Download Despite the dog`s small legs, it easily jumped over my tall fence.

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Word Classes
Despite the dog’s small legs, it
easily jumped over my tall fence.
13
Same word, different class
 The way a word functions in a sentence determines
its word class.
Nouns can be verbs:
I sleep with a cover.
You should cover things in the fridge.
Relative pronouns can be determiners:
The table, which is oak, is for sale.
Which table shall we buy?
And as you’ve seen, just to confuse things:
Prepositions can be conjunctions or adverbs:
Ali locked the door before Jack.
I coloured outside the line.
Ali locked the door before he left.
I went outside.
Nouns
Name things, objects, people or places.
Common nouns are general names
E.g. woman, town, table, day, anger, success, hunger
Proper nouns name a specific person/place/thing
E.g. Susan, London, Tesco, Easter, Friday, July
Proper nouns are always capitalised.
Pronouns
Replace a noun.
Avoid repetition of a noun.
The dog looked at the sandwich and then the dog ate the sandwich. X
The dog looked at the sandwich and then he ate it. √
However, make sure you don’t confuse the reader:
The dog saw the cat and it chased it until it was tired and it had to lie down. X
Possessive determiners vs. possessive pronouns
 Both show ownership/possession.
 PDs are always followed by a noun; they only replace the name of the owner.
 PPs replace the noun; they’re usually at the end of a clause/sentence.
My house or yours?
Your cat is also mine.
(yours replaces the noun house)
(mine replaces the noun cat)
Adjectives
 Describe somebody or something.
 Add extra information about a noun
or pronoun.
James read a terrible book.
He was horrible.
Verbs
 Doing words that show what someone or something:
 is
e.g. It is hot today.
I am tired.

has
e.g.
Jess has a dog.
I have a headache.

or does
e.g.
Ben runs home.
She ate her dinner.
 If two verbs work together, we call this a verb phrase.
She is leaving.
I am eating.
We were waiting.
The helping verbs is, am and were help the main verbs.
Prepositions
 Tell you when or where something is taking place.
 They’re words that join phrases together. (see phrases and clauses)
In the morning, the cat usually hides under the table.
When?
Where?
 The word in is a preposition as it tell you when.
 The whole phrase in the morning is called a prepositional phrase.
Prepositions vs. conjunctions
 Prepositions do not link clauses: conjunctions do. (see phrase and clauses)
Ali locked the door before Jack. clause+before+phrase= preposition
Ali locked the door before he left.
clause+before+clause= conjunction
 Remember: clauses have verbs; phrases do not.
Conjunctions
 Join clauses to make multi-clause sentences. There are 2 types:
 Coordinating conjunctions link 2 main clauses.
I love eating chocolate but it makes me feel sick.
 There are only 7 of them: for and nor but or yet so (fanboys)
 Subordinating conjunctions introduce a subordinate clause.
The detective darted across the deserted market
square despite not knowing who he was looking for.
 E.g. when, if, although, because, after, until, before etc.
 Coordinating conjunctions also link words and phrases.
The fierce dog and the stubborn cat fought as James and Jack looked on.
Subject & Object
Most sentences in English begin with the subject, followed by a
verb followed by the object.
The girl ate the apple.
S
V
O
 Here, the subject does the action and the object has the action done to it.
 However, the roles of the S and O change depending on whether the
sentence is active or passive.
TIP: the vast majority of sentences are SVO.
Adverbs
 Give extra meaning to verbs.
 Tell us how, where or when something happened.
The bear climbed up the tree determinedly. (how)
I tiptoed upstairs. (where)
The policeman never shoots. (when)
 They often end in –ly
e.g.
surprisingly, terribly, significantly, swiftly
 They’re roaming reporters: they can move around sentences.
Adverbs vs. prepositions
Prepositions link phrases: they need an object (a noun).
Adverbs do not – they’re 1 word on their own.
I went outside the shop.
I went outside.
Horrible, I know.
Determiners
Come before a noun.
Help pin down exactly which ‘thing’ is being talked about.
 Normally, a noun cannot stand on its own. E.g. dog bit man X
 It needs a determiner to tell you which dog/man. E.g. our dog bit that man.
Possessive determiners
my dog
your rather small dog
her dog
Which thing?
this dog
those friendly boys
these pens
Any old thing or a particular thing?
a dog
the energetic, agile dog
Used in questions
which dog?
whose handbag?
an ant
How many things?
some pens
both hands
two dogs
Functions of Sentences
There are 4 different sentence functions.
Each one does a different job.
3
Statements . or !
 Statements tell you something.
I’ve finished my homework. √
After dinner, you can play with your friends. √
Times tables are really important. √
TIP: if it’s not a command, question or exclamation,
it must be a statement!
Process of elimination… test smart!
Commands . or !
Commands tell you what to do.
They boss you around (imperative verb).
It is the type of sentence you would see in a set of instructions.
Here is a list of jobs you must finish by 5 o’clock. X
After you wash the dog, you will need to dry it with a towel. X
Before you go out, ask your mother for the shopping list. √
When you get home, put the oven on to 180°. √
st
The 1 2 aren’t bossy enough!
Imagine being shouted at by a drill sergeant!
Questions ?
 Questions are when someone is asking something.
 They must end with a ?
 THINK: does it require a response?
Which is your favourite? √
Is this your favourite? √
This is your favourite, isn’t it? √
Ask John if vanilla is his favourite. X
The last one is not a question because it does not require a response. It
is commanding somebody to ask a question but is not a question itself.
Exclamations !
A sentence must do 2 things for it to
be an exclamation. It must:
 Show anger, joy or humour (and therefore have an !).
 Start with what or how.
Wow! What a lovely day! How fantastic!
√
X
√
Even though this is surprising, it is not an exclamation
because it does not start with what or how.
Types of Sentences
& Sentence Construction
6
Phrases & Clauses
Phrases
 A group of words without a verb.
 They have meaning within a sentence.
 The large cat (noun phrase)
 Rather unfortunately (adverbial phrase)
Clauses
 Beside the canal (prepositional phrase)
 Have a subject and always have a verb.
 They are the basis of sentences.
 The man ran home.
 The man yelled but no one could hear him.
 The dog played although it was tired.
Noun Phrases
A group of words that work together and contain a noun:
the basket
my trip
Expanded noun phrases give extra detail:
the wicker basket
my relaxing trip
These are even more expanded:
the wicker basket attached
to the hot air balloon
my calm, relaxing family trip
‘the wicker basket’ is a noun phrase, but the whole thing is
the longest possible noun phrase.
Sentence Construction
Sentences can be constructed using different clauses in
different orders. Here are some examples:
 Despite not knowing who he was looking for, the
detective darted across the deserted market square,
sprinting at full speed.
 Irritated by the turn of events, the detective, who
was in the worst shape of his career, darted across
the deserted market square.
main clause
subordinate clause
relative clause
Subordinated Multi-Clause Sentence
 Has a main clause and 1 or more subordinate clauses.
 As explained in its own section, the subordinate clause:
can come before or after the main clause;
starts with a subordinating conjunction or in other ways (-ed, -ing).
Despite not knowing who he was looking for, the detective darted across the
deserted market square.
The detective darted across the deserted market square sprinting at full
speed.
Irritated by the turn of events, the detective darted across the deserted
market square.
Subordinate Clauses
They are subordinate (less important) to main clauses: they cannot
stand alone.
They can come before or after the main clause.
They often start with a subordinating conjunction although they
can start in different ways as well.
Despite not knowing who he was looking for, the detective darted
across the deserted market square.
The detective darted across the deserted market square despite
not knowing who he was looking for.
The underlined subordinate clauses cannot stand alone.
Coordinated Multi-clause Sentence
Has 2 or more main clauses.
Clauses linked by coordinating conjunctions.
Each clause makes sense on its own: they are of equal weight.
The detective darted across the deserted market square yet he
doubted he’d find who he was looking for.
Everyone’s finger prints are unique but this doesn’t mean people
don’t possess similar patterns.
Both of these sentences have 2 main clauses which
make sense on their own.
Relative Clauses
Add extra information about a noun.
They begin with a relative pronoun. E.g. who, which, that, where etc.
 They can be at the end of a sentence:
My baby brother was born in the hospital where my father works.
 Or in the middle (embedded - see ‘parenthesis’ to learn more):
The table, which is made of oak, is now black with age.
More examples:
Lisa (who had been playing the piano since she was nine) had achieved Grade 7.
We sold our house to a man who works at the police station.
The car – that had monster-truck wheels – whizzed down the road.
Single-Clause Sentence
 Has 1 main clause.
 It makes sense on its own.
 Puts across 1 simple idea or is short for effect.
The detective darted across the deserted market square.
Everyone’s finger prints are unique.
The Nazis were defeated.
Verb Forms & Tense
This is probably the trickiest aspect of grammar.
Even if you don’t fully understand the terms, make sure you learn
the TIPs for the test.
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Past Progressive
 Describes an on-going action in the past.
 The action was in progress in the past.
 TIP: it’s simply ‘was/were’ followed by an –ing verb.
Gemma did her science homework. X
Gemma was doing her science homework. √
The boys found their history homework difficult. X
The boys were finding their history homework difficult. √
Present Progressive
 Describes an on-going action happening now.
 The action is in progress now.
 TIP: it’s simply ‘am/are/is’ followed by an –ing verb.
I get up early every day. X
I am getting up early every day. √
My friends take the bus to school. X
My friends are taking the bus to school. √
Verbs in the Present Perfect Form
We use past tense for events that are completely in the past.
James was my friend for years.
(No longer friends so it’s completely in the past.)
However, we use the present perfect tense for events which started
in the past but are still true now or still affect us now.
James has been my friend for years.
(They’re still friends so it’s still true.)
TIP: it’s simply has/have followed by a verb.
We have wanted to learn how to play the piano for years. √
We were hoping for piano lessons. X
Using the Subjunctive Form
Using verbs in their subjunctive form makes writing more formal.
Used in sentences where something is imagined:
If I were the boss, I’d leave.
(were instead of was)
Also used to make wishes, requests and demands more formal.
Schools require that all children be honest.
(be instead of are)
Although these are only some examples, were is the most common.
TIP: In the test, if in doubt, put were (as long as it makes sense!).
Active & Passive Voice
Sentences are either in active or passive voice depending on its focus.
Active voice
S is acting.
Most sentences are active.
Passive voice
My mate
kicked
the cat.
Subject
Verb
Object
Someone or
to someone or
does an action
something
something else.
The cat
was kicked by my mate.
Subject
Verb
Object
Someone or
by someone or
is acted upon
Passive voice is more formal.
something
something else.
S is acted upon.
 Sometimes in passive sentences, the object can be left out.
E.g. The cat was kicked.  you might not want to grass on your mate!
TIP: if asked to change a sentence from 1 voice to the other, simply ‘flip’ it.
Modal Verb
 Special type of verb.
 Used to change the meaning of a sentence by
showing the level of possibility.
We will have fish and chips for tea. Certainty
It might rain tomorrow. Possibility
James cannot sing. Certainty
You could come to my house after school. Possibility
Punctuation
The use of symbols to separate or link clauses
or phrases to help the reader understand the
intended meaning of a text.
. ? ! , ‘ … “ ” ( ) ; : The same piece of punctuation can be used in
different ways!
“Inverted Commas”
 A.K.A. speech marks.
 Show someone’s exact words (direct speech).
Rules
 “” only go around the words that are spoken.
 Start speech with a capital letter.
 One of these , . ! ? needs to go inside closing marks.
 Add a comma if the reporting clause is at the start.
She asked him, “Do you want a banana?”
“No thank you,” he replied.
Apostrophes ‘
 Mark contracted forms – the ‘ replaces a letter(s).
should not = shouldn’t
I will = I’ll
they are = they’re
 Show possession – show something belongs to someone or something
Singular possession: when something belongs to 1 person.
Rule: ‘ before the s.
the boy’s ball
the teacher’s desk
(1 boy / teacher)
Plural possession: when something belongs to 2 or more people.
Rule: ‘ after the s.
the boys’ ball
the teachers’ lounge
(a group of boys / teachers)
TIP: words like children are already plural. We therefore only ever put the
apostrophe before the s because it already shows more than 1 child (children’s).
Commas ,
Commas have 4 main uses:
 After fronted adverbials & subordinate clauses in ‘sub, main’ sentences
Rather hurriedly, James bolted out of bed.
Immediately after dinner, we did the washing up.
 To separate items in a list
He packed a camera, his sunglasses, his trunks and a towel.
 To make meaning clear
I like cooking my family and my pets.
I like cooking, my family and my pets.
 For embedding extra information (see parenthesis)
Signalling the End of Sentences
 Every sentence must end with a full stop, question or
exclamation mark.
 These show you have finished a sentence.
Question marks (?) are used when someone has asked a question.
Think: does this sentence require a response? E.g. Where are we?
Exclamation marks (!) are used to show anger, joy or humour.
E.g. Wow! What a lovely day!
Full stops (.) are used if a question or exclamation mark isn’t
required.  This sentence requires a full stop.
-,(Parenthesis),Posh word for adding extra information.
Done by embedding part of sentence between a pair of commas,
dashes or brackets.
If you read the sentence without the parenthesis, it still makes sense.
Jamie, aged 11, loved learning about punctuation.
The wind was blowing – howling, actually – so we
headed for home.
A lot of the time, the information you’re embedding will be a relative
clause.
Lisa (who had been playing the piano since
she was nine) had achieved Grade 7.
Semi-Colon ;
Semi-colons can be tricky. Here’s the main way they’re used:
Link 2 main clauses by replacing the coordinated conjunction.
Both clauses must make sense on their own.
The clauses must be closely related (be on the same topic).
The door swung open and a masked figure strode in.
The door swung open; a masked figure strode in.
Don’t overuse them; save them for special occasions!
Colon :
 Makes the 1st part of the sentence unimportant. It’s always the 2nd part that
will give you the important information.
Colons have 3 main uses:
 Introduce lists
The school offered three clubs for its pupils: art and craft, dance and chess.
 Link 2 main clauses when the 2
nd
explains or extends on the 1
st
I have very little time to learn the language: my new job starts in five weeks.
Remember the old saying: be careful what you wish for.
 Emphasise a phrase or single word at the end of a sentence
After three weeks of discussion, the jury finally reached a verdict: guilty.
Single Dashes & Hyphens Single Dashes link 2 main clauses when the 2nd explains or extends on the
1st.
 Note: colons can do exactly this as well (see colons) and so either can be
used here!
African elephants are the largest animals in
the world – they can weigh up to 10 tonnes.
 Hyphens make new words by connecting 2 or more words.
E.g.
a well-known footballer
an ex-pupil
kick-off
 They are often used to make meaning clear.
I saw a man eating alligator.
There are thirty six-year-olds in Class 2. √
I saw a man-eating alligator.
There are thirty-six-year-olds in Class 2. X
Capital Letters
Capital letters are needed:
 at the start of a sentence;
 for the personal pronoun ‘I’;
 for proper nouns;
st
 for the 1 word inside speech marks.
Abruptly, Mary Tudor screeched, “Throw him in the Tower
of London; I will behead him on Wednesday!”
Vocabulary
word families
Root Words & Word Families
A root word is a basic word with no prefixes or suffixes.
When we add prefixes or suffixes to it, we can change the
meaning and word class.
We call this group of new words word families.
behave
misbehave
behaving
behaviour
behaved
terror (noun)
terrorise (verb)
terrible (adjective)
terribly (adverb)
Suffixes
Suffixes are groups of letters added to the end of a
root word, potentially changing its word class. E.g.
enjoyment
sadness
playful
worthless
badly
sprinting
fortunate
classify
terrorise
dangerous
wishes
referred
Sometimes, the spelling of the root word changes.
Prefixes
Prefixes are groups of letters added to the beginning
of a root word, changing its meaning. E.g.
unhappy
reappear
defrost
misbehave
immature
illegal
disagree
irresponsible
subheading
anticlockwise
autopilot
preheat
Each prefix has its own meaning.
Antonyms
Antonyms are words with the opposite meaning.
miserable
happy
cheerless
They are antonyms of each other.
Synonyms
Synonyms are words with the same or similar meaning.
pleased
happy
buoyant
They are synonyms of each other.