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XIII. The French Revolution
Three “Estates” in France
Clergy
Nobility
Commoners (97% of population)
1st and 2nd Estates exempt from many taxes.
Commoners wanted more power and voice in government.
French government nearly bankrupt.
1789: Louis XVI has to call a meeting of the Estates-General to discuss financial crisis.
First and Second Estates deny power to Third.
Peasants paid all the tax but had no political voice.
Tennis Court Oath:
Third declares itself the “National Assembly,”
a revolutionary act.
The King threatens force.
Clashes between royal forces and commoners.
Storming of the Bastille
(a royal prison)
King loses control of the troops.
National Assembly abolishes feudalism and aristocratic privileges.
“Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.”
King and Queen kept as virtual prisoners, while Assembly debates for two years.
Convention held to draft a new constitution (1791).
Church property confiscated.
War with Austria (1792).
Emperor was Louis’s brother-in-law & opposed Revolution.
Radical Jacobins dominate new National Convention:
Abolishes monarchy in France (1792), and declares French Republic.
Catholic Church nearly eradicated in France.
1793: Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette executed.
Europe now hostile to France.
Committee of Public Safety takes control of France.
National army (drafted).
Total war.
Robespierre and the “Reign of Terror.”
1794: moderates regain control and end the Reign of Terror.
Conservatives (right) vs. Radicals/Jacobins (left)
Uncertain period as groups maneuver for power.
One group recruits a popular general:
XIV. Napoleon Bonaparte
Corsican.
Military genius.
Military coup:
becomes First Consul of France, 1799.
Administrative changes:
1801 makes peace with Catholic Church.
“Code Napoleon”
Reduced rights of women
New nobility, based on merit
Military victories against coalitions of other European powers.
Russia
Austria
Prussia
Spain
1804: Crowned Emperor of the French.
Declares “Grand Empire.”
Unable to defeat Britain (sea power).
Places relatives on thrones of Europe.
Spread of “Code Napoleon,” revolution, and nationalism to much of Europe.
Nationalism in Europe, awakened by the French, turns against France.
1805: British Royal Navy defeats French Navy at Trafalgar.
Russia leaves the French alliance—
This disrupts Napoleon’s “Continental System”
An economic embargo against Britain.
Napoleon invades Russia in 1812
Leads 600,000 troops from all across W Europe.
Capture Moscow (deserted).
Russians burn Moscow down around the French.
French retreat in winter.
Only 40,000 return.
Wars of liberation across Europe.
1814: “The Battle of Nations” at Leipzig (Germany) ends in defeat and retreat for France.
Napoleon abdicates throne.
Exiled to Elba.
Louis XVIII crowned.
1815: Napoleon escapes and returns to Paris.
The 100 Days:
Assembles a new army
Attacks British army in Belgium.
Waterloo:
N is defeated by Wellington (Britain) and Blucher (Prussia)
Exiled to St. Helena in Atlantic Ocean.
Cultivates the “Napoleonic Legend.”
Murdered?
XV. Consequences of French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars
Spread of nationalism.
Nobles of Europe fear revolution.
Cooperate to help one another put down internal revolutions.
Congress of Vienna
European leaders meet:
to undo Napoleon’s changes.
to restore royal families of Europe to thrones.
“Restoration”
To establish a balance of power:
The “Concert of Europe”
Results in peace for most of 1800s.
But-- growing nationalist and independence movements.
XVI. Agricultural Revolution
Between 1760 and 1830:
Compact fields and enclosed farms
Crop rotation
Introduction of new crops
England was first
Textile improvements
Power loom
Spinning Jenny
Flying shuttle
Cotton production increased as costs decreased
XVII. Industrial Revolution
Steam power
Textiles
Mining
Factories no longer forced to locate next to rivers
Railroads
Iron
England: large reserves
And coal for use in iron production.
Led to better machinery.
Railroads:
Encouraged growth of iron and coal industries
Cheaper transportation = cheaper prices for products
George Stephenson
the best early trains
Factories
Regular working hours (long)
The “work week”
Poor conditions
Hazardous jobs
Child labor
Pollution
Urbanization
“Demographic Revolution”
People leaving the countryside– moving to the cities for work.
England: first country mostly urban (not rural)
Creation of new social classes
Industrial Middle Class
(owners/managers)
The “New Rich”
Demanded more access to “high society”
Working Class
Industrial laborers:
“the Proletariat”
Terrible conditions
no one to look out for their interests
Socialism
Reaction to the conditions of the Industrial Revolution.
Government should protect the working poor.
Government regulates businesses and utilities, or
Government owns some businesses and utilities
Favor the group’s well-being over the individual.
Redistribution of income:
to aid the poor;
to prevent a vast separation between the rich and the poor.
Marxism/Communism
Karl Marx: “The Communist Manifesto” and “Das Kapital”
History is a class struggle.
Inevitable victory of the working class.
Communism: highest form of society.
The Proletariat will overthrow the Capitalists and create a Communist world.
XVIII. Revolutions of 1848-49
Conservatives dominated Europe after Congress of Vienna
France (1830)
Liberal revolt vs. Charles X
Louis-Philippe: Constitutional monarch
Poland
Russians crush popular uprising.
France (1848)
Louis-Philippe overthrown.
Second Republic.
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (nephew) elected president.
1852 plebiscite: “Should I be emperor?”
Yes.
“Emperor Louis Napoleon III”
Second French Empire, 1852-1870
Renovation of Paris
German states
Encouraged by events in France.
Desire for unification.
Who will unify them?
By diplomacy or by war?
Will it include Austria?
Frankfurt Assembly convenes, to try to unite German lands.
Offers a “German” crown to Frederick William IV of Prussia,
But he refuses this “crown from the gutter.”
Austrian Empire
Popular revolts
140,000 Russian troops intervene.
Conservative victory.
Italy
Growing nationalism
desire for unification
Nine small states
Some ruled by local kings (ex: Piedmont)
Some ruled by Pope (ex: Papal States)
Some by the Bourbon Dynasty (ex: S. Italy & Sicily)
Some controlled by Austria (ex: Venetia)
Uprising crushed by Austrian troops.
Conservative victory.
Results:
Most revolutions ended in failure.
Conservative victories. Status quo.
But: Nationalism growing.
Would be co-opted by Conservatives.
More people demanding change
(unification and/or liberal reforms)
Latin America
Independence movements:
Simon Bolivar & Jose de San Martin
Creoles vs. Peninsulares
Napoleonic Wars give Spanish and Portuguese colonies the chance to rebel
Most free by 1824
Power groups:
Roman Catholic Church
Aristocrats/landed elites
Army
XIX. Unification of Italy
Guiseppe Mazzini (pre-1848)
Agitator for unification
“Young Italy” movement
Count Cavour
Chief Minister of Piedmont
Unites northern Italy via strategic alliances in war (1854-66)
King Victor Emmanuel II
Guiseppe Garibaldi
“Red Shirts”
Victories in southern Italy (1860)
Gives territory to Victor Emmanuel II
A united Italy by 1870
XX. Unification of Germany
King William I of Prussia
Chancellor Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)
Would unify Germany through wars against neighbors.
Denmark 1864
Austro-Prussian War 1866 (Stunning victory)
Franco-Prussian War 1870-71
Huge shock: Prussia wins.
Louis Napoleon III is captured.
Bismarck turns France back into a Republic
to make it unpopular in Europe.
William I crowned Emperor of German Empire
(Kaiser of the Second Reich)
in Versailles
William II crowned in 1888
XXI. Elsewhere in 1800s
Russia
Expansion to Pacific by 1800s.
Romanov Dynasty still in power.
1861: emancipation of serfs.
Alexander III:
sees father assassinated
becomes more repressive
Nicholas II:
had father’s desire for autocracy,
but was too weak.
Growth of political factions:
Cadets
Marxists
Mensheviks
Bolsheviks
Spread of ideologies from cities to countryside
(intellectuals to peasants)
Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)
Russian Navy is sunk
Japan wins
Discredits Nicholas II–
popular unrest
Revolt in Russia is crushed (1905)
Britain
Slow, steady reforms
Wider voter eligibility
Parliamentary reforms and increased power
Continuing economic growth = stability
No revolution
Colonial conflicts around the globe
Queen Victoria reigns 1837-1901
At the head of several European royal families
“Victorian Age”
Height of the British Empire
Social conservatism
The first World’s Fair:
Crystal Palace in London (1851)
Charles Darwin’s “Origin of Species” (1859)
Suez Canal opens (1869)
China
Opium Wars vs. Britain: 1840-42, 1857
Treaty of Nanking
Hong Kong and China Traders
Boxer Rebellion (1898-1900)
Republican Revolution (1911)
XXII. Imperialism
India
1858: Britain takes direct control
Indian nationalism grows
1885: Indian National Congress begins to work toward independence
Gandhi: nonviolent struggle
1947: Independence
Vast migrations of people
India (majority Hindu)
Pakistan (E & W) (majority Muslim)
1971 War
Bangladesh independence
South Africa
Zulus
Dutch colonists (Boers)
British
Diamonds and gold
discovered in late 1800s
Boer War in South Africa: 1901-03
British vs. Dutch
Provoked by Cecil Rhodes
(British entrepreneur)
seeking to control wealth
British: costly win
Boers:
Driven inland
Less interested in welfare of Zulus.
Leads to Apartheid system of 20th Century South Africa
The Scramble for Africa, 1880-1900
Pre-1880
British and French: main players in Africa
Strategic ports; interior unexplored
Britain controls Suez Canal, Egypt, Sudan
Slave trade ended by 1880.
If Africa is to be further exploited, must go inside.
1880: King Leopold II of Belgium
Hires Henry Stanley-(US explorer and showman)
--to search for Dr. David Livingstone.
British explorer charting the Congo River
“darkest Africa”
seeking a link to the Nile River.
Leopold establishes “Belgian Congo”
as his personal property
Other European countries grab land in Africa.
Berlin Conference, 1884
Bismarck sets rules for imperialism.
(including “plant the flag”)
Most of Africa is quickly claimed by Europe.
What had kept Europeans out?
Diseases (malaria)
Shallow and uncharted rivers
Hostile natives
What let Europeans in?
Quinine
Shallow-draft steamboats
Machine guns
Why go?
“White Man’s Burden”
3 C’s: Commerce, Christianity, Civilization
4th C: Conquest
Greed, gold, guns
Or: They did it simply because they could?
Fashoda, 1898
Southern Sudan
French from West
British from East
Confrontation at Fashoda. War?
French back down.
By 1900, British are supreme in Africa