheuseofcarefullycontrolledlabstudies,woulddominatepsychologyforthenextfewdecades. Manyclaimthatascientificapproachtothestudyofhumanthoughtandexperienceisnotpossible,norisitdesirable,as thereareimportantdifferencesbetweenthesubjectmatterofpsychologyandthenaturalsciences.Also,thereare approachesinpsychologythatemploymethodsthataremuchlessrigorousandcontrolledthanthebehaviouristapproach –suchasthehumanisticandpsychodynamicapproacheswhichrelyonmoresubjectivemethodssuchascasestudies. P73 1 Thebehaviouristapproachisonlyconcernedwithstudyingbehaviourthatcanbeobservedandmeasured.It isnotconcernedwithmentalprocessesofthemind.Introspectionwasrejectedbybehaviouristsasits conceptswerevagueanddifficulttomeasure. 2 FollowingDarwin,behaviouristssuggesttheprocessesthatgovernlearningarethesameinallspecies,soanimals(e.g. rats,cats,dogsandpigeons)canreplacehumansasexperimentalsubjects.Subsequently,thebasiclawsoflearningcanbe generalisedtohumanbehaviour. 2 Ratsandpigeons,wereplacedinspeciallydesignedcages(Skinnerboxes).Whenaratactivatedalever(ora pigeonpeckedadisc)itwasrewardedwithafoodpellet.Adesirableconsequenceledtobehaviourbeingrepeated.If pressingalevermeantananimalavoidedanelectricshock,thebehaviourwouldalsoberepeated. 3 Positivereinforcement–receivingarewardwhenbehaviourisperformedmakesitmorelikelytoberepeated. Thusachildcouldbeencouragedtocomeat9pmbybeingallowedtostayoutuntil10pmthefollowingnightiftheydo. Negativereinforcement–whenananimalorhumanproducesbehaviourthatavoidssomethingunpleasant.Beforethe childleavesthehousetheycouldbewarnedthatiftheyarenotinat9pm,theywillbegroundedfortherestoftheweek. 4 Thebehaviouristapproachisonlyconcernedwithstudyingbehaviourthatcanbeobservedandmeasured.Itis notconcernedwithmentalprocessesofthemind.Introspectionwasrejectedbybehaviouristsasitsconceptswerevague anddifficulttomeasure.Behaviouriststriedtomaintainmorecontrolandobjectivitywithintheirresearchandreliedon labstudiestoachievethis.Theyalsosuggestthattheprocessesthatgovernlearningarethesameinallspecies,soanimals (e.g.rats,cats,dogsandpigeons)canreplacehumansasexperimentalsubjects. Pavlovintroducedtheconceptofclassicalconditioningbytrainingdogstosalivatetothesoundofabell.Pavlovshowed howaneutralstimulus(bell)cancometoelicitanewlearnedresponse(conditionedresponse)throughassociation–by presentingthebellandfoodtogetheronseveraloccasions. Skinnerplacedratsandpigeonsinspeciallydesignedcages(Skinnerboxes).Whenaratactivatedalever(orapigeon peckedadisc)itwasrewardedwithafoodpellet.Adesirableconsequenceledtobehaviourbeingrepeated.Ifpressinga levermeantananimalavoidedanelectricshock,thebehaviourwouldalsoberepeated.Thisisoperantconditioning– behaviourisshapedandmaintainedbyitsconsequences. Astrengthofbehaviourismisthatitgavepsychologyscientificcredibility.Theapproachfocusedonthecareful measurementofobservablebehaviourwithincontrolledlabsettings.Behaviouristsemphasisedtheimportanceof scientificprocessessuchasobjectivityandreplication.Thisbroughtthelanguageandmethodsofthenaturalsciencesinto psychology,givingthesubjectgreatercredibilityandstatus. Thelawsoflearningdevelopedbybehaviouristshavereal-lifeapplication.Theprinciplesofconditioninghavebeenapplied toabroadrangeofreal-worldbehavioursandproblems.Tokeneconomysystemsrewardappropriatebehaviourwith tokensthatareexchangedforprivileges(operantconditioning).Thistechniquehasbeensuccessfullyusedinprisonsand 28 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers psychiatricwards.Treatmentslikethesearesuitableforpatientswholack'insight'intotheirconditionandarenotcapable oftalkingabouttheirproblems. Alimitationisthebehaviouristapproachportraysamechanisticviewofhumanbehaviour.Animalsandhumansareseen aspassiveandmachine-likeresponderstotheenvironment,withlittleconsciousinsightintotheirbehaviour.Other approaches,suchassociallearningtheoryandthecognitiveapproach,haveplacedmuchmoreemphasisonthemental eventsthatoccurduringlearning.Processesthatmediatebetweenstimulusandresponsesuggestthathumansplaya muchmoreactiveroleintheirownlearning. P75 1 Childrenaremorelikelytoimitatethebehaviourofpeoplewithwhomtheyidentify.Suchrolemodelsaresimilar totheobserver,tendtobeattractiveandhavehighstatus.Forinstance,alittleboymayidentifywithJustinBieber becauseofhispopularity,attractivenessandboundlesstalent. 2 Inacontrolledobservation,childrenwatchedeither:anadultbehavingaggressivelytowardsaBobodoll;oran adultbehavingnon-aggressivelytowardsaBobodoll.Whengiventheirowndolltoplaywith,thechildrenwhohadseen aggressionweremuchmoreaggressivetowardsthedoll.Thissuggestthatchildrenmaylearnaggressivebehaviour throughobservationandimitationofadultrolemodels. 3 Tolearntobakeacakeachildmustfirstpayattentiontotheactionsofitsmother.Thechildmuststorethe sequenceofeventsinmemory(retention)–theingredients,rollingoutthedough,etc.Thechildmustbecapableof reproducingthebehaviour–theymusthaveaccesstothecorrectutensilsandbephysicallycapableofimitatingthe actions.Finally,thechildmustbemotivatedtoreproducethebehaviour.Theymayhaveobservedcake-makingbehaviour beingrewardedinthepast–suchasthelookontheirmum’shappyfacewhentuckingintowhatshehasmade(vicarious reinforcement). 4 Banduraagreedwiththebehaviouristapproachthatlearningoccursthroughexperience. However,healsoproposedthatlearningtakesplaceinasocialcontextthroughobservationandimitationofothers' behaviour.Children(andadults)observeotherpeople’sbehaviourandtakenoteofitsconsequences.Behaviourthatis seentoberewarded(reinforced)ismuchmorelikelytobecopiedthanbehaviourthatispunished.Banduracalledthis vicariousreinforcement.Mediational(cognitive)processesplayacrucialroleinlearning.Therearefourmediational processesinlearning: 1.Attention–whetherbehaviourisnoticed. 2.Retention–whetherbehaviourisremembered. 3.Motorreproduction–beingabletodoit. 4.Motivation–thewilltoperformthebehaviour. Thefirsttworelatetothelearningofbehaviour,thelasttwototheperformanceofbehaviour(so,unlikebehaviourism, learningandperformancedonothavetooccurtogether). Finally,identificationwithrolemodelsisalsoimportant.Childrenaremorelikelytoimitatethebehaviourofpeoplewith whomtheyidentify.Suchrolemodelsaresimilartotheobserver,tendtobeattractiveandhavehighstatus. AstrengthisSLTemphasisestheimportanceofcognitivefactorsinlearning.Neitherclassicalconditioningnoroperant conditioningcanofferacomprehensiveaccountofhumanlearningontheirownbecausecognitivefactorsareomitted. Humansandanimalsstoreinformationaboutthebehaviourofothersandusethistomakejudgementsaboutwhenitis appropriatetoperformcertainactions.SLTprovidesamorecompleteexplanationofhumanlearningthanthebehaviourist approachbyrecognisingtheroleofmediationalprocesses. AlimitationisSLTreliestooheavilyonevidencefromcontrolledlabstudies.ManyofBandura'sideasweredeveloped throughobservationofchildren'sbehaviourinlabsettingsandthisraisestheproblemofdemandcharacteristics.Themain purposeofaBobodollistohitit.Sothechildreninthosestudiesmayhavebeenbehavingastheythoughtwasexpected. Thustheresearchmaytelluslittleabouthowchildrenactuallylearnaggressionineverydaylife. AnotherlimitationisthatSLTunderestimatestheinfluenceofbiologicalfactors.AconsistentfindingintheBobodoll experimentswasthatboysshowedmoreaggressionthangirlsregardlessofthespecificsoftheexperimentalcondition. Thismaybeexplainedbydifferencesinthelevelsoftestosterone,whichispresentingreaterquantitiesinboysandis linkedtoaggression.ThismeansthatBanduramayhaveunderplayedtheimportantinfluenceofbiologicalfactorsonsocial learning. P77 29 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers 1 Schemaarepackagesofinformationdevelopedthroughexperience.Theyactasa‘mentalframework’forthe interpretationofincominginformationreceivedbythecognitivesystem.Babiesarebornwithsimplemotorschemafor innatebehaviourssuchassuckingandgrasping,butaswegetolder,ourschemabecomemoresophisticated. 2 Atheoreticalmodelisasequenceofboxesandarrows,oftenrepresentedasaflowdiagram,whichrepresentthe passageofinformationthroughthecognitivesystem.Theinformationprocessingapproachsuggeststhatinformationflows throughasequenceofstagesthatincludeinput,storageandretrieval,asinthemulti-storemodel.Thismodelshowshow sensoryinformationisregistered,thenpassedthroughSTMandLTMwhereitisretainedunlessforgotten. 3 Cognitiveneuroscienceisthescientificstudyoftheinfluenceofbrainstructures(neuro)onmentalprocesses (cognition).Withadvancesinbrainscanningtechnologyinthelasttwentyyears,scientistshavebeenabletodescribethe neurologicalbasisofmentalprocessing.Thisinvolvespinpointingthosebrainareas/structuresthatcontrolparticular cognitiveprocesses.Thisincludesresearchinmemorythathaslinkedepisodicandsemanticmemoriestooppositesidesof theprefrontalcortexinthebrain.Scanningtechniqueshavealsoprovedusefulinestablishingtheneurologicalbasisof somedisorders,e.g.theparahippocampalgyrusandOCD. 4 Indirectcontrasttothebehaviouristapproach,thecognitiveapproacharguesthatmentalprocessesshouldbe studied,e.g.studyingperceptionandmemory.Mentalprocessesare'private'andcannotbeobserved,socognitive psychologistsstudythemindirectlybymakinginferences(assumptions)aboutwhatisgoingoninsidepeople'sheadson thebasisoftheirbehaviour.Cognitivepsychologistsemphasisetheimportanceofschema:packagesofinformation developedthroughexperiencewhichactasa‘mentalframework’fortheinterpretationofincominginformationreceived bythecognitivesystem. Cognitivepsychologistshavealwaysemployedcontrolledandrigorousmethodsofstudy,e.g.labstudies,inordertoinfer cognitiveprocessesatwork.Thishasenabledthetwofieldsofbiologyandcognitivepsychologytocometogether (cognitiveneuroscience)andmeansthatthestudyofthemindhasestablishedacredible,scientificbasis. However,althoughtherearesimilaritiesbetweentheoperationsofthehumanmindandacomputer(inputsandoutputs, centralprocessor,storagesystems),thecomputeranalogyhasbeencriticised.Forinstance,humanemotionand motivationhavebeenshowntoinfluenceaccuracyofrecall,e.g.ineyewitnessaccounts.Therefore,thecognitiveapproach oversimplifieshumancognitiveprocessingandignoresimportantaspectsthatinfluenceperformance. 5 Indirectcontrasttothebehaviouristapproach,thecognitiveapproacharguesthatmentalprocessesshouldbe studied,e.g.studyingperceptionandmemory.Mentalprocessesare'private'andcannotbeobserved,socognitive psychologistsstudythemindirectlybymakinginferences(assumptions)aboutwhatisgoingoninsidepeople'sheadson thebasisoftheirbehaviour.Cognitivepsychologistsemphasisetheimportanceofschema:packagesofinformation developedthroughexperiencewhichactasa‘mentalframework’fortheinterpretationofincominginformationreceived bythecognitivesystem. Theoreticalmodelsareusedtodescribeandexplainhow‘unseen’cognitiveprocesseswork.Theinformationprocessing modelsuggeststhatinformationflowsthroughthecognitivesysteminasequenceofstagesthatincludeinput,storageand retrieval,asinthemulti-storemodelofmemoryThe‘computeranalogy’suggestssimilaritiesinhowcomputersandhuman mindsprocessinformation.Forinstance,theuseofacentralprocessor(thebrain),changingofinformationintoauseable codeandtheuseof‘stores’toholdinformation. Thecognitiveapproachisbasedonresearchthatlacksexternalvalidity.Cognitivepsychologistsareonlyabletoinfer mentalprocessesfromthebehaviourtheyobserve,sotheapproachsometimessuffersfrombeingtooabstractand theoretical.Also,researchisoftencarriedoutusingartificialstimuli,suchasrecallofwordlistsinstudiesofmemory, whichmaynotrepresenteverydayexperience.Therefore,researchintocognitiveprocessesmaylackexternalvalidity. Astrengthoftheapproachistheapplicationtoeverydaylife.Thecognitiveapproachisdominantinpsychologytodayand hasbeenappliedtoawiderangeofpracticalandtheoreticalcontexts.Forinstance,theapproachhasmadeanimportant contributiontothefieldofartificialintelligence(AI)andthedevelopmentofrobots.Theseexcitingadvancesarelikelyto revolutionisehowweliveinthefuture. Anotherstrengthisthattheapproachislessdeterministthanotherapproaches.Thecognitiveapproachisbasedonsoft determinism,recognisingthatourcognitivesystemcanonlyoperatewithincertainlimits,butthatwearefreetothink beforerespondingtoastimulus.Thisisincontrasttothebehaviouristapproachwhichsuggeststhatwearepassive'slaves' totheenvironmentandlackfreechoiceinourbehaviour.Forthisreason,thecognitiveapproachtakesamorereasonable andflexiblemiddle-groundpositioninthefreewill-determinismdebate. P79 30 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers 1 Behaviourhasageneticandneurochemicalbasis.Behavioursareinheritedinthesamewayasphysical characteristicssuchasheightoreyecolour.Forexample,the5HT1-DbetageneimplicatedinOCD.Neurochemistryalso explainsbehaviour,forexamplelowlevelsofserotonininOCD. Themindandbodyareoneandthesame.Fromabiologicalperspective,themindlivesinthebrain–meaningthatall thoughts,feelingsandbehaviourultimatelyhaveaphysicalbasis.Thisisincontrasttothecognitiveapproachwhichsees themindasseparatefromthebrain. 2 Aperson’sgenotypeistheiractualgeneticmake-up.Phenotypeisthewaythatgenesareexpressedthrough physical,behaviouralandpsychologicalcharacteristics.Theexpressionofgenotype(phenotype)isinfluencedby environmentalfactors.Forexample,PKUisageneticdisorder(genotype),theeffectsofwhichcanbepreventedbya restricteddiet(phenotype). 3 Anygeneticallydeterminedbehaviourthatenhancessurvivalandreproductionwillbepassedontofuture generations.Suchgenesaredescribedasadaptiveandgivethepossessorandtheiroffspringadvantages.Forinstance, attachmentbehavioursinnew-bornspromotesurvivalandarethereforeadaptiveandnaturallyselected. 4 Accordingtothebiologicalapproach,everythingpsychologicalisatfirstbiological.Ifwewanttofullyunderstand humanbehaviourwemustlooktobiologicalstructuresandprocesseswithinthebody,suchasgenes,neurochemistryand thenervoussystem.Behaviourhasageneticandneurochemicalbasis.Behavioursareinheritedinthesamewayas physicalcharacteristicssuchasheightoreyecolour.Forexample,the5HT1-DbetageneimplicatedinOCD. Themindandbodyareoneandthesame.Fromabiologicalperspective,themindlivesinthebrain –meaningthatallthoughts,feelingsandbehaviourultimatelyhaveaphysicalbasis.Thisisincontrasttothecognitive approach,whichseesthemindasseparatefromthebrain. Twinstudiesareusedtoinvestigatethegeneticbasisofbehaviour.Concordanceratesbetweentwinsarecalculated–the extenttowhichtwinssharethesamecharacteristic.Higherconcordanceratesamongidentical(monozygotic,MZ)twins thannon-identical(dizygotic,DZ)twinsisevidenceofageneticbasis.Forexample,68%ofMZtwinsbothhaveOCD comparedwith31%ofDZtwins(Nestadtetal.2010). Astrengthoftheapproachisitsuseofscientificmethodsofinvestigation.Inordertoinvestigatethegeneticandbiological basisofbehaviour,thebiologicalapproachmakesuseofarangeofpreciseandhighlyscientificmethods.Theseinclude scanningtechniquesanddrugtrials.Itispossibletoaccuratelymeasurebiologicalandneuralprocessesinwaysthatare notopentobias.Thismeansthatthebiologicalapproachisbasedonreliabledata. Thebiologicalapproachhasreal-lifeapplication.Increasedunderstandingofbiochemicalprocessesinthebrainhasledto thedevelopmentofpsychoactivedrugsthattreatseriousmentaldisorders,suchasdepression.Althoughthesedrugsare noteffectiveforallpatients,theyhaverevolutionisedtreatmentformany.Thisisastrengthoftheapproachbecauseit meansthatsufferersareabletolivearelativelynormallife,ratherthaninhospital. Amethodologicalproblemfortheapproachisthedifficultyofseparatingnatureandnurture.Identicaltwins,non-identical twinsandmembersofthesamefamilyallhavegeneticsimilarities,soanysimilarityinthewaytheybehavemustbe geneticfromabiologicalperspective.However,thefactthatfamilymembersareexposedtosimilarenvironmental conditionsisanimportantconfoundingvariable.Thisisaproblemforthebiologicalapproachbecausefindingscouldbe justaseasilyinterpretedassupportingnurtureratherthannature. P81 1 Whenastressorisperceived–forinstance,yourpsychologyteachertellsyouyouhaveanimportanttestinthe morning–thehypothalamustriggersactivityinthesympatheticbranchoftheANS.TheANSchangesfromitsnormal restingstate(theparasympatheticstate)tothephysiologicallyarousedsympatheticstate.Thestresshormoneadrenaline isreleasedfromtheadrenalmedullaintothebloodstream.Adrenalinetriggersphysiologicalchangesinthebody,e.g. increasedheartrate,dilationofthepupils,decreasedproductionofsaliva.Thisiscalledthefightorflightresponse.The bodywillslowlyreturntoitsrestingstatebuttheresponsemaybereactivatedwhenyouwalkintothetestroominthe morning! 2 Theautonomicnervoussystem(ANS)governsvitalfunctionsinthebodysuchasbreathing,heartrate,digestion, sexualarousalandstressresponses. Thesomaticnervoussystem(SNS)controlsmusclemovementandreceivesinformationfromsensoryreceptors. 31 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers 3 Themajorendocrineglandisthepituitarygland,locatedinthebrain.Itiscalledthe‘mastergland’becauseit controlsthereleaseofhormonesfromalltheotherendocrineglandsinthebody. Theadrenalglandsecretesadrenalinewhichisreleasedduringthestressresponseandcausesphysiologicalchangesinthe body,suchasincreasedheart-rate. 4 Thenervoussystemisaspecialisednetworkofcellsandourbody’sprimarycommunicationsystem.The endocrinesystemworksalongsidethenervoussystemtocontrolvitalfunctionsinthebodythroughtheactionof hormones.Theendocrinesystemsupportsthenervoussystem.However,theendocrinesystemworksmuchmoreslowly thanthenervoussystembuthaswidespreadandpowerfuleffects. P83 1 MotorneuronsconnecttheCNStoeffectorssuchasmusclesandglandswhereasrelayneuronsconnectsensory neuronstomotororotherrelayneurons. 2 Neuronsvaryinsizebutallhavethesamebasicstructure: Cellbody(orsoma)–includesanucleuswhichcontainsthegeneticmaterialofthecell. Dendrites–branch-likestructuresthatcarrynerveimpulsesfromneighbouringneuronstowardsthecellbody. Axon–carriestheelectricalimpulseawayfromthecellbodydowntheneuron. Terminalbuttonsattheendoftheaxoncommunicatewiththenextneuroninthechainacrossthesynapse. 3 Neurotransmittersgenerallyhaveeitheranexcitatoryorinhibitoryeffectontheneighbouringneuron.For example,adrenalineisgenerallyexcitatory,increasingthepositivechargeofthepostsynapticneuron,makingitmorelikely theneuronwillfire.Serotoninisgenerallyinhibitory,increasingthenegativechargeofthepostsynapticneuron,makingit lesslikelytheneuronwillfire. 4 Whentheelectricalimpulsereachestheendoftheneuron(thepresynapticterminal)ittriggersthereleaseof neurotransmitterfromtinysacscalledsynapticvesicles.Oncetheneurotransmittercrossesthegap,itistakenupbythe postsynapticreceptorsiteonthenextneuron.Thechemicalmessageisconvertedbackintoanelectricalimpulseandthe processofelectrictransmissionbegins. P85 1 Theunconsciousmindisavaststorehouseofbiologicaldrivesandinstinctsthathavebeenrepressedduring childhood.Thepsychodynamicapproachexplainsallbehaviourasdeterminedbyunconsciousconflictsoverwhichwehave nocontrol.Evensomethingasapparentlyrandomasa'slipofthetongue'isdrivenbyunconsciousforcesandhasdeep symbolicmeaning–somistakenlydescribingourpartner’snewdressas‘fattening’ratherthan‘flattering’mayrevealour truefeelings! 2 Defencemechanismsareusedbytheegotokeeptheid'incheck'andreduceanxiety.Denialiswhenwerefuse toacknowledgerealitysosomeonemaycontinuetoturnupforworkeventhoughtheyhavelosttheirjob. 3 TheOralStageoccursfrom0to1yearsandthefocusofpleasureisthemouth;themother’sbreastistheobject ofdesire. 4 Thepsychodynamicapproachsuggeststhattheunconsciousmindhasanimportantinfluenceonbehaviour. Freudproposedthatthemindismadeupoftheconsciousmind–whatweareawareofatanyonetime;thepre-conscious –thoughtswemaybecomeawareofthroughdreamsand‘slipsofthetongue’;theunconsciousmind–avaststorehouse ofbiologicaldrivesandinstinctsthatinfluenceourbehaviour. Freudalsointroducedthetripartitestructureofpersonalityandclaimedthatthedynamicinteractionbetweenthethree partsdeterminesbehaviour.Theidistheprimitivepartofthepersonalitywhichoperatesonthepleasureprincipleand demandsinstantgratification.Theegoworksontherealityprincipleandisthemediatorbetweentheidandsuperego. Finally,thesuperegoisourinternalisedsenseofrightandwrong.Itisbasedonthemoralityprincipleandpunishestheego throughguiltforwrongdoing. Freudproposedfivepsychosexualstagesthatdetermineadultpersonality.Eachstageismarkedbyadifferentconflictthat thechildmustresolvetomoveontothenext.Anyconflictthatisunresolvedleadstofixationwherethechildbecomes ‘stuck’andcarriesbehavioursassociatedwiththatstagethroughtoadultlife.Forinstance,theOedipuscomplexisan importantpsychosexualconflictoccurringatthephallicstagewhichinfluencesgenderroleandtheformationofmoral values. 32 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers Astrengthisthatthepsychodynamicapproachhasexplanatorypower.AlthoughFreud'stheoryiscontroversialandoften bizarre,ithashadhugeinfluenceonWesterncontemporarythought.Ithasbeenusedtoexplainawiderangeof behaviours(moral,mentaldisorders)anddrewattentiontotheinfluenceofchildhoodonadultpersonality.Alongside behaviourism,itwasthedominantapproachinpsychologyforthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury. ThecasestudymethodthatFreudreliedonhasbeencriticised.Freud’sideasweredevelopedusingasmallnumberofcase studies,e.g.LittleHans,DoraandtheRatMan.Criticshavesuggestedthatitisnotpossibletomakeuniversalclaimsabout humannaturebasedonsuchalimitedsample.AlthoughFreud'sobservationsweredetailedandcarefullyrecorded,his interpretationswerehighlysubjectiveanditisunlikelythatanyotherresearcherwouldhavedrawnthesameconclusions. Thepsychodynamicapproachincludeslotsofuntestableconcepts.KarlPopper(philosopherofscience)arguedthatthe psychodynamicapproachdoesnotmeetthescientificcriterionoffalsification,inthesensethatitcannotbeprovedor disproved.ManyofFreud'sconcepts,suchastheidortheOedipuscomplex,occuratanunconsciouslevel,makingthem difficult,ifnotimpossible,totest.Thisaffordspsychodynamictheorythestatusofpseudoscience('fake'science)rather thanrealscience. Astrengthisthattheapproachhaspracticalapplicationintherealworld.Freudintroducedanewformoftherapy: psychoanalysis.Thetherapyisdesignedtoaccesstheunconsciousmindusingarangeoftechniquessuchashypnosisand dreamanalysis.Psychoanalysisismostsuitableforindividualssufferingfrommildneurosesbuthasbeencriticisedas inappropriateforpeoplewithseverementaldisorderssuchasschizophrenia.Thatsaid,psychoanalysisistheforerunnerto manymodern-daypsychotherapiesand'talkingcures'thathavesincebeenestablished. P87 1 Aparentwhosetsboundariesontheirlovefortheirchild(conditionsofworth)byclaiming‘Iwillonlyloveyou if...’isstoringuppsychologicalproblems–relatedtotheirsenseofself-worth–forthatchildinfuture.Forinstance,a fathermaysaytohisteenagedaughter,‘Iwillonlyloveyouifyoustopseeingthatboy’. 2 Self-actualisationreferstotheinnatetendencythateachofushastowanttoachieveourfullpotentialand becomethebestwecanpossiblybe.InMaslow’shierarchyofneedsthefourlowerlevels(deficiencyneeds)mustbemet beforetheindividualcanworktowardsself-actualisation–agrowthneed. Howevertheconceptofself-actualisationisavague,abstractideathatisdifficulttotest–whatexactlyissomeone’s potential?Thismeansthatthehumanisticapproach,andtheconceptofself-actualisation,lacksempiricalevidenceto supportit. 3 Humanisticpsychologistsrejectanyattempttobreakupbehaviourandexperienceintosmallercomponents. Theyadvocateholism–theideathatsubjectiveexperiencecanonlybeunderstoodbyconsideringthewholeperson(their relationships,past,presentandfuture,etc.).Thisapproachmayhavemorevaliditythanitsalternativesbyconsidering meaningfulhumanbehaviourwithinitsreal-lifecontext. Theapproachhaslimitedapplicationintherealworld.ItistruethatRogeriantherapyhasrevolutionisedcounselling techniquesandMaslow'shierarchyofneedshasbeenusedtoexplainmotivation,particularlyintheworkplace.However, comparedtootherapproaches,humanisticpsychologyhashadlimitedimpactwithinpsychologyasawhole–perhaps becauseitlacksasoundevidencebase.Theapproachhasbeendescribed,notasacomprehensivetheory,butasarather loosesetofabstractconcepts. 4 Humanisticpsychologistsrejectattemptstoestablishscientificprinciplesofhumanbehaviour.Accordingtothe approach,weareallunique,andpsychologyshouldconcernitselfwiththestudyofsubjectiveexperienceratherthan generallaws–aperson-centredapproach.Theconceptofself-actualisationreferstotheinnatetendencythateachofus hastowanttoachieveourfullpotentialandbecomethebestwecanpossiblybe.InAbrahamMaslow’shierarchyofneeds thefourlowerlevels(deficiencyneeds)mustbemetbeforetheindividualcanworktowardsself-actualisation–agrowth need. CarlRogersarguedthatpersonalgrowthrequiresanindividual’sconceptofselftobecongruentwiththeiridealself(the persontheywanttobe).Iftoobigagapexistsbetweenthetwoselves,thepersonwillexperienceastateofincongruence andself-actualisationisn’tpossible. InRogers’client-centredtherapy,theaimistoincreasefeelingsofself-worthandreduceincongruencebetweentheselfconceptandtheidealself.Aneffectivetherapistshouldprovidetheclientwiththreethings:genuineness,empathyand unconditionalpositiveregard(whichtheclientmaynothavereceivedfromtheirparents)soastoremovethe psychologicalbarriersthatmaybepreventingself-actualisation. 33 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers Humanisticpsychologistsrejectanyattempttobreakupbehaviourandexperienceintosmallercomponents.They advocateholism–theideathatsubjectiveexperiencecanonlybeunderstoodbyconsideringthewholeperson(their relationships,past,presentandfuture,etc.).Thisapproachmayhavemorevaliditythanitsalternativesbyconsidering meaningfulhumanbehaviourwithinitsreal-lifecontext. Theapproachhaslimitedapplicationintherealworld.ItistruethatRogeriantherapyhasrevolutionisedcounselling techniquesandMaslow'shierarchyofneedshasbeenusedtoexplainmotivation,particularlyintheworkplace.However, comparedtootherapproaches,humanisticpsychologyhashadlimitedimpactwithinpsychologyasawhole–perhaps becauseitlacksasoundevidencebase.Theapproachhasbeendescribed,notasacomprehensivetheory,butasarather loosesetofabstractconcepts. Astrengthistheapproachportraysapositiveimageofthehumancondition.Humanisticpsychologistshavebeenpraised forpromotingapositiveimageofthehumancondition–seeingpeopleasincontroloftheirlivesandhavingthefreedom tochange.Freudsawhumanbeingsasslavestotheirpastandclaimedallofusexistedsomewherebetween'common unhappinessandabsolutedespair'.Humanisticpsychologyoffersanoptimisticalternative. AlimitationisthattheapproachmaybeguiltyofaWesternculturalbias.Manyoftheideasthatarecentraltohumanistic psychology,suchasindividualfreedom,autonomyandpersonalgrowth,aremoreassociatedwithindividualistculturesin theWesternworldsuchastheUnitedStates.CollectivistculturessuchasIndia,whichemphasisetheneedsofthegroup, maynotidentifysoeasilywiththeidealsandvaluesofhumanisticpsychology.Therefore,itispossiblethattheapproach wouldnottravelwellandisaproductoftheculturewithinwhichitwasdeveloped. P89 1 Bothapproachesofferpsychologicaltherapiesthataredesignedtodealwithanxiety-relateddisorders.Freud sawtheseasemergingfromunconsciousconflictsandoveruseofdefencemechanisms,whereashumanistictherapyis basedontheideathatreducingincongruencewillstimulatepersonalgrowth. 2 Behaviouristssuggestthatallbehaviourisenvironmentallydeterminedbyexternalforcesthatwecannot control.Skinnerfamouslysaidthatfreewillisan‘illusion’andevenbehaviourthatappearsfreelychosenistheresultof ourreinforcementhistory.Althoughsociallearningtheoristsagreethatweareinfluencedbyourenvironmenttosome extent,theyalsobelievethatweexertsomeinfluenceuponit(reciprocaldeterminism).Theyalsoplacemoreemphasison cognitivefactors,suggestingthatwehavesomecontroloverwhenweperformparticularbehaviours. 3 Intermsofviewsondevelopment,thecognitiveapproachproposesstagetheoriesofchilddevelopment, particularlytheideaofconceptformation(schema)aschildrengetolder.Thisisinsomewayssimilartothebiological approachwhichsuggeststhatgeneticallydeterminedmaturationalchangesinfluencebehaviour,forexample cognitive/intellectualdevelopment.Socognitiveadvancesarenotpossibleuntilthechildisphysiologicallyandgenetically ‘ready’. Thecognitiveapproachrecognisesthatmanyofourinformation-processingabilitiesareinnate,butareconstantlyrefined byexperience.Thebiologicalapproachwouldplacelessemphasisontheinfluenceofexperienceandinsteadclaimsthat 'anatomyisdestiny':behaviourstemsfromthegeneticblueprintweinheritfromourparents.Thisisanextremenature approachanddistinctfromtheinteractionistapproachofferedbythecognitiveapproach. Thecognitiveapproachadvocatesmachinereductionisminitsuseofthecomputeranalogytoexplainhumaninformation processing.Thisignorestheinfluenceofemotionandmotivationonbehaviour.Thebiologicalapproachisalsoreductionist andexplainshumanbehaviouratthelevelofthegeneorneuron–underplaying‘higherlevel’explanationsataculturalor societallevel. Finally,thecognitiveapproachhasledtocognitivetherapiessuchascognitivebehaviourtherapy(CBT)whichhasbeen usedinthetreatmentofdepressionandaimstoeradicatefaultythinking.Incontrast,psychoactivedrugshavebeen developedbybiologicalpsychologiststhatregulatechemicalimbalancesinthebrainandhaverevolutionisedthe treatmentofmentaldisorders.Althoughsuchdrugsarerelativelycheapandfastacting,theymaynotbeaseffectiveinthe longtermascognitivetherapieswhichleadtogreaterinsight. 5.Psychopathology P91 1 Statisticalinfrequency–themostobviouswaytodefineanythingas‘normal’or‘abnormal’isintermsofthe numberoftimesitisobserved.Behaviourthatisrarelyseenisabnormal.Anyrelatively‘usual’,oroftenseen,behaviour canbethoughtofas‘normal’.Anybehaviourthatisdifferent,orrare,is‘abnormal’, 34 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers Deviationfromsocialnorms–whenapersonbehavesinawaythatisdifferentfromhowtheyareexpectedtobehave, theymaybedefinedasabnormal.Societiesandsocialgroupsmakecollectivejudgementsabout‘correct’behavioursin particularcircumstances.Therearerelativelyfewbehavioursthatwouldbeconsidereduniversallyabnormaltherefore definitionsarerelatedtoculturalcontext.Forexample,homosexualityisviewedasabnormalinsomeculturesbutnot others. 2 Alimitationisthatunusualcharacteristicscanalsobepositive.Ifveryfewpeopledisplayabehaviourthatmakes thebehaviourstatisticallyabnormalbutdoesn'tmeanthepersonrequirestreatment.IQscoresover130arejustas unusualasthosebelow70,butnotregardedasundesirableandrequiringtreatment.Thismeansstatisticalinfrequency shouldnotbeusedalonetojudgeabnormality. 3 Deviationfromsocialnormsisnotasoleexplanationofabnormality.Antisocialpersonalitydisorder(APD)shows thereisaplacefordeviationfromsocialnormsinthinkingaboutwhatisabnormal.However,thereareotherfactorsto consider,e.g.distresstootherpeopleduetoAPD.Soinpractice,deviationfromsocialnormsisneverthesolereasonfor definingabnormality. Alimitationisthatsocialnormsareculturallyrelative.Apersonfromoneculturalgroupmaylabelsomeonefromanother groupasabnormalusingtheirstandardsratherthantheperson’sstandards.Forexample,hearingvoicesissocially acceptableinsomeculturesbutwouldbeseenasasignofabnormalityintheUK.Thiscreatesproblemsforpeoplefrom oneculturelivingwithinanotherculturalgroup. 4 Statisticalinfrequency–themostobviouswaytodefineanythingas‘normal’or‘abnormal’isintermsofthe numberoftimesitisobserved.Behaviourthatisrarelyseenisabnormal.Anyrelatively‘usual’,oroftenseen,behaviour canbethoughtofas‘normal’.Anybehaviourthatisdifferent,orrare,is‘abnormal’. Astrengthofstatisticalinfrequencyisitsreal-lifeapplication.Allassessmentofpatientswithmentaldisordersincludes somecomparisontostatisticalnorms.Intellectualdisabilitydisorderdemonstrateshowstatisticalinfrequencycanbeused. Statisticalinfrequencyisthusausefulpartofclinicalassessment. Alimitationisthatnoteveryoneunusualbenefitsfromalabel.Whensomeoneislivingahappyandfulfilledlife,thereisno benefittothembeinglabelledasabnormal.SomeonewithaverylowIQwhowasnotdistressedoroutofwork,etc., wouldnotneedadiagnosisofintellectualdisability.Beinglabelledasabnormalmighthaveanegativeeffectontheway othersviewthemandthewaytheyseethemselves. Deviationfromsocialnorms–whenapersonbehavesinawaythatisdifferentfromhowtheyareexpectedtobehave, theymaybedefinedasabnormal.Societiesandsocialgroupsmakecollectivejudgementsabout‘correct’behavioursin particularcircumstances.Therearerelativelyfewbehavioursthatwouldbeconsidereduniversallyabnormaltherefore definitionsarerelatedtoculturalcontext.Forexample,homosexualityisviewedasabnormalinsomeculturesbutnot others. Alimitationisthatthisdefinitioncouldleadtohumanrightsabuses.Toomuchrelianceondeviationfromsocialnormsto understandabnormalitycanleadtoasystematicabuseofhumanrights. Drapetomania(blackslavestryingtoescape)andnymphomania(womenattractedtoworking-classmen)areexamplesof howdiagnosiswasusedforsocialcontrol.Suchclassificationsappearridiculousbutsomepsychologistsarguethatsome modernabnormalclassificationsareabusesofpeople'srighttobedifferent. P93 1 Beingrationalandperceivingourselvesaccurately;workingtowardsself-actualisation;beingabletocopewith stress. 2 Apersonmaycrossthelinebetweennormalandabnormalatthepointthattheycannotdealwiththedemands ofeverydaylife–theyfailtofunctionadequately.Forinstance,notbeingabletoholddownajob,maintainrelationships ormaintainbasicstandardsofnutritionandhygiene. Theymaynolongerconformtointerpersonalrules,e.g.maintainingpersonalspaceandexperiencepersonaldistress. Failuretofunctionrecognisesthepatient'sperspective.Thismaynotbeanentirelysatisfactoryapproachbecauseitis difficulttoassessdistress.However,thedefinitionacknowledgesthattheexperienceofthepatient(and/orothers)is important.Itcapturestheexperienceofmanypeoplewhoneedhelpandisusefulforassessingabnormality. 3 SomeoftheideasinJahoda'sclassificationofidealmentalhealtharespecifictoWesternEuropeanandNorth Americancultures.Forexample,theemphasisonpersonalachievement(self-actualisation)wouldbeconsideredself- 35 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers indulgentinmuchoftheworldwherethefocusisoncommunityratherthanoneself.Suchtraitsaretypicalofindividualist culturesandareculturallyspecific. 4 Apersonmaycrossthelinebetweennormalandabnormalatthepointthattheycannotdealwiththedemands ofeverydaylife–theyfailtofunctionadequately.Forinstance,notbeingabletoholddownajob,maintainrelationships ormaintainbasicstandardsofnutritionandhygiene. Theymaynolongerconformtointerpersonalrules,e.g.maintainingpersonalspaceandexperiencepersonaldistress. Alimitationisthatthisisthesameasdeviationfromsocialnorms.Itcanbehardtosaywhensomeoneisreallyfailingto functionorjustdeviatingfromsocialnorms.Peoplewholivealternativelifestylesordoextremesportscouldbeseenas behavingmaladaptively.Ifwetreatthesebehavioursas'failures'ofadequatefunctioning,wemaylimitfreedom. Afurtherlimitationisthatthisisasubjectivejudgement.Someonehastojudgewhetherapatientisdistressedor distressing.Somepatientsmaysaytheyaredistressedbutmaybejudgedasnotsuffering.Therearemethodsformaking suchjudgementsasobjectiveaspossible,includingchecklistssuchastheGlobalAssessmentofFunctioningScale. However,theprincipleremainswhethersomeone,e.g.apsychiatrist,hastherighttomakethisjudgement. Adifferentwaytolookatnormalityandabnormalityistothinkaboutwhatmakessomeone‘normal’andpsychologically healthy.Thenanyonewhodeviatesfromthisidealisclassedasabnormal.MarieJahoda(1958)suggestedseveralcriteria foridealmentalhealth:wehavenosymptomsordistress;wearerationalandperceiveourselvesaccurately;weselfactualise;wecancopewithstress;weareindependentofotherpeople. AlimitationisthatJahoda’scriteriasetanunrealisticallyhighstandardformentalhealth.Veryfewpeoplewillattainall Jahoda'scriteriaformentalhealth.Therefore,thisapproachwouldseemostofusasabnormal.Onthepositiveside,it makesitcleartopeoplethewaysinwhichtheycouldbenefitfromseekinghelptoimprovetheirmentalhealth.However, itisprobablyofnovalueinthinkingaboutwhomightbenefitfromtreatmentagainsttheirwill. 5 See4. P95 1 Anxietyanddistress–obsessivethoughtsareunpleasantandfrightening,andtheanxietythatgoeswiththese canbeoverwhelming. Guiltanddisgust–irrationalguilt,forexampleoveraminormoralissue,ordisgustwhichisdirectedtowardsoneselfor somethingexternallikedirt. 2 Emotional–guilt/disgust Behavioural–compulsivebehaviour Cognitive–obsessivethoughts 3 Thefearresponseiswidelydisproportionatetothethreatposed,e.g.anarachnophobicwillhaveastrong emotionalresponsetoatinyspider.Thereisconsiderableefforttoavoidcomingintocontactwiththephobicstimulus. Thiscanmakeithardtogoabouteverydaylife,especiallyifthephobicstimulusisoftenseen,e.g.publicplaces.Thereis selectiveattentiontothephobicstimulus.Thephobicfindsithardtolookawayfromthephobicstimuluse.g.a pogonophobic(fearofbeards)cannotconcentrateonataskifthereisabeardedmanintheroom. 4 Emotionalcharacteristicsofdepressionincludeloweredmood.Thisismorepronouncedthanthedaily experienceoffeelinglethargicorsad.Sufferersoftendescribethemselvesas‘worthless’or‘empty’.Anotheremotional characteristicisanger.Onoccasion,suchemotionsleadtoaggressionorself-harmingbehaviour. 5 Indepressionactivitylevelsmaybeaffected.Sufferersofdepressionhavereducedlevelsofenergymakingthem lethargic.Inextremecases,thiscanbesoseverethatthesufferercannotgetoutofbed. Theremayalsobedisruptiontosleepandeatingbehaviour.Sufferersmayexperiencereducedsleep(insomnia)oran increasedneedforsleep(hypersomnia).Appetitemayincreaseordecrease,leadingtoweightgainorloss. P97 1 TheUCStriggersafearresponse(fearisaUCR),e.g.beingbittenbyadogcreatesanxiety.TheNS(dog)is associatedwiththeUCS,e.g.beingbittenbyadog(thedogpreviouslydidnotcreateanxiety).TheNSbecomesaCS producingfear(whichisnowtheCR).ThedogbecomesaCScausingaCRofanxiety/fearfollowingthebite. 36 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers 2 Theinitialassociationthatcreatesaphobiaisexplainedbyclassicalconditioning.Aneutralstimulus(adog) becomesassociatedastimulusthatwouldcausefear(beingbittenbyadog).Theneutralstimulusbecomesaconditioned stimulusthatproducesfear(theconditionedresponse).Themaintenanceofthephobiaisexplainedbyoperant conditioning.Whenaphobicavoidsaphobicstimulustheyescapetheanxietythatwouldhavebeenexperienced.This reductioninfearnegativelyreinforcestheavoidancebehaviourandthephobiaismaintained. 3 Astrengthofthetwo-processmodelisithasgoodexplanatorypower.Thetwo-processmodelwentbeyond WatsonandRayner'ssimpleclassicalconditioningexplanationofphobias.Ithasimportantimplicationsfortherapy.Ifa patientispreventedfrompractisingtheiravoidancebehaviourthenphobicbehaviourdeclines.Theapplicationtotherapy isastrengthofthetwo-processmodel. Therearealternativeexplanationsforavoidancebehaviour.Inmorecomplexbehaviourslikeagoraphobia,thereis evidencethatatleastsomeavoidancebehaviourismotivatedmorebypositivefeelingsofsafety.Thisexplainswhysome agoraphobicsareabletoleavetheirhousewithatrustedfriendwithrelativelylittleanxiety,butnotalone(Buck2010). Thisisaproblemforthetwo-processmodel,whichsuggeststhatavoidanceismotivatedbyanxietyreduction. 4 Theinitialassociationthatcreatesaphobiaisexplainedbyclassicalconditioning.Aneutralstimulus(adog) becomesassociatedastimulusthatwouldcausefear(beingbittenbyadog).Theneutralstimulusbecomesaconditioned stimulusthatproducesfear(theconditionedresponse).Onceformed,theinitialassociationisgeneralisedtoother,similar stimuli.Theinitialfearofdogswillbetransferredtootherbreedsofdogandalso,possibly,toothersimilarfurryanimals. Forexample,LittleAlbertalsoshowedafearinresponsetootherwhitefurryobjectsincludingafurcoatandaSantaClaus mask. Themaintenanceofthephobiaisexplainedbyoperantconditioning.Whenaphobicavoidsaphobicstimulustheyescape theanxietythatwouldhavebeenexperienced.Thisreductioninfearnegativelyreinforcestheavoidancebehaviourand thephobiaismaintained.Ifsomeonehasamorbidfearofclowns(coulrophobia)theywillavoidcircusesandother situationswheretheymayencounterclowns.Therelieffeltfromavoidingclownsnegativelyreinforcesthephobiaand ensuresitismaintainedratherthanconfronted. Alimitationisthetwo-processmodelisanincompleteexplanationofphobias.Evenifweacceptthatclassicalandoperant conditioningareinvolvedinthedevelopmentandmaintenanceofphobias,therearesomeaspectsofphobiabehaviour thatrequirefurtherexplaining.Weeasilyacquirephobiasofthingsthatwereadangerinourevolutionarypast(e.g.fearof snakesorthedark).Thisisbiologicalpreparedness–weareinnatelypreparedtofearsomethingsmorethanothers (Seligman1971).Biologicalpreparednessisaproblemforthetwo-processmodelbecauseitshowsthereismoreto acquiringphobiasthansimpleconditioning. Alimitationisthatnotallbadexperiencesleadtophobias.Sometimesphobiasdoappearfollowingabadexperienceandit iseasytoseehowtheycouldbetheresultofconditioning.However,sometimespeoplehaveabadexperience(suchas beingbittenbyadog)anddon’tdevelopaphobia(DiNardoetal.1988).Thissuggeststhatconditioningalonecannot explainphobias.Theymayonlydevelopwhereavulnerabilityexists. Thetwo-processmodeldoesn’tproperlyconsiderthecognitiveaspectsofphobias.Weknowthatbehavioural explanations,ingeneral,areorientedtowardsexplainingbehaviourratherthancognition(thinking).Thisiswhythetwoprocessmodelexplainsmaintenanceofphobiasintermsofavoidance–butwealsoknowthatphobiashaveacognitive element.Thetwo-processtheorydoesnotadequatelyaddressthecognitiveelementofphobias. P99 1 Floodinginvolvesbombardingthephobicpatientwiththephobicobjectwithoutagradualbuild-up(asin systematicdesensitisation).Anarachnophobicreceivingfloodingtreatmentmayhavealargespidercrawlovertheirhand untiltheycanrelaxfully(thephobicnotthespider).Withouttheoptionofavoidancebehaviour,thepatientquicklylearns thatthephobicobjectisharmlessthroughtheexhaustionoftheirfearresponse.Thisisknownasextinction.Floodingis notunethicalbutitisanunpleasantexperiencesoitisimportantthatpatientsgiveinformedconsent. 2 Thequestioninthebookisbeingreplacedatthenextreprint*with, Identifyandbrieflydiscussonelimitationoffloodingasatreatmentforphobias(4marks) Alimitationisthatfloodingistraumaticforpatients.Perhapsthemostseriousissuewiththeuseoffloodingisthefactthat itisahighlytraumaticexperience.Theproblemisnotthatfloodingisunethical(patientsdogiveinformedconsent)but thatpatientsareoftenunwillingtoseeitthroughtotheend.Thisisalimitationbecauseultimatelyitmeansthatthe treatmentisnoteffective,andtimeandmoneyarewastedpreparingpatientsonlytohavethemrefusetostartor completetreatment. (*Thequestionisbeingreplacedbecausethereisn’tadescriptionofthelimitationofsystematicdesensitisationinthe studentbook.) 37 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers 3 Althoughfloodingishighlyeffectivefortreatingsimplephobias,itappearstobelesssoformorecomplex phobiaslikesocialphobias.Thismaybebecausesocialphobiashavecognitiveaspects,e.g.asuffererofasocialphobia doesn’tsimplyexperienceanxietybutthinksunpleasantthoughtsaboutthesocialsituation.Thistypeofphobiamay benefitmorefromcognitivetherapiesbecausesuchtherapiestackletheirrationalthinking. Afurtherlimitationisthatfloodingistraumaticforpatients.Theproblemisnotthatfloodingisunethical(patientsdogive informedconsent)butthatpatientsareoftenunwillingtoseeitthroughtotheend.Timeandmoneymaybewasted preparingpatientsonlytohavethemrefusetostartorcompletetreatment. 4 Systematicdesensitisationtherapyaimstograduallyreducetheanxietycausedbyaphobiathrough counterconditioning.Ifaphobiahasbeenlearnedsothatthephobicstimulus(conditionedstimulus,CS)producesfear (conditionedresponse,CR),thentheCScanbepairedwithrelaxationandthisbecomesthenewCR.Itisnotpossibletobe afraidandrelaxedatthesametime,sooneemotionpreventstheother(reciprocalinhibition). Thepatientandtherapistdesignananxietyhierarchy–alistoffearfulstimuliarrangedinorderfromleasttomost frightening.Anarachnophobicmightidentifyseeingapictureofasmallspideraslowontheiranxietyhierarchyand holdingatarantulaasthefinalitem. Thephobicindividualisfirsttaughtrelaxationtechniquessuchasdeepbreathingand/ormeditation.Thepatientthen worksthroughtheanxietyhierarchy.Ateachlevelthephobicisexposedtothephobicstimulusinarelaxedstateuntilthe phobicstimulusisconfrontedandthefearextinguished. AstrengthofSDisthatitiseffective.Gilroyetal.(2003)followedup42patientswhohadSDforspiderphobiainthree45minutesessions.Atboththreeand33months,theSDgroupwerelessfearfulthanacontrolgrouptreatedbyrelaxation withoutexposure.ThisshowsthatSDishelpfulinreducingtheanxietyinspiderphobiaandthattheeffectsofthe treatmentarelong-lasting. AnotherstrengthisthatSDissuitableforadiverserangeofpatients.ThealternativestoSDsuchasfloodingandcognitive therapiesarenotwellsuitedtosomepatients.Forexample,havinglearningdifficultiescanmakeitveryhardforsome patientstounderstandwhatishappeningduringfloodingortoengagewithcognitivetherapieswhichrequirereflection. Forthesepatients,SDisprobablythemostappropriatetreatment. AfurtherstrengthofSDisthatpatientspreferit.ThosegiventhechoiceofSDorfloodingtendtopreferSD.Thisisbecause itdoesnotcausethesamedegreeoftraumaasflooding.ItmayalsobebecauseSDincludessomeelementsthatare actuallypleasant,suchastimetalkingwithatherapist.Thisisreflectedinthelowrefusalrates(numberofpatients refusingtostarttreatment)andlowattritionrates(numberofpatientsdroppingoutoftreatment)forSD. P101 1 Negativeviewsoftheworld,e.g.‘theworldisacoldhardplace’. Negativeviewofthefuture,e.g.‘thereisn’tmuchchancethattheeconomywillgetanybetter’. Negativeviewoftheself,e.g.thinking‘Iamafailure’andthisnegativelyimpactsuponself-esteem. 2 AccordingtoEllis,depressionoccurswhenweexperienceanactivatingevent,e.g.failinganimportanttestor endingarelationship.Negativeeventstriggerirrationalbeliefs,forexampleElliscalledthebeliefthatwemustalways succeed‘musterbation’.Whenanactivatingeventtriggersirrationalbeliefsthereareemotionalandbehavioural consequences.Forexample,ifyoubelieveyoumustalwayssucceedandthenyoufailatsomething,theconsequenceis depression. 3 AstrengthofBeck'stheoryisithasgoodsupportingevidence.Forexample,GrazioliandTerry(2000)assessed65 pregnantwomenforcognitivevulnerabilityanddepressionbeforeandafterbirth.Theyfoundthatthosewomenjudgedto havebeenhighincognitivevulnerabilityweremorelikelytosufferpost-nataldepression.ThissuggeststhatBeckmaybe rightaboutcognitioncausingdepression,atleastinsomecases. AlimitationisthatBeck'stheorydoesnotexplainallaspectsofdepression.Depressionisacomplexdisorder.Some depressedpatientsaredeeplyangryandBeckcannoteasilyexplainthisextremeemotion.Somedepressedpatientssuffer hallucinationsandbizarrebeliefs.Beck'stheorycannotalwaysexplainallcasesofdepression,andjustfocusesonone aspectofthedisorder. 4 Beck(1967)suggestedthatsomepeoplearemorepronetodepressionbecauseoffaultyinformationprocessing, i.e.thinkinginaflawedway.Whendepressedpeopleattendtothenegativeaspectsofasituationandignorepositives, 38 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers theyalsotendtoblowsmallproblemsoutofproportionandthinkin‘blackandwhite’terms.Mariatoldherfriendthatif shedidn’tpassshe‘couldnotgoon’. Depressedpeoplehavenegativeselfschemas.Weuseschemastointerprettheworld,soifapersonhasanegativeselfschematheyinterpretallinformationaboutthemselvesinanegativeway.Morespecifically,Beckproposedthenegative triad.Therearethreeelementstothenegativetriad: Negativeviewsoftheworld–‘thetestwasunfairandexaminerwasouttogether’. Negativeviewofthefuture–‘shewillnevertryanythingagain’. Negativeviewoftheself–‘shehatesherself’.Thenegativetriadaffectsthedepressive’sself-esteem. Astrengthisthatthetheoryhaspracticalapplicationasatherapy.Beck'scognitiveexplanationformsthebasisofcognitive behaviourtherapy(CBT).ThecomponentsofthenegativetriadcanbeeasilyidentifiedandchallengedinCBT.Thismeansa patientcantestwhethertheelementsofthenegativetriadaretrue.Thisisastrengthoftheexplanationbecauseit translateswellintoasuccessfultherapy. AlimitationisthatBeck'stheorydoesnotexplainallaspectsofdepression.Depressionisacomplexdisorder.Some depressedpatientsaredeeplyangryandBeckcannoteasilyexplainthisextremeemotion.Somedepressedpatientssuffer hallucinationsandbizarrebeliefs.Beck'stheorycannotalwaysexplainallcasesofdepression,andjustfocusesonone aspectofthedisorder. P103 1 AstrengthofCBTisthatitiseffective.ThereisalargebodyofevidencetosupporttheeffectivenessofCBTfor depression,e.g.Marchetal.(2007)comparedtheeffectsofCBTwithantidepressantdrugsandacombinationofthetwo indepressedadolescents.After36weeks,81%oftheCBTgroup,81%oftheantidepressantgroupand86%oftheCBT+ antidepressantsgroupweresignificantlyimproved.CBTwasjustaseffectiveasmedicationandhelpfulalongside medication. ThissuggeststhereisagoodcaseformakingCBTthefirstchoiceoftreatmentintheNHS. 2 Apatientmighttalkabouthowunluckytheyhavebeenorhowunfairlifeis.AnREBTtherapistwouldidentifythis asutopianismandchallengeitasanirrationalbelief.Thismayinvolveempiricalargument–disputingwhetherthereis evidencetosupporttheirrationalbelief.Itmayalsoincludelogicalargument–disputingwhetherthenegativethought actuallyfollowsfromthefacts. 3 TheaimofCBTistoidentifynegativethoughtsabouttheself,theworldandthefuture–thenegativetriad. Thesethoughtsmustbechallengedbythepatienttakinganactiveroleintheirtreatment(the'patientasscientist'). Patientsareencouragedtotesttherealityoftheirirrationalbeliefs.Theymightbesethomework,e.g.torecordwhenthey enjoyedaneventorwhenpeoplewerenicetothem,andtheseeventsareusedtochangethepatient’scognitivestyle duringtherapy. AlimitationofCBTisitmaynotworkforthemostseverecasesofdepression.Insomecasesdepressioncanbesosevere thatpatientscannotmotivatethemselvestotakeonthehardcognitiveworkrequiredforCBT.Wherethisisthecaseitis possibletotreatpatientswithantidepressantmedicationandcontinueCBTwhentheyaremorealertandmotivated.This isalimitationbecauseitmeansCBTcannotbeusedasthesoletreatmentforallcasesofdepression. 4 AccordingtoEllis,depressionoccurswhenweexperienceanactivatingevent,e.g.failinganimportanttestor endingarelationship.Negativeeventstriggerirrationalbeliefs,forexampleElliscalledthebeliefthatwemustalways succeed‘musterbation’.Whenanactivatingeventtriggersirrationalbeliefsthereareemotionalandbehavioural consequences.Forexample,ifyoubelieveyoumustalwayssucceedandthenyoufailatsomething,theconsequenceis depression. AlimitationisthatEllis'smodelisapartialexplanationofdepression.Thereisnodoubtthatsomecasesofdepression followactivatingevents.Psychologistscallthisreactivedepressionandseeitasdifferentfromthekindofdepressionthat ariseswithoutanobviouscause.ThismeansthatEllis'explanationonlyappliestosomekindsofdepression. Cognitiveexplanationsarecloselytiedupwiththeconceptofcognitiveprimacy,theideathatemotionsareinfluencedby cognition(yourthoughts).Thisissometimesthecase,butnotnecessarilyalways.Othertheoriesofdepressionsee emotions,suchasanxietyanddistress,asstoredlikephysicalenergy,toemergesometimeaftertheircausalevent.This castsdoubtontheideathatcognitionsarealwaystherootcauseofdepressionandsuggeststhatcognitivetheoriesmay notexplainallaspectsofthedisorder. REBT(Ellis’therapy)extendstheABCmodeltoanABCDEmodel:Dfordispute(challenge)irrationalbeliefsandEforeffect. Apatientmighttalkabouthowunluckytheyhavebeenorhowunfairlifeis.AnREBTtherapistwouldidentifythisas 39 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers utopianismandchallengeitasanirrationalbelief.Thiswouldinvolveempiricalargument–disputingwhetherthereis evidencetosupporttheirrationalbelief,and/orlogicalargument–disputingwhetherthenegativethoughtactually followsfromthefacts. AswithCBT,thesuccessofREBTmaybeduetothetherapist–patientrelationship.Rosenzwieg(1936)suggestedthatthe differencesbetweenvariousmethodsofpsychotherapymightactuallybequitesmall.Allpsychotherapieshaveone essentialingredient–therelationshipbetweentherapistandpatient.Itmaybethequalityofthisrelationshipthat determinessuccessratherthananyparticulartechnique.Manycomparativereviews(e.g.Luborskyetal.2002)findvery smalldifferencesbetweentherapies,suggestingthattheyshareacommonbasis. P105 1 ResearchershaveidentifiedspecificgeneswhichcreateavulnerabilityforOCD,calledcandidategenes. Serotoningenes,e.g.5HT1-Dbeta,areinvolvedinthetransmissionofserotoninacrosssynapses.Dopaminegenesarealso implicatedinOCD.Bothdopamineandserotoninareneurotransmittersthathavearoleinregulatingmood.OCDisnot causedbyonesinglegenebutseveralgenesareinvolved(polygenic).Taylor(2013)foundevidencethatupto230different genesmaybeinvolvedinOCD. 2 Onelimitationisthattheserotonin-OCDlinkmaynotbeuniquetoOCD.ManypeoplewhosufferfromOCD becomedepressed(co-morbidity).Thisdepressionprobablyinvolves(thoughisnotnecessarilycausedby)disruptionto theserotoninsystem.Thisleavesuswithalogicalproblemwhenitcomestotheserotoninsystemasapossiblebasisfor OCD.ItcouldsimplybethattheserotoninsystemisdisruptedinmanypatientswithOCDbecausetheyaredepressedas well. 3 ResearchershaveidentifiedspecificgeneswhichcreateavulnerabilityforOCD,calledcandidategenes. Serotoningenes,e.g.5HT1-Dbeta,areinvolvedinthetransmissionofserotoninacrosssynapses.Dopaminegenesarealso implicatedinOCD.Bothdopamineandserotoninareneurotransmittersthathavearoleinregulatingmood.OCDisnot causedbyonesinglegenebutseveralgenesareinvolved(polygenic).Taylor(2013)foundevidencethatupto230different genesmaybeinvolvedinOCD. Aswellasthis,somecasesofOCD,andinparticularhoardingdisorder,seemtobeassociatedwithimpaireddecision making.Thisisturnmaybeassociatedwithabnormalfunctioningofthelateralfrontallobesofthebrain.Thefrontallobes areresponsibleforlogicalthinkingandmakingdecisions.Thereisalsoevidencetosuggestthatanareacalledtheleft parahippocampalgyrus,associatedwithprocessingunpleasantemotions,functionsabnormallyinOCD. 4 ResearchershaveidentifiedspecificgeneswhichcreateavulnerabilityforOCD,calledcandidategenes. Serotoningenes,e.g.5HT1-Dbeta,areinvolvedinthetransmissionofserotoninacrosssynapses.Dopaminegenesarealso implicatedinOCD.Bothdopamineandserotoninareneurotransmittersthathavearoleinregulatingmood.OCDisnot causedbyonesinglegenebutseveralgenesareinvolved(polygenic).Taylor(2013)foundevidencethatupto230different genesmaybeinvolvedinOCD. Aswellasthis,somecasesofOCD,andinparticularhoardingdisorder,seemtobeassociatedwithimpaireddecision making.Thisinturnmaybeassociatedwithabnormalfunctioningofthelateralfrontallobesofthebrain.Thefrontallobes areresponsibleforlogicalthinkingandmakingdecisions.Thereisalsoevidencetosuggestthatanareacalledtheleft parahippocampalgyrus,associatedwithprocessingunpleasantemotions,functionsabnormallyinOCD. ThereisgoodsupportingevidenceforthegeneticexplanationofOCD.Thereisevidence,fromavarietyofsourceswhich suggeststhatsomepeoplearevulnerabletoOCDasaresultoftheirgeneticmake-up.Forexample,Nestadtetal.(2010) reviewedtwinstudiesandfoundthat68%ofidenticaltwins(MZ)sharedOCDasopposedto31%ofnon-identical(DZ) twins.ThisstronglysupportsageneticinfluenceonOCD. Alimitationofthegeneticexplanationisthatenvironmentalriskfactorsarealsoinvolved.Forexample,Cromeretal. (2007)foundthatoverhalftheOCDpatientsintheirsamplehadatraumaticeventintheirpast,andOCDwasmoresevere inthosewithoneormoretraumas.Thissupportsthediathesis-stressmodel.Focusingonenvironmentalcausesmaybe moreproductivebecausewearemoreabletodosomethingaboutthese. ThereissomesupportingevidenceforneuralexplanationsofOCD.Antidepressantsthatworkpurelyontheserotonin systemareeffectiveinreducingOCDsymptomsandthissuggeststhattheserotoninsystemmaybeinvolvedinOCD.Also, OCDsymptomsformpartofbiologicalconditionssuchasParkinson'sdisease(Nestasdtetal.2010).Thissuggeststhatthe biologicalprocessesthatcausethesymptomsinthoseconditionsmayalsoberesponsibleforOCD. P107 40 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers 1 LowlevelsofserotoninareassociatedwithOCD,thereforedrugsworkinvariouswaystoincreasethelevelof serotonininthebrain.SSRIspreventthereabsorptionandbreakdownofserotonininthebrain.Thisincreasesitslevelsin thesynapseandthusserotonincontinuestostimulatethepostsynapticneuron.Thiscompensatesforwhateveriswrong withtheserotoninsysteminOCD.AtypicaldailydoseofFluoxetine(anSSRI)is20mg,althoughthismaybeincreasedifitis notbenefittingthepatient. 2 Alimitationisthatdrugscanhaveside-effects.AlthoughdrugssuchasSSRIshelpmostpeople,asmallminority willgetnobenefit.Somepatientsalsosufferside-effectssuchasindigestion,blurredvisionandlossofsexdrive(although theseside-effectsareusuallytemporary). Suchfactorsreduceeffectivenessbecausepeoplestoptakingthemedication. Afurtherlimitationistheevidencefordrugtreatmentsisunreliable.AlthoughSSRIsarefairlyeffectiveandanyside-effects willprobablybeshortterm,likealldrugtreatments,SSRIshavesomecontroversyattached.Forexample,somebelievethe evidencefavouringdrugtreatmentsisbiasedbecauseitissponsoredbydrugcompanieswhomaytrytosuppressevidence thatdoesnotsupporttheeffectivenessofcertaindrugs. 3 LowlevelsofserotoninareassociatedwithOCD,thereforedrugsworkinvariouswaystoincreasethelevelof serotonininthebrain.SSRIspreventthereabsorptionandbreakdownofserotonininthebrain.Thisincreasesitslevelsin thesynapseandthusserotonincontinuestostimulatethepostsynapticneuron.Thiscompensatesforwhateveriswrong withtheserotoninsysteminOCD. OneproblemisthatsomecasesofOCDfollowtrauma.OCDiswidelybelievedtobebiologicalinorigin.Itmakessense, therefore,thatthestandardtreatmentshouldbebiological.However,itisacknowledgedthatOCDcanhavearangeof othercauses,andthatinsomecasesitisaresponsetotraumaticlifeevents.Itmaynotbeappropriatetousedrugswhen treatingcasesthatfollowatraumawhenpsychologicaltherapiesmayprovidethebestoption. 4 LowlevelsofserotoninareassociatedwithOCD,thereforedrugsworkinvariouswaystoincreasethelevelof serotonininthebrain.SSRIspreventthereabsorptionandbreakdownofserotonininthebrain.Thisincreasesitslevelsin thesynapseandthusserotonincontinuestostimulatethepostsynapticneuron.Thiscompensatesforwhateveriswrong withtheserotoninsysteminOCD.AtypicaldailydoseofFluoxetine(anSSRI)is20mg,althoughthismaybeincreasedifitis notbenefittingthepatient. Tricyclics(anoldertypeofantidepressant),suchasClomipramine,aresometimesused.Thesehavethesameeffectonthe serotoninsystemasSSRIsbuttheside-effectscanbemoresevere. Drugsareoftenusedalongsidecognitivebehaviourtherapy(CBT)totreatOCD.Thedrugsreduceapatient’semotional symptoms,suchasfeelinganxiousordepressed.ThismeansthatpatientscanengagemoreeffectivelywithCBT. AstrengthofdrugtherapyisthatitiseffectiveattacklingOCDsymptoms.Forexample,Soomroetal.(2009)reviewed17 studiescomparingSSRIstoplacebosinthetreatmentofOCD.All17studiesshowedsignificantlybetterresultsforSSRIs thanfortheplaceboconditions.EffectivenessisgreatestwhenSSRIsarecombinedwithapsychologicaltreatment,usually CBT.Typicallysymptomsreduceforaround70%ofpatientstakingSSRIs,therestarehelpedbyalternativedrugsorCBT+ drugs.SodrugscanhelpmostpatientswithOCD. Anotherstrengthisthatdrugsarecost-effectiveandnon-disruptive.Drugtreatmentsaregenerallycheapcomparedto psychologicaltreatments.UsingdrugstotreatOCDisthereforegoodvaluefortheNHS.Ascomparedtopsychological therapies,SSRIsarealsonon-disruptivetopatients'lives.Ifyouwishyoucansimplytakedrugsuntilyoursymptoms declineandnotengagewiththehardworkofpsychologicaltherapy.Manydoctorsandpatientslikedrugtreatmentsfor thesereasons. Alimitationisthatdrugscanhaveside-effects.AlthoughdrugssuchasSSRIshelpmostpeople,asmallminoritywillgetno benefit.Somepatientsalsosufferside-effectssuchasindigestion,blurredvisionandlossofsexdrive(althoughthesesideeffectsareusuallytemporary).Suchfactorsreduceeffectivenessbecausepeoplestoptakingthemedication. 6.ResearchMethods P109 1 Adirectionalhypothesisstateswhetherchangesaregreaterorlesser,positiveornegative,etc.Thisisusedwhen theresearcherhasconfidenceinthelikelydirectionoftheresultsbasedonpreviousresearch,forinstance. 41 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers 2 Extraneousvariables(EVs)are‘nuisance’variablesthatdonotvarysystematicallywiththeIV.Aresearchermay controlsomeofthese.Confoundingvariables(CVs)changesystematicallywiththeIVsowecannotbesureifanyobserved changeintheDVisduetotheCVortheIV.CVsmustbecontrolled. 3 Anyeffectoftheinvestigator'sbehaviourontheoutcomeoftheresearch(theDV).Iftheresearcher,knowingly orotherwise,givesmoreinformationtoparticularparticipants,oroffersencouragementtosomeandnotothersintheir behaviour,thismaycreateaconfoundingvariablesothetruesourceofthechangeintheDVcannotbeidentified. 4 Thepersoninbothconditionshasthesamecharacteristics.ThiscontrolstheimportantCVofparticipant variables. P111 1 TheIVismanipulatedbytheexperimenterandtheeffectontheDVisrecordedinanaturalsetting. 2 Labstudiescanbeeasilyreplicated.Duetothestandardisedproceduretheexperimentcanberepeated.Ifthe resultsarethesamethisconfirmstheirvalidity. Thecontrolledlabenvironmentmayberatherartificialandparticipantsareawaretheyarebeingstudied.Thusbehaviour maynotbe‘natural’andcan’tbegeneralisedtoeverydaylife(lowexternalvalidity). 3 Inafieldexperiment,theIVismanipulatedbytheexperimenterandtheeffectontheDVisrecorded.Inanatural experiment,theexperimenterdoesnotmanipulatetheIV.TheIVwouldhavevariedeveniftheexperimenterwasn’t interested. 4 Inaquasi-experiment,theIVisadifferencebetweenpeople,e.g.peoplewithandwithoutautism.Thismeans thatcomparisonsbetweendifferenttypesofpeoplecanbemade,whichisastrength.However,participantsarenot randomlyallocated.TheexperimenterhasnocontroloverwhichparticipantsareplacedinwhichconditionastheIVispreexisting.ParticipantvariablesmayhavecausedthechangeintheDVactingasaCV. P113 1 Apopulationisthelargegroupofpeoplethataresearcherisinterestedinstudying,forexamplecollegestudents fromtheNorthWest.Itisusuallynotpossibletoincludeallmembersofthepopulationinthestudy,soasmallergroupis selected–thesample.Thesamplethatisdrawnshouldberepresentativeofthepopulationsogeneralisationscanbe made. 2 Inarandomsample,everypersoninthetargetpopulationhasanequalchanceofbeingselected.Thiscanbe achievedthroughtheuseofalotterymethod. 3 Asystematicsampleisanunbiasedmethod.Thefirstitemisusuallyselectedatrandomsotheresearcherhasno controloverthis,itisanobjectivemethod.Acompletelistofthetargetpopulationisrequired.Thisislikelytorequiretime andeffort,andsorandomsamplingmayaswellbeused. 4 Participantsareselectedaccordingtotheirfrequencyinthetargetpopulation.Thecollegestudentpopulation shouldbedividedintosubgroups,suchasgenderoragegroups.Therelativepercentagesofthesubgroupsinthe populationarereflectedinthesample.Forinstance,ifthereare60femalesand40males,thereshouldbe6femalesand4 malesinasampleof10. 5 Inopportunitysamplingthesampleisunrepresentativeofthetargetpopulationasitisdrawnfromavery specificarea,suchasonestreetinonetown.Thismeansthatthefindingscannotbegeneralised. P114 1 Ethicalissuesarisewhenaconflictexistsbetweentherightsofparticipantsandtheaimsoftheresearch.For instance,itmaybenecessarytonotinformparticipantsoftheaimofthestudytominimisedemandcharacteristics,but thisinfringestheirrighttogiveinformedconsent. 2 Participantsshouldbeabletomakeaninformedjudgementaboutwhethertotakepartinaparticularstudy (informedconsent).However,toomuchinformationmayaffectparticipants’behavioursoparticipantsmayinsteadgive retrospectiveconsentattheendofthestudy(duringdebriefing)whentheyaregivenfulldetailsoftheresearchaims. 42 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers 3 BPScodeofconductisaquasi-legaldocumenttoprotectparticipantsbasedonfourprinciples:respect, competence,responsibilityandintegrity.Thisdocumentincludesdetailsofwhatis,andisnot,appropriateinrelationto researchhumanandanimalparticipantsinresearch,andprovidesasafeguardforthosetakingpart. 4 Thisquestionwouldnotbeaskedandwillberemovedfromthebookatreprint.NoessayinResearch Methods. P115 1 Thetwothingsbeingcomparedtoseeifthereisarelationshipincorrelationalresearcharecalledco-variables. Onascattergraph,oneoftheseisplottedonthex-axisandoneonthey-axistoassessthestrengthanddirectionofthe relationship. 2 InanexperimenttheresearchermanipulatestheIVandrecordstheeffectontheDV.Inacorrelationthereisno manipulationofvariablesandsocauseandeffectcannotbedemonstrated.Inacorrelation,itmaybethatathird ‘untested’variableiscausingtherelationshipbetweentheco-variables(calledaninterveningvariable). 3 Correlationsareausefulstartingpointforresearch.Byassessingthestrengthanddirectionofarelationship, correlationsprovideaprecisemeasureofhowtwovariablesarerelated.Ifvariablesarestronglyrelateditmaysuggest hypothesesforfutureresearch. Correlationsareoftenpresentedascausal,e.g.bythemedia,whentheyonlyshowhowtwovariablesarerelated.There maybeinterveningvariablesthatexplaintherelationship. P117 1 Anaturalisticobservationtakesplacewherethetargetbehaviourwouldnormallyoccur,suchasaschool canteen.Acontrolledobservationtakesplaceinacontrolledsetting(possiblyalab)andtheremaybesomemanipulation ofvariablesandcontrolofEVs. 2 Acovertobservationiswhenparticipantsareunawaretheyarebeingstudiedandinformedconsentfortheir participationhasnotbeenobtained.Thisisseenasethicalifthebehaviourtheparticipantsareengagedinis‘public’and doesnotinvadetheirprivacy. 3 Participantobservationscanleadtogreaterinsight.Theresearcherexperiencesthesituationastheparticipants doandthismayenhancethevalidityofthefindings.However,theremaybeapossiblelossofobjectivity.Theresearcher mayidentifytoostronglywiththosetheyarestudying(‘goingnative’)andthismaythreatenthevalidityofthefindings. P119 1 Anymethodinwhichapersonisaskedtostateorexplaintheirownfeelings,opinions,behavioursand/or experiencesrelatedtoagiventopic,asinquestionnairesandinterviews. 2 Inanunstructuredinterviewtherearenosetquestions.Thereisageneraltopictobediscussedbutthe interactionisfree-flowingandtheintervieweeisencouragedtoelaborate. 3 Structuredinterviewsareeasytoreplicatebecauseofthestandardisedformat.Thisalsoreducesdifferences betweeninterviewers.However,intervieweescannotelaboratetheiranswersordeviatefromthecentraltopic,andthis maybeasourceoffrustrationforsome. 4 Thedataproducedinaquestionnaireislikelytobeeasiertoanalysethanthatproducedinaninterview. Statisticaldatacanbegeneratedtoproducegraphsandchartsforcomparison,whichmakesconclusionseasytodraw. However,respondentsmayoftenberestrictedtoachoiceofanswersthatmaynotberepresentativeoftheirtruefeelings onatopic.Thismayreducethevalidityofthefindings. 1 Apilotstudyisasmall-scaletrialrunofaresearchdesignbeforedoingtherealthing.Theaimofpilotingistofind outifcertainthingsdon'tworksoyoucancorrectthembeforespendingtimeandmoneyonthefullinvestigation. P120 1 Qualitativedataisnon-numericaldataexpressedinwords,e.g.anextractfromsomeone’sdiary. 43 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers 2 Secondarydatacanbeinexpensivebecausethedesiredinformationmayalreadyexist.Forthisreasonitoften requiresminimaleffortonthepartoftheresearcher,reducingcosts.However,thequalityofthedatamaybepoor. Informationmaybeoutdatedorincompleteandthischallengesthevalidityofanyconclusionsdrawn. 3 Ifameta-analysisofalltheavailablestudiesonthegeneticbasisofschizophreniaisconducted,theeventual samplesizeismuchlargerthanthesamplesofindividualinvestigations.Thisincreasesthevalidityoftheconclusionsand increasestheextenttowhichgeneralisationscanbemade.However,publicationbiasmayoccur.Researchersmaynot selectallrelevantstudies,leavingoutnegativeornonsignificantresults.Datamaybebiasedbecauseitonlyrepresents someofthedataandincorrectconclusionsaredrawn.Aresearcherwhothinksthatschizophreniahasageneticbiasmay leaveoutstudiesthatdonotconfirmthisview. P121 1 Thegeneraltermforanymeasureoftheaveragevalueinasetofdata,usuallythemean,medianormode. 2 Themeanisthearithmeticaverage;addupallthescoresanddividebythenumberofscores. 3 Thestandarddeviationismoreprecisethantherangeasitincludesallvalueswithinthecalculation.Ittherefore givesamoreaccuratepictureoftheoveralldistributionofthedataset. However,theSDmaybemisleadingandmay'hide'someofthecharacteristicsofthedataset. Extremevaluesmaynotberevealed,unlikewiththerange. P122 1 Usedforcorrelationalanalysistoshowthestrengthanddirectionoftherelationshipbetweenco-variables.Each dotrepresentsonepairofrelateddata.Thedataonbothaxesmustbecontinuous. 2 Anormaldistributionproducesasymmetrical,bell-shapedcurve.Mostpeopleareinthemiddleareaofthe curvewithveryfewattheextremeends.Themean,medianandmodealloccupythesamemid-pointofthecurve–and thiswouldbe100onanormaldistributionofIQscores. 3 Inanormaldistribution,mostpeopleareinthemiddleareaofthecurvewithveryfewattheextremeends.The mean,medianandmodealloccupythesamemid-pointofthecurve–andthiswouldbe100onanormaldistributionofIQ scores.Skeweddistributionsaredistributionsthatleantoonesideortheotherbecausemostpeopleareeitheratthe lowerorupperendofthedistribution–perhapsduetohavingsataverydifficultoreasytest. P123 1 (a)70% (b)0.7 (c)7/10 2 3.142 P124 1 Testingfordifference;relateddesign(repeatedmeasuresormatchedpairs);nominaldata. 2 Thesignificancelevel(usually0.05or5%). Thenumberofparticipantsintheinvestigation(theNvalue)orthedegreesoffreedom(df). Whetherthehypothesisisdirectionalornon-directional(one-tailedortwo-tailedtest). 3 IfSisequaltoorlessthancriticalvalue,thenSissignificantandtheexperimentalhypothesisisretained. P125 1 Beforepublication,allaspectsoftheinvestigationarescrutinisedbyexperts(‘peers’)inthefield.Theseexperts shouldbeobjectiveandunknowntotheresearcher. 2 Oneaimistodeterminetheallocationofresearchfunding.Thismaybeco-ordinatedbygovernment-runfunding organisationswhohaveavestedinterestinestablishingwhichresearchprojectsaremostworthwhile. 44 IlluminatePublishing AQAPsychologyforALevelYear1&ASRevisionGuide–KnowledgeCheckanswers Anotheraimistovalidatethequalityandrelevanceofresearchinordertosuggestimprovementsoramendments.In somecases,reviewersmaysuggestthattheworkisinappropriateandshouldbewithdrawn. 3 Peerreviewprotectsthequalityofpublishedresearchbyminimisingthepossibilityoffraudulentresearch.This preservesthereputationofpsychologyasascienceandincreasesthecredibilityandstatusofthesubject.However,itmay beusedtocriticiserivalresearch.Aminorityofreviewersmayusetheiranonymousstatustocriticiserivalresearchers. Oftenthereiscompetitionforlimitedresearchfundingsothismaybeanissue. Afinalissueispublicationbias.Theremaybeatendencyforeditorsofjournalstowanttopublish'headlinegrabbing' findings.Researchthatdoesnotmeetthiscriterionmaybeignoredordisregarded. P125 1 Recentresearchhasstressedtheimportanceofmultipleattachmentsandtheroleofthefatherinhealthy psychologicaldevelopment.Thismaypromotemoreflexibleworkingarrangementsinthefamilysothatmodernparents arebetterequippedtocontributemoreeffectivelytotheeconomy. Psychologicalresearchintothecausesandtreatmentsofmentaldisordersmeansthatpatientshavetheircondition diagnosedquicklyallowingpatientsaccesstotherapiesorpsychotherapeuticdrugs,suchasSSRIs.Suffererscanmanage theirconditioneffectively,returntoworkandcontributetotheeconomy. 7/11/16 45