* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download ENGLISH SYNTAX: THE coMpoSITE SENTENcE. THE Mood
Survey
Document related concepts
Modern Greek grammar wikipedia , lookup
American Sign Language grammar wikipedia , lookup
Portuguese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Kannada grammar wikipedia , lookup
Lithuanian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Polish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Old English grammar wikipedia , lookup
French grammar wikipedia , lookup
Esperanto grammar wikipedia , lookup
Chinese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Sloppy identity wikipedia , lookup
Latin syntax wikipedia , lookup
Pipil grammar wikipedia , lookup
Relative clause wikipedia , lookup
Spanish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Transcript
VILNIAUS PEDAGOGINIS UNIVERSITETAS Filologijos FAKULTETAS ANGLŲ KALBOS DIDAKTIKOS KATEDRA Gerda Mazlaveckienė Valerija Norušaitienė Jurgita Trapnauskienė ENGLISH SYNTAX: THE composite SENTENCE. The mood Teaching Aid Vilnius, 2010 UDK 802.0-56(075.8) Ma724 Metodinė priemonė apsvarstyta Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto Filologijos fakulteto Anglų kalbos didaktikos katedros posėdyje 2010 m. rugsėjo 27 d. (protokolo Nr. 4), Filologijos fakulteto tarybos posėdyje 2010 m. rugsėjo 29 d. (protokolo Nr. 1) ir rekomenduota spausdinti. Recenzavo: dr. Jurga Cibulskienė (Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas) Birutė Bersėnienė (Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas) © Gerda Mazlaveckienė, 2010 © Valerija Norušaitienė, 2010 © Jurgita Trapnauskienė, 2010 ISBN 978-9955-20-574-6 © Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas, 2010 Contents PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 I. THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 SUGGESTED WAYS OF COMPOUND SENTENCE ANALYSIS . . 24 PRACTICE SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 SUGGESTED WAYS OF COMPLEX SENTENCE ANALYSIS . . . . . 35 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH A NOMINAL CLAUSE . . . . . . 36 PRACTICE SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE . . 44 PRACTICE SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE . . . 52 OTHER TYPES OF COMPLEX SENTENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 PRACTICE SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 SUGGESTED WAYS OF COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 PRACTICE SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 II. THE MOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 GENERAL REMARKS ON MODALITY AND MOODS . . . . . . . . . . 83 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 THE SUPPOSITIONAL MOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 THE CONDITIONAL MOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 PRACTICE SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 PREFACE This teaching aid, a follow-up to The Basics of English Syntax: the Simple Sentence, is meant, first and foremost, for 2nd year bachelor students of English as well as for in-service teachers of English at the Competence Development Centre of Vilnius Pedagogical University. Other readers interested in English syntax may also find something of interest in the comprehensive approach towards the subject under discussion. It deals with English composite syntactic structures and covers the following questions: • How can you expand a simple English sentence and why? • How could/would you fully express your feelings and moods? • What is the difference between the predicate verb forms in English sentences in expressing real and unreal actions? • What ways of expanding separate parts of a sentence could you suggest? The teaching aid also provides Practical Sections to enable the reader to use the acquired knowledge of composite sentence and mood. Our teaching aid is a matter of team work: Composite and Compound sentence sections were prepared by J. Trapnauskienė, the Complex sentence by G. Mazlaveckienė and the Mood by V. Norušaitienė. We express our sincere gratitude to the Lect. Birutė Bersėnienė and Dr Jurga Cibulskienė who kindly agreed to review the book. We also appreciate the goodwill of Ms Gwyneth Fox, the Associate Editor of the Macmillan English Dictionary, for permission to include some examples from the Macmillan dictionary materials as illustrations to our statements. INTRODUCTION Syntax is a part of grammar, which deals with ways of combining words into phrases in a language (Biber 2002:460), i.e. combinations of individual lexemes arranged according to certain principles, which determine the length and meaning of the phrase through a proper choice of morphological partners. The most important phrase is a sentence - a relatively complete and independent communicative unit, which usually realizes a speaker’s communicative intentions and contains one or more subject-predicate units, present or implied. According to their structure, sentences fall into the following groups: 1. Simple or composite 2. Complete or incomplete (elliptical) 3. Two-member or one-member. Sentences fall into simple and composite depending on the number of Subject-Predicate units in them. A sentence with one Subject-Predicate unit is called a simple sentence, while a sentence with two or more SubjectPredicate units is called a composite sentence. Subject-Predicate units in a composite sentence are called clauses: Well, you look better than you did. Don’t you realize the damage these chemicals are doing to our environment? Harry is unemployed at the moment but he does lots of jobs around the house to earn his keep. The latter two groups are discussed in Chapter II of ‘The Basics of English Syntax: the Simple Sentence’. (Norušaitienė, Trapnauskienė 2008: 16). I. THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE A clause in a composite sentence is similar in its structure to a simple sentence though it acts as a part of a bigger syntactical unit. There are two main ways of linking clauses in a composite sentence: coordination and subordination. Coordination is a way of linking grammatical elements making them equal in rank. Subordination is a way of linking grammatical elements that makes one of them dependent upon the other (or they are mutually dependent). (Kobrina 2006: 421) As a result, two possible types of a composite sentence are usually distinguished: 1. The compound sentence, consisting of two independent clauses, linked in a relationship of coordination, as in I missed supper and I’m starving! 2. The complex sentence, consisting of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses, linked in a relationship of subordination, as in I’m starving because I missed supper. Two simple sentences, for example, He heard an explosion. He phoned the police. may be joined into one sentence, either by coordinating the two clauses by the coordinating conjunction and or by making one clause into a main clause and the other into a subclause (subordinate): Coordination He heard an explosion and he phoned the police. Subordination When he heard an explosion, he phoned the police. (Leech, Svartvik 1975: 288) Such sentences may be graphically presented in the following way: 1. Her age was between elderly and old, and her forehead was wrinkled with an expression of slight but perpetual pain. (compound) Her age was between elderly and her forehead was wrinkled with an exand old, pression of slight but perpetual pain. 2. I promise to tell you the time of their arrival as soon as I find it out. (complex) I promise to tell you the time of their arrival as soon as I find it out. Not all structures seem to be so simple. In the following complex sentence we deal with 4 clauses where each of the successive clauses is linked to the previous one. Each clause then is of different degree of subordination. The first subordinate clause is of first degree of subordination, the second subordinate clause is of second degree of subordination, etc. 3. John reported that Frank had told him that Mary had said the day would be fine. (complex) John reported that Frank had told him that Mary had said the day would be fine. A complex sentence may contain several subordinate clauses which are of the same degree of subordination (first), that is they are all linked to the main clause and perform different syntactic functions. 4. When I raised my eyes again, I found that he had been shrewdly looking at me all the time, and was doing so still. (complex) I found When I raised my eyes again, that he had been shrewdly looking at me all the time, and was doing so still. Another possibility is for the complex sentence to have two homogenous subordinate clauses (clauses joined by means of coordination) linked to the main one. 5. We ordered something rather special for dinner, with a bottle of something similarly out of the common way, in order that our minds might be fortified for the occasion, and we might come well up to the mark. (complex) We ordered something rather special for dinner, with a bottle of something similarly out of the common way, in order that our minds might be fortified for the occasion, and we might come well up to the mark. A complex sentence may contain a subordinate subject and predicative clause. Since these clauses occupy the positions of the main parts of the sentence, the main clause is reduced to the link verb only. 6. What I want is what everybody wants these days. (complex) What I want is what everybody wants these days A compound sentence may contain coordinate clauses extended by subordinate clauses, and the result is a compound-complex sentence. 7. I believe she had not shown much susceptibility up to that time; but all the susceptibility she possessed, certainly came out then, and she passionately loved him. (compound-complex) I believe she had not shown much susceptibility up to that time; all the susceptibilshe passionately but ity... certainly came and loved him. out then, she possessed Other grammarians distinguish logico-semantic relationships between clauses alongside the syntactic ones too. According to Downing, Locke, Halliday (1995: 279, 1994: 218), etc., there are certain syntactic and logico-semantic relationships between clauses: 1) the syntactic relationship of interdependency. The clauses are related to each other basically in one or two ways: either the relationship is one of equivalence, both or all the clauses having the same syntactical status; or the relationship is of non-equivalence, the clauses having different status. A relationship of equivalence is called a paratactic relationship. Parataxis (Greek for ‘coordination’) is the relationship between units of equal status. A relationship of non-equivalence is called a hypotactic relationship. Hypotaxis (Greek for ‘subordination’) is the relationship between units of unequal status. 10 2) the logico-semantic relations do not simply link clauses within a sentence, they can also link clauses within a paragraph and paragraphs within a text. The logico-semantic relations can be grouped together under the two main headings of expansion, by which a nuclear situation is expanded by means of other situations, and projection, by which a situation is ‘projected’ through a verb of saying or thinking. (Downing, Locke 1995: 279) Semantically, as paratactically linked clauses have equal status, the information presented in one clause is as important as that presented in the other or others. In the sentence Hundreds of Parisians have seen the exhibition and many hundreds of visitors are expected to see it in the next ten days there is no hierarchisation of the information. In hypotactically related clauses, one clause is syntactically and semantically subordinated to another or the other. Semantically, the information contained in the subordinate clause often serves as background to the information contained in the main clause (superordinate). In the sentence Since you have come after all, why don’t you join us? the clause since you have come after all is presented as given or known information indicating the reason or possibility for the action of joining. Thus, any pair of related clauses by interdependency relationship results in one clause being primary and the second one – secondary. The primary clause is the initiating clause in paratactic relationship and the dominant clause in hypotactic relationship; the secondary one is the continuing clause in the first type of relationship and the dependent clause in case of a hypotactic relationship. (Halliday 1994: 218) Table 1. Primary and secondary clauses parataxis hypotaxis primary initiating dominant secondary continuing dependent 11 The classification for logico-semantic relationships between clauses proposed by Halliday suggests that the secondary clause expands the primary clause by a) elaborating, b) extending, c) enhancing it, either paratactically or hypotactically. Table 2. Logico-semantic relations between clauses: expansion expansion a) elaboration paratactic John didn’t wait; he ran away. b) extension John ran away, and Fred stayed behind. c) enhancement John was scared, so he ran away. hypotactic John ran away, which was unusual. John ran away, whereas Fred stayed behind. John ran away, because he was scared. When the clauses are combined by elaboration, one clause expands another by elaborating on it in greater detail, by exemplifying, restating in other words or commenting. In clauses combined by extension one clause expands another by adding something new, giving an alternative or an exception. In clause combining by enhancement, clauses of time, place, condition, purpose, cause or concession expand the primary one by adding the corresponding circumstantial features. The secondary clause is projected through the primary clause as a) a locution, with a help of a verb of saying, or b) an idea, with a help of a verb of thinking. Table 3. Logico-semantic relations between clauses: projection projection a) locution b) idea 12 paratactic John said: ‘I’m running away’. John thought to himself: ‘I’ll run away’. hypotactic John said he was running away. John thought he would run away. (Halliday 1994: 220, Downing, Locke 1995: 281–282) As it is seen from the examples above, paratactic is mostly preferred in direct speech, while hypotactic – in reported speech. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses of equal rank, which form one syntactical whole in meaning and intonation. (Kobrina 2006: 423) Clauses in a compound sentence are joined by means of coordination, so they are called coordinate. There are two ways of linking clauses in a compound sentence: syndetic and asyndetic. When clauses are joined with a help of a connector, such as and, but, or, etc., the linking is called syndetic: The cloud parted and the increase of light made her look up. He wants her to live in the towns, but she only cares for woods. Do you want to leave now or would you rather set off later? I heard a noise so I got out of bed and turned the light on. When clauses are joined without a connector, by means of a comma or semicolon, etc. – asyndetic: Man wants to love mankind; woman wants to love one man. The church lay up by the railway, the farm was down by the water meadows. Rickie had warned her; now she began to warn him. Her attention was drawn to the other messy areas in the bedroom; to the left was a closet with louvered doors open and clothing spilling out. Syndetic coordination is realized by a number of connectors – conjunctions, such as and, but, or, nor, for, etc., or by conjunctive adverbs, such as moreover, besides, however, yet, still, otherwise, therefore, etc. In speaking 13 coordinate clauses are separated by pauses, while in writing they may be marked off by a comma, a semicolon, a colon or occasionally a dash. The main semantic feature of the compound sentence is that each successive clause is related to the previous one, that is a secondary clause is always continuing the primary one, so a compound sentence always follows a flow of thought. This results in two syntactic features of the compound sentence which distinguish it from the complex sentence: 1. The opening or primary clause mostly plays the leading role, and each successive clause is joined to the previous one. For example, But now the air was like wine, and the stubble was smelling of wet, and over his head white clouds trundled more slowly and more seldom through broadening tracts of blue. This compound sentence has three coordinate clauses, where the second one, the stubble was smelling of wet, is joined to the first clause and the last one, over his head white clouds trundled more slowly and more seldom through broadening tracts of blue, is linked to the second clause of the sentence. Sometimes a sentence begins with a coordinating connector, but in this case the whole sentence is joined to the previous sentence in the text. 14 I do not trust my own partiality. When she was only fifteen, there was a gentleman at my brother Gardiner’s in town, so much in love with her, that my sister-in-law was sure he would make her an offer before we came away. But however he did not. Perhaps he thought her too young. However, he wrote some verses on her, and very pretty they were. 2. The second syntactic feature of the compound sentence is that the clauses are sequentially fixed. Thus, clauses cannot change place in the sentence without changing or distorting the meaning of the whole unit. The view never came, for none of the inclines were sharp enough, and they moved over the skull for many minutes, scarcely shifting a landmark or altering the blue fringe of the distance. It is important to note that communicatively clauses of a compound sentence either primary or secondary, may belong to different communicative types from a semantic point of view. I am to have a carriage, and you are to take me. (declarative and imperative) This is my purse, and you are to pay my charges out of it. (declarative and imperative) Why don’t you invite Steve or whatever he’s called, to supper? (interrogative and declarative) Depending on the relationship between coordinate clauses in a compound sentence, grammarians distinguish different types of connection between them. According to Halliday, there are three principle markers of extending paratactic relationship (clauses equal in rank): addition, variation and alteration. (Halliday 1995: 233) 15 Table 4. Principle markers of extending clauses paratactic 1) addition ‘and’, positive ‘nor’, negative ‘but’ adversative 2) variation ‘instead’, replacive ‘except’, subtractive 3) alteration ‘or’, alternative (both...) and; not only... but also (neither..) nor (and) yet; but but not; not ... but only; but; except (either...) or (else) According to Kobrina, there are four types of coordinate connection between coordinate clauses: copulative, adversative, disjunctive and causativeconsecutive. (Kobrina 2006: 424) In fact, copulative coordination coincides with positive and negative addition; adversative coordination conveys the same meaning as adversative addition and disjunctive coordination may be replaced by alteration. The last type, that is causative-consecutive connection, needs separate analysis as in many cases it borders on subordination (hypotactic relationship). Besides, the type of connection is expressed not only through the coordinating connectors but also by the general meaning of clauses conveyed by their lexical and grammatical content. Thus, in case of asyndetic coordination the type of coordinate connection is still distinguished. Copulative coordination (liet. kopuliacinis, sudedamasis) joins clauses the information of which is in some way similar. And is the most frequently used conjunction to realize copulative coordination, which basically denotes mere addition. Other copulative conjunctions are: nor, neither... nor, also, not only... but also, as well as, and the conjunctive adverbs then, moreover, furthermore, besides. Conjunctions consisting of two or more parts, such as neither... nor, not only... but also, 16 are called correlative conjunctions. And usually denotes positive addition while nor suggests negative addition. The flowers in the vases rustled, and the flame of the lamp shot up and smoked the glass. (positive addition) Her air was not conciliating, nor was her manner of receiving them, such as to make her visitors forget their inferior rank. (negative addition) Unfortunately lunch was a quarter of an hour late, and during that quarter of an hour the aunt and the nephew quarrelled. (positive addition) Coordinate clauses joined by copulative coordination often denote simultaneous or successive events. The most frequent copulative conjunction for the case is and though the conjunctive adverb then is also used for describing successive events. There was the sound of a train, and presently white smoke appeared, rising laboriously through the heavy air. (simultaneity) The invitation was accepted of course, and at a proper hour they joined the party in Lady Catherine’s drawing-room. (succession) I do all the washing and cleaning then there’s the ironing too. (succession) Sometimes the second coordinate clause may contain some commentary on the previous clause. He was familiar with their usual gossip about neighbours, and it bored him. Occasionally coordinate clauses joined by the copulative conjuction and may denote spatial relationship, manner or even comparison. Alice looked up, and there stood the Queen in front of them. (same place) 17 Keep on subtracting the difference, and in that way you will arrive at the correct figure. (manner/means) She likes the simple life, and so does he. (comparison) Sometimes the copulative meaning of and is weakened and it may join clauses with adversative or causative-consecutive connections. The meaning of the second clause is either contrasted to the first or contains its consequence. He had had a bad night, and the strong air made him sleepy. You have been very good to me, and I owe everything to you. If a sentence begins with a verb in the imperative mood, the first clause implies a condition for the fulfilment of the action in the continuing clause. Serve a friend with it, and you may know the end of it too – but it’s a less pleasant and profitable end. (If you serve...) The conjunction nor joins two negative clauses. I don’t expect children to be rude, nor do I expect to be obeyed. I did not want to go out, nor did I wish to stay with the guests. The correlative pairs neither... nor, not only... but (also) express mere addition, sometimes with emphasis on the second clause. The report has not only attracted much attention but it also caused some sharp criticism. Copulative connection may also be expressed asyndetically, the clauses then describe simultaneous or successive events. 18 The mother looked young and the daughter looked young; the mother’s complexion was pink, and the daughter’s was yellow; the mother set up for frivolity, and the daughter for theology. The day passed most pleasantly away; the morning in bustle and shopping, and the evening at one of the theatres. The second sentence consists of three coordinate clauses, the first two are joined asyndetically. Notice must be taken of the structure of the second and third clauses as they are elliptical due to the ellipsis of the verb passed. Adversative coordination (liet. priešpriešinis) joins clauses containing opposition, contradiction or contrast. Adversative connectors are: the conjunctions but, while, whereas, the conjunctive adverbs however, yet, still, nevertheless, and the conjunctive particle only. Some grammarians, such as Halliday, Downing and Locke, treat the conjunctions while and whereas as subordinate conjunctions which are found in hypotactic relationship. Adversative connection as well as copulative connection may be realized asyndetically. But is the most frequently used conjunction to express adversative connection in a very general way. The clause introduced by but conveys some event that is opposite to what is said or expected from the contents of the primary clause. Miss Havisham sat listening, but she still made no answer. We had some pale efforts in the beginning to applaud Mr Wopsle; but they were too hopeless to be persisted in. Ar first the atmosphere seemed unreal, but gradually they got used to it, and breathed scarcely anything throughout the meal. The conjunction but may link clauses contrasted in meaning. My mother would have had no objection, but my father hates London. Life and death were not involved, but comfort and dicomfort were. 19 Yet, in the same way as but, joins coordinate clauses carrying the meaning of opposition. I never had one hour’s happiness in her society, and yet my mind all round the four-and-twenty hours was harping on the happiness of having her with me unto death. The conjunctions while and whereas (whereas is more formal than while) are usually used to express contrastive relations. The main garden was to the left, while to the right was that laurel avenue, leading up to Mrs Failing’s arbour. That region has plenty of natural resources while this one has none. Why are some cancers cured by chemotherapy alone, whereas others are unaffected by drugs? The particle only is frequently used to join clauses with adversative coordination, mainly in colloquial English. I’d offer to help you, only I’m really busy just now. Peaches are marvelous just now, only they are very expensive. Contrastive relationship may be conveyed by asyndetic coordination. Two or three questions of him were to the point – all the rest had no sense at all. Disjunctive coordination (liet. skiriamasis, alternatyvinis) joins clauses which imply a choice between two mutually exclusive alternatives. The disjunctive connectors are: the conjunctions or, either... or, and the conjunctive adverbs else (or else), otherwise. The most frequent connector of disjunctive coordination is the conjunction or. 20 You must have gloves, or I won’t go. The thing is settled and done, or Mr Jaggers would not be in it. Most people misunderstood him, or they only understood him when he was dead. It is impossible to turn this leaf of my life without putting Bentley Drummle’s name upon it; or I would, very gladly. The correlative either emphasizes the exclusion of one of the alternatives. It’s your choice! Either she leaves or I will! Either keep silence or I shall stop explaining it to you. Sometimes clauses introduced by or may express restatement or correction of what is said in the primary clause. They were relating their war experiences, or rather Griffith was speaking and the rest sat silent. Coordinate clauses joined by disjunctive coordination may contain an implied condition, real or unreal. Otherwise conveys the meaning of ‘if not’ and is often used when there will be a negative result if something does not happen. They got two free tickets to Canada, otherwise they’d never have been able to afford to go. (If they hadn’t got two free tickets to Canada, they would have never been able to afford to go there.) (unreal condition implied) You’ll have to go now, otherwise you’ll miss your bus. (If you don’t go now, you will miss the bus.) (real condition implied) Give me the ball, or I’ll throw a stone at you. (If you don’t give me the ball, I’ll throw a stone at you.) 21 If the first clause is negative, then the implied condition is positive. Don’t speak, otherwise you may be charged with murder. (If you speak, you may be charged with murder.) Causative-consecutive coordination (liet. priežastinis-pasekminis) connects clauses in such a way that one of them denotes a reason and the other – consequence. Coordinate clauses joined by causative-consecutive connection may be joined by the following connectors: the conjunctions for, so (informal), so that and the conjunctive adverbs therefore, hence (formal), then, thus (rather formal). The meaning of the second clause depends on the connector. If the connector is the conjuction for, the second clause denotes a reason, as for is a causative conjunction. He found it increasingly difficult to read, for his eyes were failing. We left in silence, for there was little we could say. Say, rather, I should not be; for I have my letter to Satis House to write, before I go to sleep. A causative clause may be joined asyndetically. At first I couldn’t understand them; they were so worried that they spoke at random. She was not cold; she would willingly embrace him. The relationship between clauses joined by the conjunction for is intermediate between coordination and subordination, as sometimes for is used to introduce a subordinate clause of reason. Still, it is mostly treated as a coordinating conjunction, because semantically it introduces clauses containing an explanation or justification of the idea expressed by the previous clause and that is a feature of paratactic relationship. 22 We could see nothing, for the sky was pitch-black. Everything seemed to die soon, for there had been no rain for more than a month. I was with her, for I almost always accompanied them to and from such places. A for-clause differs from a subordinate clause of reason in the way that it can never precede the clause it is joined to. (Note that clauses in a compound sentence are sequentially fixed). If a sentence begins with the conjunction for, it means that the conjunction joins the sentence to the previous one. I tell this lightly, but it was no light thing to me. For, I cannot adequately express what pain it gave to me to think that Estella should show any favour to a contemptible, clumsy, sulky booby, so very far below the average. The rest of the connectors so, so that, therefore, hence, then and thus are used to intoduce consequence as they are consecutive connectors. Fortunately it was early, and they went through back streets, so few people saw them, and no one laughed at the queer party. Mine (gloves) are spoiled with lemonade, and I can’t get any new ones, so I shall have to go without. You cannot be more than twenty – therefore you need not conceal your age. So that is one more conjunction which is intemediate between coordination and subordination. It acts as subordinating conjunction when it intoduces a subordinate clause of purpose. Fasten the sunshade securely so that it won’t blow away. (a complex sentence with a clause of purpose) 23 When used after a comma in writing and a pause in speaking, its connection with the primary clause is weaker and it performs the function of a coordinating conjunction. They are unlikely to show up, so that we’d better be going alone. Table 5. Summary of coordinating connectors connector copulative conjunctions and, nor, neither... nor, not only...but also, as well as, also conjunctive then, moreover, adverbs besides, futhermore particles adversative disjunctive but, while, whereas or, either... or causativeconsecutive for, so, so that however, else (or else), therefore, yet, still, otherwise hence, nevertheless then, thus only SUGGESTED WAYS OF COMPOUND SENTENCE ANALYSIS Blackbirds sang recklessly in the shrubbery, swallows were flying high, the leaves above him glistened, and over the fields was every imaginable tint of early foliage... Blackbirds sang recklessly in the shrubbery, swallows were flying high, over the fields was the leaves above him and every imaginable tint of early foliage. glistened, It is a compound sentence, which consists of four coordinate clauses. The first (blackbirds sang recklessly in the shrubbery), the second (swallows were flying high) and the third (the leaves above him glistened) clauses are joined 24 asyndetically; the third and the fourth (over the fields was every imaginable tint of early foliage) clauses are joined with the help of the copulative conjunction ‘and’. All the clauses of the sentence are joined by copulative coordination, as the events shown in them are simultaneous. PRACTICE SECTION Exercise 1. Analyze the following compound sentences stating the type of connection between coordinate clauses. 1. Mr Darcy is impatient to see his sister, and to confess the truth, we are scarcely less eager to meet her again. 2. He was still talking, or rather jerking, and he was still lighting matches and dropping their ends upon the carpet. 3. Then he saw her host’s shoes: he had left them lying on the sofa. 4. I beg your pardon, miss, but might I ask how many to lay? 5. All the spoons and forks were anyhow, for Mrs Aberdeen’s virtues were not practical. 6. The other night we had been discussing a long time, and suddenly the light was turned on. 7. Mr Elliot laughed, and soon afterwards another lady came in, and they went away. 8. She was much happier, she looked younger, and her mourning was as unobtrusive as convention permitted. 9. Rickie was prepared to find his old schoolfriend ungrammatical and bumptious, but he was not prepared to find him peevish. 10. It had not the gracious antiquity of Eton or Winchester, nor, on the other hand, had it a conscious policy like Lancing, Wellington, and other purely modern foundations. 11. I am very sensible of the honour of your proposals, but it is impossible for me to do otherwise than decline them. 12. The marriage day was fixed, the wedding dresses were bought, the wedding tour was planned out, the wedding guests were invited. 13. Our breakfast was as good as the supper, and at half-past eight precisely we started for Little Britain. 14. I have had occasion to notice many hands; but I never saw stronger in that respect, man’s or woman’s, than these. 15. My little portmanteau was in the boot under my feet; I had but to turn a hinge to get it out; I threw it 25 down before me, got down after it, and was left at the first lamp on the first stones of the town pavement. 16. It was too early yet to go to Miss Havisham’s, so I loitered into the country on Miss Havisham’s side of town. 17. I had leisure to entertain the retort in my mind, while he slowly lifted his heavy glance from the pavement, up my legs and arms to my face. 18. My eye had been caught by a gun with a brass-bound stock over the chimney-piece, and his eye had followed mine. 19. You shall not shed tears from my cruelty to-day; you shall be my Page, and give me your shoulder. 20. Ansell could discuss love and death admirably, but somehow he would not understand lovers or a dying man, and in the letter there had been scant allusion to these concrete facts. 21. Her blue eyes were red-rimmed and puffy, her small nose pink at the tip from crying, and her hair, jet-black and shoulder-length, looked unprofessionally messy. 22. We must drink it or we shall die. 23. You are too sensible a girl, Lizzy, to fall in love merely because you are warned against it; and, therefore, I am not afraid of speaking openly. 24. Elizabeth asked questions in vain; Maria would tell her nothing more, and down they ran into the diningroom in quest of this wonder; it was two ladies stopping in a low phaeton at the garden gate. 25. We all three went into the street together, and from the door-step Wemmick turned his way, and Mr Jaggers and I turned ours. 26. Presently another click came, and another little door tumbled open with ‘Miss Skiffins’ on it; then Miss Skiffins shut up and John tumbled open; then Miss Skiffins and John both tumbled open together, and finally shut up together. 27. The success is not mine, the failure is not mine, but the two together make me. 28. The strange light had disappeared, and his face had taken on a phantasmagoric appearance, heightened by the flames of the bonfire. 29. These travellers were called pilgrims, and their symbol was the scallop shell. 30. I asked for a soft drink and tried to watch television, but I was unable to concentrate. 31. He found the house, a weather-beaten cardboard bungalow at eighty a month, but at the last minute the firm ordered him to Washington, and I went out to the country alone. 32. My own house was an eyesore, but it was a small eyesore, and it had been overlooked, so I had a view of the water, a partial view of my neighbour’s lawn, and the consoling proximity of 26 millionaires – all for eighty dollars a month. 33. I can’t get over my disappointment in not being a boy; and it’s worse than ever now, for I’m dying to go and fight with Papa, and I can only stay at home and knit, like a poky old woman! 34. Amy followed, but she poked her hands out stiffly before her, and jerked herself along, and her “Ow!” was more suggestive of pins being run into her than of fear and anguish. 35. Jo gave a despairing groan, and Meg laughed outright, while Beth let her bread burn as she watched the fun with interest. 36. Meg arranged the tea table, Jo brought wood and set chairs, dropping, overturning, and clattering everything she touched, Beth trotted to and fro between parlour and kitchen, quiet and busy, while Amy gave directions to everyone, as she sat with her hands folded. 37. I felt ashamed of my present, after reading and talking about being good this morning, so I ran round the corner and changed it: and I am so glad, for mine is the handsomest now. 38. My first name is Theodore, but I don’t like it, for the fellows called me Dora, so I made them say Laurie instead. 9. I have been drunk just twice in my life, and the second time was that afternoon; so everything that happened has a dim, hazy cast over it, although until after eight o’clock the apartment was full of cheerful sun. 40. They weren’t happy, and neither of them had touched the chicken or the ale – and yet they weren’t unhappy either. 41. Either our union must be consecrated and sealed by marriage or it cannot exist. 42. A painter has to be forbidding, otherwise people would think he was cadging. 43. After all, the two of them belonged to the same trade, so talk was easy and happy between them. 44. He had a glass eye which remained stationary, while the other eye looked at him. 45. He knew there were excuses for his father, yet he felt sick at heart. 46. Papa did not lift his eyes from breakfast-plate for about two minutes, nor did he speak. 47. Not only did he speak more correctly, but he spoke more easily, and there were many new words in his vocabulary. 48. The month was July, the morning fine, the glass door stood ajar, though it played a fresh breeze... 49. There was something amiss with Mr. Lightwood, for he was strangely grave and looked ill. 50. The darkness was stinning, but the street was still dimly lighted. 51. Neither we have many enemies nor can we be sure of all our friends. 52. The wind, blowing her dark frieze skirt against her legs, 27 lifted her battered peacock tam-o’-shanter; her grayish blouse was worn out and old, her shoes were split, her hands rough and red, her neck browned. 53. Her dark hair waved untidily across her broad forehead, her face was short, her upper lip short, showing a glint of teeth, her brows were straight and dark, her lashes long and dark, her nose straight; but her grey eyes were the wonder-dewy as if opened for the first time that day. 54. The farm buildings and the wheel-house were all dim and bluish, the apple trees but a blurred wilderness; the air smelled of woodsmoke from the kitchen fire. 55. He again spent the morning in his chair on the grass patch, scribbling down verses; but in the afternoon he wandered about with the two little boys Nick and Rick. 56. It was Saturday, so they were early home from school; quick, shy, dark little rascals of seven and six, soon talkative, for Ashurst had a way with children. 57. But in the evenings he installed himself in the window seat in the kitchen, smoking and chatting with the lame man Jim, or Mrs. Narracombe, while the girl sewed, or moved about, clearing the supper things away. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE The complex sentence (liet. sudėtinis prijungiamasis sakinys) is a type of the composite sentence, which consists of at least two clauses: the main clause and the subordinate clause, connected by means of subordination. Subordination (liet. prijungimas) is a way of linking grammatical elements (i.e. clauses) to make one of them dependent on (subordinate to) the other or make them mutually dependent. (Kobrina 2006: 421). Consequently, two main types of clauses are distinguished: the main clause and the subordinate clause. The main clause (or the principal clause) (liet. pagrindinis dėmuo) is an element of the complex sentence, containing the main/principal verb. The main clause may or may not have total/perfect meaning, and it needs subordinate 28 clauses to fulfil it; whereas the subordinate clause (liet. šalutinis dėmuo) is a secondary/dependent clause in a complex sentence. Subordinate clauses help to build the meaning in the main clause, or in other subordinate clauses, hence, the sentence can contain more than one subordinate clause. Depending on the relationship between the main and the subordinate clauses, subordination may be of two types: consecutive (or successive) and parallel (or co-subordination) (Kobrina 2006: 430). Consecutive (or successive) subordination occurs when two or more subordinate clauses form a hierarchy of clauses: I know that you can do it if you try. The main clause in the sentence is I know. Since the verb ‘know’ is a transitive verb, it requires a direct object to complete its meaning. Hence the object clause that you can do it follows, which in turn is extended by another subordinate clause if you try to disclose the condition of the action expressed in the former clause. Graphically, this sentence can be illustrated by the following chart: main clause ← subordinate clause 1 ← subordinate clause 2 subordination of the 1st degree subordination of the 2nd degree Thus, it is a complex sentence with the consecutive (successive) subordination. Parallel (or co-)subordination appears when a complex sentence contains two or more homogeneous clauses, i.e. clauses of equal rank: I’m sure that you are mistaken and that you’ll change your mind. 29 In this case, the main clause is I’m sure, whose meaning is completed by two parallel clauses: that you are mistaken and that you’ll change your mind, joined by the copulative conjunction and. The graphical presentation of this sentence is the following: subordinate clause 1 Main clause and Subordinate clause 2 The pattern introduces a complex sentence with parallel (or co-) subordination. Subordinators (or connectors of subordination) (liet. jungiamieji žodžiai). A complex sentence always has subordinators, which serve to indicate the dependent status of the clause. The subordinate nature of the clause may be indicated either by conjunctions (liet. prijungiamieji jungtukai), e.g. because, since, after, although, as if, as though, even if, even though etc., or by connectives, which include conjunctive/relative pronouns (liet. santykiniai įvardžiai) such as that, who, which, whom, whose, etc. or conjunctive/ relative adverbs (liet. santykiniai prieveiksmiai) when, whenever, how, why, etc. Memory is deceptive because it is coloured by today’s events. If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich. Whenever you find yourself on the side of the majority, it is time to pause and reflect. Conjunctions may be of several types: one-word forms such as that, because, though, if, etc., phrasal in order that, for all that, so far as, etc., correlative as... as, such... as, etc. or combined with particles even though, even if, as 30 if, if only, etc. The main function of conjunctions is to link clauses and express the relationship between them: We didn’t enjoy the day because the weather was awful. It was exactly five years since her father had died. Although I can’t help admiring the man’s courage, I do not approve of his methods. Mrs Crump looked as if she was going to explode. Even though he’s 24 now, he’s still like a little child. Their usual position is to open a subordinate clause, except clauses of concession, as in: Hard as he tried, he didn’t manage to finish it on time. (cf. Although he had tried hard, he didn’t manage to finish it on time.) Connectives perform two main functions: they link the clauses and are part of the subordinate clause itself. This is the place where we first met. He doesn’t care what happens to us. This is how it happens. Connectives are further subdivided into conjunctive words (conjunctive pronouns and adverbs) and relative words (relative pronouns and adverbs). The former are used to join nominal clauses, and the latter link attributive clauses. Some conjunctive and relative words coincide in form, therefore, it is important to define the type of the clause in order to define the type of the connective (Kobrina 2006: 428). I don’t care who you are or what you want. (the subordinate object clauses are introduced by conjunctive pronouns) 31 He, who was thought a man of fortune, could no longer bear it. (the subordinate attributive clause is introduced by a relative pronoun) Where you come from shouldn’t worry anybody at all. (the subordinate subject clause is introduced by a conjunctive adverb) The house, where we live, was built in the 19th century. (the subordinate attributive clause is introduced by a relative adverb) In some cases the clauses may be joined asyndetically or by means of inversion: All she saw was a white sailing ship. Hard though he worked, he couldn’t maintain his wife and six children. The classification of subordinate connectors can be summarized in the following chart: Chart 1. Classification of subordinators. Subordinators conjunctions connectives conjunctive words relative words (used to join nominal clauses) (used to join attributive clauses) conjunctive pronouns conjunctive adverbs relative pronouns relative adverbs (Kobrina 2006: 429) 32 CLASSIFICATION OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE Analogy to Morphology. Subordinate clauses exhibit basic functions, similar to morphologic sentence elements. Hence, there are three basic types of subordinate clauses: 1) subordinate nominal (noun) clauses, 2) subordinate adjectival (adjective) clauses, and 3) subordinate adverbial (adverb) clauses. Analogy to Sentence Syntax. In addition to morphological analogy, the subordinate clauses in a complex sentence perform functions similar to syntactical elements. Therefore, subordinate clauses may also be categorized as being: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) subject(ive), predicative/complement, object(ive), attributive/appositive, adverbial. To sum up, the classification of subordinate clauses of the complex sentence may be presented in the following table: 33 Table 1. Classification of subordinate clauses. Morphological Syntactical type Examples type of the subor- of the subordinate dinate clause clause Nominal clauses Subject How we remember, what we remember, and why we remember form the most personal map of our individuality. Predicative/ That was why the master refused to let complement you have the sword. Object I wonder what is making Tracy so unhappy. Adjectival clauses Attributive proper He who can no longer pause to wonder and stand rapt in awe is as good as dead. Appositive The fact that the adult American Negro female emerges a formidable character is often met with amazement, distaste and even belligerence. Adverbial clauses of manner He could sing it as no one else could have sung. of time When he confirmed this, I felt a mixture of terror and relief. of place Let us go to where they asked us to wait. of cause/reason I drank some boiling water because I wanted to whistle. of purpose Get some chairs so that somebody can sit down. of result/ The pain in my muscles became so consequence intense that I couldn’t bear it. of concession Although the world is full of suffering, it is full also of the overcoming of it. of condition If you want a friend in Washington, get a dog. of comparison I was surprised to see that the sun was not as bright as I had imagined. 34 SUGGESTED WAYS OF COMPLEX SENTENCE ANALYSIS The owner, who did not even look up from the television program he was watching, advised me that it was siesta time and suggested that I must be crazy to be out walking in such heat. (a complex sentence with parallel and consecutive subordination) Main clause The owner… advised me… and suggested subordination of the 1st degree subordinate attributive descriptive clause, introd. by the relative pronoun who subordinate nominal objective clause, introduced by the conjunction that subordinate nominal objective clause, introduced by the conjunction that Subordination of the 2nd degree Subordinate attributive limiting contact clause, introd. asyndetically It is a complex sentence, which consists of the main clause and four subordinate clauses. The subject of the main clause (The owner) is the antecedent (liet. pažymimasis žodis) of the subordinate attributive descriptive clause of the first degree of subordination (who did not even look up from the television programme), which is introduced by the relative pronoun who. The second subordinate clause (he was watching) is of the second degree of subordination. It is a subordinate attributive contact clause (i.e. joined asyndetically), whose antecedent is the prepositional object (from the television program) of the subordinate clause of the 1st degree. The main clause (The owner... 35 advised me...and suggested) contains two homogeneous predicates (liet. vienarūšiai tariniai) (advised and suggested) joined by the copulative conjunction and. Both predicates of the main clause are expanded by subordinate nominal objective clauses: (that it was siesta time) and (that I must be crazy to be out walking in such heat). Both of them are joined to the main clause by the conjunction that. Hence, it is a complex sentence with parallel and consecutive subordination. Now, let us have a look at various types of subordinate clauses of the complex sentence in greater detail. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH A NOMINAL CLAUSE All nominal clauses are controlled by a preceding verb, adjective, noun or preposition. In the sentence, they usually perform the functions of a noun or nominal phrase: the subject, the predicative (complement), and the object. (Kobrina attributes appositive clauses to the nominal group, since their headword is usually a noun). Hence, the subject clause functions as the subject of the main clause, a predicative (complement) clause fulfils the function of the predicative (or complement) to the link verb of the main clause while the object clause plays the role of the object (either direct, indirect or prepositional). All nominal clauses have a very strong connection to the main clause, therefore, if such a clause is removed, the whole sentence either loses its meaning or becomes grammatically incorrect. They are joined to the main clause by conjunctions, conjunctive pronouns, conjunctive adverbs or asyndetically. 36 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH A SUBJECT CLAUSE Connectors. A subject clause (liet. šalutinis veiksnio sakinys) may be introduced either by conjunctions because, if, that, whether, whether… or, the way, etc. or connectives, i.e. conjunctive pronouns who, whoever, which, whichever, what, whatever or conjunctive adverbs where, wherever, when, whenever, why, how. Complex sentences with subject clauses follow two main patterns: 1. The subject clause is in pre-position to the verb in the main clause: What they did with the treasure remains a mystery. Whatever you want for dessert is fine with me. That you should feel this way about her came as a great surprise to us. In such sentences the main clause is deficient in its structure and meaning, since it possesses no subject. Therefore, subject clauses of this type cannot be joined asyndetically. 2. The subject clause is placed in the final position. Such sentences usually begin with the formal introductory subject it. The clause itself is introduced by the conjunction that, and therefore, very often is called a that-clause or a real/notional subject. It’s strange that there are no lights on. (cf. That there are no lights is strange.) It is essential that everybody should revise for the exam properly. (cf. That everybody should revise for the exam properly is essential.) It is necessary that he should go there. (cf. That he should go there is necessary.) In exclamatory sentences the formal it is usually implied; the subject clause in this pattern of a complex sentence may be joined asyndetically: 37 How strange that they should leave so early!/How strange they should leave so early! How exciting that we should meet such a famous actor!/How exciting we should meet such a famous actor! THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH A PREDICATIVE/COMPLEMENT CLAUSE Connectors. Similar to subject clauses, predicative clauses (liet. šalutiniai tarinio sakiniai) may be introduced by the conjunctions because, that, whether, whether... or, as, as if, as though, lest, the way, connectives, i.e. conjunctive pronouns who, whoever, which, whichever, what, whatever or conjunctive adverbs where, wherever, when, whenever, why, how, or joined asyndetically. A predicative clause has a rather fixed position in the complex sentence: it usually follows a link verb, with which it forms a compound nominal predicate. The most common link verbs are to be, to seem, to appear, to feel, to look, to sound, to taste, to become, to remain, etc. Complex sentences with predicative clauses follow two main patterns: 1. A predicative clause follows the main clause, in which the subject is expressed by a noun with a very general meaning (thing, idea, problem, question, rule, trouble, news, etc.): The trouble was that they had never been there before. The biggest disappointment of last season was that the women’s team didn’t make it to the final four. In this case the predicative clause discloses the meaning of the subject in the main clause. 38 2. A predicative clause follows the main clause, in which the subject is expressed by the formal impersonal subject it: It appeared that the team had fallen behind by ten points. It sounded as if somebody was knocking on the door. In this case the predicative clause describes the situation, either directly or by means of comparison. Care should be taken not to confuse this type of predicative clauses with subject clauses (see The Complex Sentence with a Subject Clause) or with adverbial clauses (see The Complex Sentence with Adverbial Clauses). In predicative clauses the predicate consists only of the link verb (incomplete), while in subject and adverbial clauses the predicate is complete, i.e. consists of a link verb followed by a complement/predicative: It seems that there is no cure. (a predicative/complement clause) It seems evident that there is no cure. (a subject clause) (Kobrina 2006: 436) They looked as if they were ill. (a predicative/complement clause) They looked pale as if they were ill. (a subordinate adverbial clause of comparison). THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN OBJECT CLAUSE Connectors. An object clause (liet. šalutiniai papildinio sakiniai) may be introduced by the conjunctions that, if, whether, whether… or, lest, connectives, i.e. conjunctive pronouns who, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever, or conjunctive adverbs where, wherever, when, whenever, why, how, or joined asyndetically. An object clause may follow (and occasionally precede) both finite and nonfinite verb forms. 39 I realized that I had forgotten something very important. You don’t have to climb a mountain to find out whether or not it’s high. Why they came East I don’t know. Complex sentences with object clauses may follow four main patterns: 1.Object clauses parallel in function to direct objects. An object clause may follow the verb of the main clause directly (in this case it functions as a direct object). This pattern is typical of reported speech, when an object clause follows verbs of saying to say, to notice, to ask, to know, to inquire, to believe, to wonder, etc.: Before I left, I asked what I should do with the car, and she said I should leave the keys with her. I asked him who the gypsy was. Like subject clauses, object clauses may be introduced by formal it, usually after the verbs to feel, to believe, to consider, to insist on, to find, to take, to like, etc.: I felt it that I was a thousand meters tall and that I could embrace mountains. I believe it that they won’t hurt anyone but themselves. or refer to formal it followed by the objective predicative after the verbs to think, to consider, to find, to make, etc.: 40 You are to see to it that there is enough room for everyone. I like it when people are nice to me. 2.Object clauses parallel in function to indirect objects. This type of object clauses is very rare, and they should always be followed by direct objects: You may give whoever you want these delicacies. 3.Object clauses in the function of cognate objects: They were talking what others would consider weird talks. 4.Object clauses parallel in function to prepositional objects. In this case object clauses are joined to the main clause by the prepositions after, about, before, for, near, of, as to, except, etc.: In fact, he wrote a book about what he had done over the years. We are interested in what he does for a living. PRACTICE SECTION Exercise 1. State the type of the clause (subject or predicative). 1. That she is still alive is a consolation. 2. What she loved best in the world just then was riding. 3. The trouble is that he didn’t find him in. 4. “My dear boy, the difference between you and me is that you give too easily.” 5. This was why he had thought of Bosinney. 6. That they were in truth sisters was clear from the facial resemblance between them. 7. The fact was that I hardly knew what to say. 8. The question is how we are going to find the means to do it. 9. It is cruel that I should make him suffer. 10. More important was it that he should care for her enough. 11. He looked just as he had looked ten years before. 12. Our fear was lest we should get lost in the forest. 13. Mary’s wish was that we should stay at her place as long as possible. 14. It is funny 41 that I should make him suffer. 15. It was evident that he did not understand. 16. It is time you went to bed. 17. His suggestion was that we stop and have a look round the castle. 18. The order was that we should come. 19. It is sad that you should have heard of it on the day of your wedding. 20. It is not possible that he should have guessed it. 21. It was surprising how little the district had changed. 22. My suspicion was that he did not know how to do it. 23. But the most drastic demand the new owner made was that half the workmen be discharged at once. 24. My only wish was that he should be altogether honest. 25. His intention was that his two sons should continue his trade. 26. Is it possible that he should refuse to come? 27. It shocked him that he should have been so blind. 28. It was suggested that somebody should inform the police. 29. His idea was that the theatre should serve as a means of education for the mass of the public. 30. How wonderful that she should have such a feeling for you! 31. What a scandal that Palmer and Antonia should go to the opera together! 32. That was what she did this morning on reaching the attic. 33. Whether she ever tried or not, lay hidden in her own closed heart. 34. Wherever you are is my home – my only home. 35. The arrangement was that they should take the Fishers to a play and to supper at the Savoy afterwards. 36. But the chief reason is, that Mirah will desire to watch over you, and that you ought to give her no reason to worry. 37. The question was how was the matter to be kept quiet. 38. The thing to be settled on now is whether anything can be done to save him. 39. What I want to do is to save us both. 40. But this time, just about sunset, was always what I loved best. 41. I felt as if death had laid a hand on me. 42. It seems as if all these years I’ve been living under false rules. 43. Whatever I can do for you will be nothing but paying a debt... 44. It was unfortunate that the patient was brought in during the evening. 45. It’s a grand thing when you see these people in action. 46. Whether she was determined to bring matters to a crisis, or whether she was prompted by some private sign from Mr. Buff, is more than I can tell. 47. Who her mother was, and how she came to occur in such an awful situation, were questions that pressed on Jill’s mind. 48. It was as if these men and women had grown up. 49. What was done could 42 not be undone. 50. What we want to know is what the French are going to do now. Exercise 2. Analyze the following complex sentences with nominal clauses by defining their type and connector. 1. Whatever you do will be insignificant, but it is very important that you do it. 2. I told her how I had stopped off in Chicago for a day on my way East and how a dozen people had sent their love through me. 3. It was also possible that I had arrived too late and that she had decided not to meet with me. 4. I thought that perhaps Mme Lourdes had gone out to watch the parade. 5. Because of your fascination with miracles, you will have to struggle to recapture what was about to be given to you so generously. 6. That’s why I was so much at ease. 7. How you ever get anything done is beyond me. 8. The world was there around me, and I realized that seldom had I paid attention to it. 9. That was why the Master refused to let you have the sword. 10. The boy was frightened by what I said. 11. It was a matter of chance that I should have rented a house in one of the strangest communities in North America. 12. My favourite part was when we came out on the flat roof. 13. He only told me where I should hide it. 14. Miracles are important, don’t you think? 15. I answered that I was thirty-eight and had been quite successful in all of the trials. 16. It occurred to me now that I had seen her, or a picture of her, somewhere before. 17. He just said that you should look on the map of Spain for a medieval route known as Strange Road to Santiago. 18. One of the first consequences was that Rickie was sent to a public school. 19. He especially wanted to know if the women were as pretty as the ones here in Spain. 20. Keep your eyes fixed on that point, and try to concentrate only on what I am going to tell you. 21. And it is also believed that some mothers disobeyed the rule about preparation, and allowed their sons to do all the work overnight and have a longer sleep in the morning. 22. He was sorry that he had forgotten, and that he had caused his visitors inconvenience. 23. Whatever he said, was said well; whatever he did, done gracefully. 24. It 43 was settled that I should stay there all the rest of the day, and return to the hotel at night, and to London to-morrow. 25. We have tried two or three subjects already without success, and what we are to talk of next I cannot imagine. 26. The sight of young fellows making tea and drinking water had made her wonder whether this was Cambridge College at all. 27. What I said to you then is greater than what I say to you now. 28. Why I was trying to pack mine into my tumbler, I am wholly unable to say. 29. He replied that it would give him much pleasure, and that he would expect me at the office at six o’clock. 30. What he gave you then is greater than anything you will get from me. 31. They discuss what one knows and what one never will know and what one had much better not know. 32. No, Lizzy, that is what I do not choose. 33. I told him I had come up again to say how sorry I was that anything disagreeable should have occurred, and that I hoped he would not blame me much. 34. It was plain, pitiably plain, that she was aware of his own defect of memory, and that he was made to hide it from the observation of his friends. 35. It was possible that they might encounter someone. 36. Our attitude simply is that facts are facts. 37. That was why you were not one bit frightened. 38. It was not till she was quite close that he could believe her to be Lidia. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE Attributive clauses (liet. šalutiniai pažyminio sakiniai) modify words of nominal character, which are generally referred to as antecedents (liet. pažymimasis žodis). They usually follow the antecedent immediately, though occasionally they may be placed at a distance. Attributive clauses fall into two types: attributive proper and appositive. Some grammarians (Alexander 1998, Biber 2002, Parrott 2000) refer to attributive proper clauses as relative. 44 Attributive proper/relative clauses. An attributive proper clause may be joined by connectives: the relative pronouns who, whose, whom, what, which, that, as or relative adverbs where, whence, when, etc. The choice of a relative word depends on the meaning of the antecedent. A relative pronoun is used if the antecedent denotes a living being, a thing or a notion: Mr. Mann has small, dark eyes, which peer inquisitively from behind metal-rimmed glasses. The Master approached me and placed my new sword on the earth that now covered the grave of my ancient one. The relative pronouns who or that are used if the antecedent is expressed by the universal pronoun all denoting a living being, a thing or a notion, or the subordinate clause may be joined asyndetically: I began to review all that I had learned about the road to Santiago. All they think of is money. The relative pronoun that is used if the antecedent is expressed by the indefinite pronouns everything/everybody, something/somebody, anything/anybody or the negative pronoun nothing/nobody, as in: I’ll give you everything that you need. Everybody I knew was in the bond business (…). (This type of a clause may be joined asyndetically.) or if the antecedent is modified by the adjective only, the indefinite pronoun any or an adjective in the superlative degree: He is the only person that can help you in this situation. This is the best chance that we have. 45 The relative pronoun as is used if the antecedent is modified by the demonstrative pronoun such: She was playing the piano with such feeling as couldn’t be expected from a girl of her age. Attributive clauses introduced by the relative adverbs when, where, whence, etc. refer to antecedents denoting spatial or temporal notions: This is the best place where you can sit and relax. I remembered the time when I was young and pretty. An attributive clause introduced by the relative adverb why refers to the antecedent denoting cause or reason: I see no point in why I should go there. Depending on the relationship and degree of connection to the antecedent, attributive clauses may be of two types: non-defining and defining. Some authors (Kobrina 2006: 441) refer to non-defining clauses as non-restricting or descriptive attributive clauses, and restricting or limiting to name a defining attributive clause. An attributive non-defining clause is characterized by a rather loose connection with the main clause: it provides additional information about the antecedent and is usually separated by a comma. The sentence does not really change or lose its meaning, if the clause is left out. This type of clause is joined to the main clause by means of relative pronouns (except that), relative adverbs or conjunctions; they are hardly ever joined asyndetically: 46 Its travellers, who were called wanderers, took the cross as their symbol. I looked back at my cousin, who began to ask me questions in her low, thrilling voice. Relative pronouns and adverbs introducing non-defining attributive clauses can sometimes occur in prepositional phrases, such as according to which, in spite of which, to whom, since then, etc. or nominal phrases each of which, the largest part of which, during which time, many examples of which, etc.: In ten years’ time he wrote me only three letters, each of which I know by heart. He came to see me off, which fact made me feel suspicious. The art of Egypt, about which such a lot has been written, should not be missed. A non-defining attributive clause referring to a whole clause, sentence or a series of sentences is called a continuative (or sentential) attributive clause. It is generally introduced by the connective which and occasionally that. These clauses can be separated by a comma, a semicolon, a dash or even a full stop depending on whether they refer to a clause, sentence or the whole situation. He admires Mrs Brown, which I find very strange. (liet. Jis žavisi ponia Brown, ir/o tai man atrodo keista.) Several times he caught her looking at him with a hurt, puzzled expression, which pleased his evil mood. (liet. ....o/ir tai maloniai glostė jo bjaurią savijautą.) A defining attributive clause is very closely connected with the antecedent and cannot be removed from the sentence without destroying or changing its meaning. The information provided by a defining attributive clause singles out, particularizes or determines the person, thing or notion expressed by the antecedent. The antecedent is usually preceded by arti- 47 cles, demonstrative pronouns or words with a demonstrative or particularizing force (the same, the only, the best, etc.), whose presence is justified by the following attributive clause: It was the kind of voice that the ear follows up and down. The committee who were responsible for their decision were to meet again. “Hola,” I said in Spanish, with the same timidity that I show whenever I meet anyone new. Defining attributive clauses may also be joined by a connective with a preposition: I stayed seated, observing the casual way in which she carried my sword. or asyndetically (such clauses are called contact clauses): I felt an enormous anxiety about the business matters I had left behind in Brazil. On most journeys you don’t understand the language the people speak. Contact clauses are always limiting/defining, since both the main and the subordinate clause complete each other’s meaning. They are possible only if the antecedent is used in the position of a direct or prepositional object or in the position of a predicative/complement in the subordinate clause. Attributive-appositive clauses. An appositive clause may be introduced by the conjunctions that, whether, as if, as though, conjunctive pronouns what, which and conjunctive adverbs why, how. These clauses cannot be joined asyndetically and are never separated by a comma; they tend to be 48 limiting, since they disclose or complete the meaning of the noun (antecedent). An appositive clause usually follows the antecedent (a noun with a very general meaning, like thing, idea, reason, point, fact, consequence, feature, probability, remark, etc.) to disclose its meaning. One of the symptoms of an approaching nervous breakdown is the belief that one’s work is terribly important. I also had the vague impression that I knew him. I like the idea that students might become independent learners. Occasionally, an appositive clause may refer to the antecedent, a whole clause: Cecilia at once noted what Stephen in his preoccupation had not – that Hilary had come to tell them something. Appositive clauses can sometimes be formed by means of nominalization (transforming verb forms into verbal nouns, like: to believe – belief, to know – knowledge, knowing, etc.): I believe that students can become independent learners. The belief that students can become independent learners is common among teachers. I know that students can become independent learners. Our knowledge that students can become independent learners drives our work. I feel that students can become independent learners. My feeling that students can become independent learners is shared by many other teachers. 49 As it is seen from the given examples, the second sentence of each pair contains an appositive clause, whose antecedent is made from the verbs of the first sentence. Note: There exists another type of an attributive limiting clause – the apokoinu clause – in which the main and the subordinate clauses have a common part which functions as the predicative/complement of the main clause and the subject of the subordinate clause (Kobrina 2006: 443). This type of sentence is retained only in dialects and in fiction to give the narration a local colouring, therefore it will not be examined in detail here. There was no breeze came through the door. There was a door led into the kitchen. PRACTICE SECTION Exercise 1. Analyze the following complex sentences by defining attributive clauses and stating the type of the connector. 1. He returned my gaze coldly, called to my wife, and gave her the sword, speaking a few words that I could not hear. 2. I hugged her passionately, trying to convey all the love I felt for her at that moment. 3. I ran across the courtyard and up to the house that the child had indicated. 4. Mme Lourdes snatched from my hands the card she had given me a few moments earlier. 5. This immensity created a terrible fear that I would not be able to succeed. 6. In my haste, I had forgotten the most elementary rules of self-protection and had thrown myself body and soul into the arms of the first stranger I had met. 7. We continued walking, passing from a desertlike area to one where small trees were scattered here and there. 8. I saw the house where a queen had spent the last night of her life and a small chapel encrusted 50 with rocks, which had been the hermitage of a saintly man who the few inhabitants of the area swore could perform miracles. 9. Petrus went to the stream that ran nearby and caught some fish, which he fried over the fire. 10. Among the greatest sensations that I have experienced in my life were those I felt on that unforgettable first night on the Road to Santiago. 11. The only thing that existed was your desire to arrive at your goal. 12. I was under the impression that you were disappointed. 13. The cold – about which I had already forgotten – returned, and I looked at Petrus with desperation. 14. Very few letters were written in those hard times that were not touching, especially those which fathers sent home. 15. Beth went faithfully on by herself and did the best she could. 16. I saw something that I liked this morning, and I meant to tell it at dinner, but I forgot. 17. All I did was to follow different routes, using the paths made through the woods by the smugglers. 18. Time isn’t something that proceeds at the same pace. 19. This is the sword killed him. 20. I put myself into a strange state, one in which time was something distant and of no interest to me. 21. We are always suffering because of someone who doesn’t love us, or someone who has left us, or someone who won’t leave us. 22. The family fulfils functions that are divided among many specialized institutions in modern societies.23. The largest and the most complex group that sociologists study is society, which consists of people who share a culture and a territory. 24. The demise of hunter-gatherer groups came because modern societies took over the areas on which these groups depended for their food. 25. The individuals who first used the new technology accumulated great wealth. 26. The term networking, which has appeared in popular speech, refers to using or even developing social networks. 27. There is a man below wants to speak to you. 28. No one who has ever seen you together, can doubt his affection. 29. His voice, which he did not transmit, was very suave, with a fine command of cynical intonation. 30. And so the only person he came to know at all was himself. 31. Hearing high voices from his father’s room, he went upstairs in the hope that the sound of his tread might stop them. 32. He would remember every word they spoke. 33. People who suffer as I do from nervous complaints 51 can have no great inclination for talking. 34. We dined very well, and were waited on by a maid-servant whom I had never seen in all my comings and goings, but who, for anything I know, had been in that mysterious house the whole time. 35. They waited for the other tram by the Roman Catholic Church, whose florid bulk was already receding into twilight. 36. All that you have given me, is at your command to have again. Exercise 2. Change the following simple sentences into complex ones with subordinate attributive clauses. 1. Julius Caesar came to Britain in 55 B.C. He was a powerful Roman general. 2. Those dead flowers smell awful. You put them in the vase ten days ago. 3. My neighbour is very pessimistic. He says there will be no apples this year. 4. I met your school friend yesterday. You introduced me to him last week. 5. The Great Fire of London destroyed a large part of the city. It broke out in 1666. 6. Peter was driving all day. He suggested stopping at the next town. 7. The travellers knew about the floods. They took another road. 8. She could say a lot. However, nothing had any influence. 9. I looked back at my cousin. She began to ask me questions in her low, thrilling voice. 10. Someone is going to rent this apartment. The person might have trouble with it. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE Adverbial clauses (liet. šalutiniai aplinkybių sakiniai) are classified according to their semantics, i.e. according to the relation they bear to the main clause. Thus, adverbial clauses of manner, place, time, purpose, cause/reason, result/consequence, condition, concession and comparison are distinguished. An adverbial clause may qualify the whole main clause, the verbal predicate or any verbal part, or parts expressed by adjectives and adverbs. 52 Therefore, depending on the position of the part of the sentence it refers to, the position of an adverbial clause varies: it may be initial, medial or final. When we met him, the puppy licked our faces. The puppy, when we met him, licked our faces. The puppy licked our faces when we met him. Connectors. Adverbial clauses differ from nominal and attributive clauses in the more distinct meaning of the connectors they are introduced by. Compare the following complex sentences: I was so surprised that I forgot about the village and the temperature. (adverbial clause of result/consequence) The town that I reached by car was completely deserted. (attributive limiting clause) Petrus said that we were going to sleep right there. (object clause) Moreover, most types of adverbial clauses may be introduced by several different conjunctions, whereas the same conjunction can be used to introduce different adverbial clauses. Compare the clauses introduced by the conjunction as: As Dave was eating, the doorbell rang. (adverbial time clause) As it was getting late, I decided I should go home. (adverbial clause of reason) She made the cake as her mother had taught her. (adverbial clause of manner) Therefore, in order not to confuse the types of clauses, it is essential to refer to the meanings and relationships of clauses, rather than rely upon the meaning of the connector. 53 Adverbial clauses are rarely joined asyndetically, except for some cases of conditional clauses (see The Complex Sentence with an Adverbial Clause of Condition). THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF MANNER Adverbial clauses of manner (liet. šalutiniai būdo aplinkybės sakiniai) characterize actions, states, qualities and circumstances, therefore, they may modify different parts of the main clause: a) the predicate: He finished his work as she requested. b) attributes or predicatives: Astonished, as one could be in such circumstances, he didn’t give a sign of it. c) adverbial modifiers: He was running so quickly as nobody could imagine him doing so. The main conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of manner are as, like and the way. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME An adverbial clause of time (liet. šalutinis laiko aplinkybės sakinys) characterizes the action expressed in the main clause from the temporal point of view. (Kobrina 2006: 446). Thus the action of the subordinate clause may be treated as prior, simultaneous, successive, repetitive, coinciding or gradually developing with the other action, etc. 54 After the law was passed, this type of crime ceased. (a prior action) There was silence as the leader spoke. (simultaneous actions) When you have finished your work, you may go home. (successive actions) Whenever he took up some work, he never finished it. (repetitive actions) There was a pause while he raised his cup and drank some tea. (simultaneous actions) Adverbial clauses of time may be introduced by the following connectors: as, as soon as, as long as, when/whenever, while, now that, once, till/ until, after, before, since, the time that/the day (that), immediately, directly, next time, every (each) time, etc. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PLACE An adverbial clause of place (liet. šalutinis vietos aplinkybės sakinys) defines the place or direction of the action expressed in the principal clause (Kobrina 2006: 445). It may be joined by the conjunctions where, wherever, whence, everywhere (that), etc. or conjunctive adverbs with prepositions: Where gold is abundant, mining becomes important. Everywhere I look, I see mothers with newborn babies. His faithful dog accompanied him wherever he went. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE/ REASON Adverbial clauses of cause/reason (sometimes referred to as causative clauses) (liet. šalutinis priežasties aplinkybės sakinys) express the reason, cause or motivation of the action expressed in the main clause or of the content of the whole sentence. Adverbial clauses of cause may be introduced by the following conjunctions: as, because, since, so, (now) that, lest, seeing (that), considering, by reason of, for the reason that, etc. 55 Now that the finance has been secured, the production of the film is assured. I decided to go with them, mainly because I had nothing better to do. Seeing that he’s been off sick all week he’s unlikely to come today. In as much as I already know you, I shall call you Jim, not James. He fled the country lest he be captured and imprisoned. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PURPOSE An adverbial clause of purpose (liet. šalutinis tikslo aplinkybės sakinys) expresses the purpose of the action stated in the main clause. The predicate of the subordinate clause is used in the subjunctive mood as it expresses a planned but not a real action. Adverbial clauses of purpose are introduced by such conjunctions as that, so that, so, so as, lest, for fear that, in order that, in case, etc. She brought the credit card in case she did not have enough cash. They brought a lot of food for fear that they would be hungry during the trip. Sunlight is needed in order that the process of photosynthesis could take place in plants. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF RESULT/ CONSEQUENCE An adverbial clause of result (liet. šalutinis pasekmės aplinkybės sakinys) denotes some consequence or result of the action expressed in the main clause. It may be introduced by the conjunctions so that or that or correlatives so... that, such... that, etc. 56 It was such a strange story that no one believed it. So bravely did they fight that the enemy was driven off. Heavy rain fell that the rivers were soon in flood. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CONCESSION Adverbial clauses of concession or concessive clauses (liet. šalutiniai nuolaidos aplinkybės sakiniai) are used to concede a given point of argument, i.e. the action of the principle clause is carried out or takes place despite the action expressed in the subordinate clause. This type of clause is introduced by the conjunctions although, though, if, correlatives though... yet, whether... or, composite conjunctions no matter how/ what, for all that, in spite of/despite the fact, even if, even though, even when or conjunctive pronouns and adverbs whoever, whichever, whatever, whenever, as, etc. Although the elephant was strong it was no match for the agile tiger. I wasn’t an idiot, even if I had felt like one. Even though there are many advantages to working the night shift, people who do so generally feel that the disadvantages greatly outweigh any financial advantages that might be gained. I would always be an outsider here - no matter what fluent Spanish I spoke. She’s going to have problems finding a job even if she gets her A levels. Whatever you do, slow down and take your time. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CONDITION Complex sentences with conditional clauses (liet. šalutiniai sąlygos aplinkybės sakiniai) are sentences discussing factual implications or hypothetical situations and their consequences. Conditional sentences contain two clauses: the condition and its consequence and are introduced by the conjunctions if, unless, in case, provided/providing (that), suppose/sup- 57 posing (that), considering (that), given (that), granted/granting (that), presuming (that), seeing (that), etc. If it rains (condition), the picnic will be cancelled (consequence). You won’t pass the examination (consequence) unless you revise thoroughly (condition). In case I’m late (condition), start without me (consequence). He can come with us (consequence), provided/providing he pays for his own meals (condition). I think I did all right (consequence), given that I didn’t study much for the test (condition). I won’t stay long (consequence) seeing you’re busy (condition). Suppose we miss the train (condition), what shall we do (consequence)? The conjunction unless, differently from other connectors, as a rule expresses the idea of if not: Unless she hurries up, we won’t arrive in time. (= if she doesn’t hurry up, we won’t arrive on time.) Unless the directors can increase sales, we’ll have to close this shop. (= If the directors cannot increase sales, we’ll have to close this shop.) However, the unless-clause is not always equivalent to an if-not-clause. To illustrate this, compare the following two sentences, which are completely different in meaning: 58 I won’t come unless you invite me. (Aš ateisiu, tik jeigu jūs mane pakviesite // Aš neateisiu, nebent jūs mane pakviesite.) I won’t come if you don’t invite me. (Aš neateisiu, jei manęs nekviesi.) Conditional clauses may be joined to the main clause asyndetically by means of partial inversion. Inversion is possible only if the predicate of the subordinate clause is in the subjunctive mood: Were the virus to reappear, hospitals would now be ready for it. Had I known, I’d never have gone there. Depending on the relation between the subordinate and the main clauses, complex sentences with subordinate conditional clauses are subdivided into three types: Conditional 1 (real condition) regards the actions expressed in both clauses as real facts: You’ll get fat if you eat too much. We won’t finish in time unless everyone works fast. Conditional 2 (unreal or hypothetical condition) describes an imaginary or hypothetical future situation or suggests that the situation is unlikely to happen: If I knew they were honest, I’d gladly lend them the money. If I were you, I’d put that gun down! Conditional 3 (unfulfilled or rejected condition) implies non-fulfilment of the condition, as the actions in both clauses refer to the past and the time of their realization is over: The dog wouldn’t have attacked you, if you hadn’t teased it. Gerry might have convinced his grandmother to see the doctor if he had talked to her. 59 Note: Some grammarians, e.g. Parrott, Swan and some others also distinguish the zero (open) conditional, which is used to denote general truths. In such sentences the conjunction if can be replaced by when: If I sleep well at night, I feel much happier next morning. (When I sleep well at night...) If the temperature falls below zero, it freezes. (When the temperature falls below zero...) Mixed types of conditionals also exist depending on the sense and context of the whole sentence: If I were as clever as you think (Type 2), I should have been rich by now (Type 3). If she had enough money (Type 2), she could have done this trip to Hawaii (Type 3). If I had known that you are going to come by tomorrow (Type 3), I would be in then (Type 2). THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF COMPARISON Adverbial clauses of comparison (liet. šalutiniai lyginimo aplinkybės sakiniai) characterize the action expressed by the predicate of the main clause by comparing it with some real or hypothetical circumstances or action. They are introduced by the conjunctions as, like, as if, as though, than, correlatives as... as, so... as, as... as if, etc. 60 Dreams provide nourishment for the soul, just as a meal does for the body. We were moving, but it seemed as if we had not left our original spot. She stared at me as though I were a complete stranger. SUMMARY OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES Table 2. Kinds of adverbial clauses. Kind of an adverbial clause Common conjunctions Function Example Clauses of manner as, like, the way These clauses are used to talk about someone’s behaviour or the way something is done and answer the question how? Time clauses when, before, after, since, while, as, as long as, until, till, hardly, scarcely, no sooner, whenever, now that, immediately, directly, every time, etc. These clauses are used to say when something happens by referring Her father died to a period of time or when she was to another event and young. answer the question when? These clauses are used where, wherever, to talk about the loClauses of anywhere, everycation or position of place where, whence, etc. something and answer the question where? because, since, as, These clauses are used lest, seeing (that), to indicate the reason Clauses of considering, by for something and usucause/reason reason of, for the ally answer the quesreason that, etc. tion why? These clauses are used so that/as, so, lest, to indicate the purpose Clauses of pur- in order that, for of an action and usually pose fear that, in case, answer the questions etc. what for? or why? I was never allowed to do things the way I wanted to do them. He said he was happy where he was. I couldn’t feel anger against him because I liked him too much. They had to take some of his land so that they could extend the churchyard. 61 Kind of an adverbial clause Common conjunctions Function Example Clauses of result/consequence so… that, such… that, etc. My suitcase had become so These clauses are used damaged on the to indicate the result of journey home something. that the lid would not stay closed. Concessive clauses although, though, while, if, whether… or, no matter how/ what, for all that, in spite of/despite, even if/though/ when, etc. These clauses are used to make two statements, one of which contrasts with the other or makes it seem surprising. Conditional clauses if, unless, provided that Clauses of comparison These clauses are used to talk about a possible situation and its consequences. These clauses are used to compare some acas, like, as if/though, tions with some real than, etc. or hypothetical circumstances or other actions. I used to read a lot although I don’t get much time for books now. If they lose weight during an illness, they soon regain it afterwards. He did not need to keep moving house, as his father had. OTHER TYPES OF COMPLEX SENTENCES Complex sentences with mutually subordinate clauses. In this type of complex sentences it is impossible to distinguish which clause is the main and which is subordinate, since they follow either the same pattern (i.e. look like twin clauses) or form an indivisible whole. N.A. Kobrina distinguishes two main patterns of mutually subordinate clauses (Kobrina 2006: 463): 62 1. Clauses of proportionate agreement, which express proportionality or equivalence (i.e. the more intensive is the action or quality described in one clause, the more intensive it becomes in the following clause). These clauses are joined by the correlative conjunction as... so, correlative adverb so... so, or correlative particles the... the followed by the comparative degree of adverbs or adjectives: As it grew darker, so less comfortable I became. The more I blinked, the longer the figure remained. The more I looked at it, the more slowly the minutes passed. 2. Clauses expressing temporal relations, i.e. a quick succession of actions, which usually overlap with one another. The clauses are joined by the correlative elements no sooner... than, scarcely... when/before, hardly... when, just... when, negation... when, or sometimes partial inversion in the first clause: No sooner the teacher finished the class than students started leaving the room. He had scarcely sat down when there was a knock at the door. She had hardly entered the room when the phone rang. He had not left home when it started to rain. Cleft/pseudo-complex sentences. This type of complex sentences is used to put emphasis on a part of the main clause (usually predicative or predicate). The main clause of the cleft sentence is usually based on the pattern of it-clause (in case of emphasizing the predicative) or what- or who-clause (in case of putting emphasis on the predicate): Is that a dagger that I see before me? It is we who determine how quickly time passes. 63 It was I whom he was to guide along the Milky Way in search of my sword. So what is missing is the Road of Diamonds to complete. Who spoke to you must have been John’s teacher. Sometimes cleft sentences may be introduced by the conjunction if. (In this case it does not introduce a condition): If I feel sorry for anyone it’s John. If I read a book it’s a historical one. Appended clauses are used to intensify the statement of the previous clause. The most common type of appended clauses are tag questions: She doesn’t like things that blow up, does she? It seems a shame to break it up, doesn’t it, when it’s so good. In informal style (dialects) there exists another form of appended clauses, which is elliptical reinforcement of the previous clause: She is a clever girl, is your cousin. It is very angry, is your dog. Parenthetical/comment clauses interrupt with another sentence, with which they either do not have any syntactic connection or this connection is very loose: 64 You won’t stop, you know, as long as you can trail round in a white gown with your hair down, and wear gold-paper jewelry. Just as Tom and Myrtle (after the first drink Mrs Wilson and I called each other by our first names) reappeared, our company commenced to arrive at the apartment-door. Daisy was popular in Chicago, as you know. He looked – and this is said in all contempt for the babbled slander of his garden – as if he had ‘killed a man’. Absolute clauses. Some subordinate clauses may be used as independent exclamatory sentences, that may have the form of a conditional or comparative clause: If I only had a silk scarf! That he should call so late! As though she didn’t know that! PRACTICE SECTION Exercise 1. Define the kinds of subordinate adverbial clauses (time, place, manner, comparison and condition). 1. I’m quite comfortable where I am. 2. But as soon as I saw Susan I stopped noticing my surrounding. 3. I shall hope to visit you whenever I happen to be in London. 4. I will do anything you wish, provided it lies in my power. 5. Joe left the house as he had entered. 6. My aunt died when I was eight years old. 7. But I must have the doctor handy, in case she feels worse. 8. Hardly had they entered the house, when a violent thunderstorm broke out. 9. He looks as though he had plenty of determination. 10. It was a long time since I had written to the States. 11. Jan waved till the taxi disappeared round the bend of the road. 12. He was white and jaded, as if he had not slept for many nights. 13. As he spoke there was a sharp ring of the bell. 14. I do not wish you to be my wife unless you are bound to be my love. 15. My father consented to let him teach you, on condition that he never attempted to see your mother. 16. Mr. Direck’s broken wrist healed sooner than he desired. 17. Our friends, once all the guests had come, invited everybody to table. 18. She could see his lips moving, from time to time, as though he were 65 talking to himself. 19. She prepared the chicken exactly as her grandma did. 20. She suddenly saw now that she did not love him as some women love their husbands. 21. Her lips moved soundlessly, as if she were rehearsing. 22. Surprised, as anyone could be in such circumstances, he did not even turn round. 23. The dog did as he was ordered. 24. This is the claim I make on you, now that we have found each other. 25. We are prepared to sign the agreement providing that you guarantee the highest quality of the goods. 26. The singers were making their nightly voyage, pausing, wherever they saw a lighted window or a dark figure on a balcony. 27. They appeared again soon after it was light. 28. They looked where she pointed. 29. We were going up the road as fast as we could. 30. Wherever they travelled, police looked at them suspiciously. Exercise 2. State the type of the clause (predicative vs. adverbial clauses of comparison): 1. He was throwing his things into a suitcase as if the place were on fire. 2. She always looked as though she had been in the beauty parlour all afternoon. 3. Mary is always saying she believes in her friend, and at the same time she always behaves as if she were her enemy. 4. Our life goes on as if nothing had happened. 5. Father sounded as if he would never agree to let me go on a trip. 6. He came over to the table and stood in front of it as if it were a lectern. 7. He took off his hat and held it across his chest, almost as if he were saluting the flag. 8. Bernard sat in his chair looking as if he were going to be sick. 9. His head ached terribly. It felt as though all sorts of little savage things were beating inside it, trying to get out. 10. It seemed as though the water drew her irresistibly. 11. He felt as if he were being reprimanded. 12. After travelling some distance the leather of the seats felt as if they might burst into flame. 13. Sinclair was panting, as though he had been running. 14. Her lips were parted as if she were out of breath. 15. He looked down at his feet as though he were unconscious of the company. 16. He went into the house by the back door and sneaked up the stairs as though he had something to hide. 66 Exercise 3. Analyze the following complex sentences with adverbial clauses by stating the type of the clause and identifying the connector. 1. But as my hands touched the scabbard and as I prepared to pick it up, the Master came forward and stepped on my fingers with all his might. 2. I have walked the Road so many times that now I content myself with reading in other pilgrims’ eyes the excitement that I still feel. 3. If you want me to, I can find it for you. But you have to decide right now whether you want me to. 4. After I have driven for an hour or so, I began to feel the fatigue accumulated from the night before. 5. Even if I was not able to find my sword, the pilgrimage along the Road to Santiago was going to help me to find myself. 6. We both did as the monument asked. 7. By the time I returned to my car, I was a bit calmer. 8. But this was difficult only because you were a prisoner of the past. 9. I asked Petrus if we couldn’t move along more quickly so that I could warm up. 10. My journey along the Road to Santiago seemed to have ended even before it had begun. 11. I was surprised to see that the sun was not as bright as I had imagined. 12. Although the earth and my sleep were full of comfort, the life “up there” was much more beautiful. 13. You begin to attach much more importance to the things around you because your survival depends on them. You begin to be more accessible to others because they may be able to help you in difficult situations. 14. It was sharply different from the West, where an evening was hurried from phase to phase towards its close, in a continually disappointed anticipation or else in sheer nervous dread of the moment itself. 15. But since we are on the Strange Road to Santiago, we should wait an hour before getting to the village. 16. A breeze blew through the room, blew curtains in at one end and out the other like pale flags, twisting them up towards the frosted wedding-cake of the ceiling, and then rippled over the wine-coloured rug, making a shadow on it as wind does on the sea. 17. I’ve been lying on that sofa as long as I can remember. 18. We all looked – the knuckle was black and blue. 19. We walked for the rest of the afternoon, and only when the sun began to disappear behind the mountains did Petrus decide to stop again. 20. I like your nice 67 manners and refined ways of speaking, when you don’t try to be elegant. 21. There was so much to do, getting the boxes ready to go tomorrow, that I didn’t come home to dinner. 22. I don’t remember much about it, except that I was afraid of the cellar and the dark entry. 23. Meg told me to keep still so no one would see it. 24. Whatever their mood might be, the last glimpse of that motherly face was sure to affect them like sunshine. 25. Things went from bad to worse, until finally he had to give up his position. 26. He cries as if he were mad. 27. As if his absence quickened something within her, Daisy leaned forward again, her voice glowing and singing. 28. Where the fire had been, we saw nothing but blackened ruins. 29. But you’ll grow up an affected little goose, if you don’t take care. 30. Something was making him nibble at the edge of stale ideas as if his sturdy physical egotism no longer nourished his peremptory heart. 31. Gatsby bought that house so that Daisy would be just across. 32. If you see me doing anything wrong, just remind me by a wink, will you? - I’ll lift my eyebrow if anything is wrong, and nod if you are all right. 33. Gatsby was waiting where I had left him in the drive. 34. We were so close that I even could read the year when the tavern had been built: 1652. 35. When I couldn’t resist any longer and took my watch out again, only eleven minutes had passed. 36. I wasn’t an idiot, even if I had felt like one. 37. If anybody had asked Amy what the greatest trial of her life was, she would have answered at once, “My nose.” 38. The village was no longer just a place where I could warm my soul with wine and my body with a blanket. 39. As soon as daylight began to show itself in the two streets of the village of Roncesvalles, Petrus knocked on my door. 40. Because the evening was terribly chilly, we lit a roaring fire. 41. The old farmer nodded, as though he understood every word. 42. If it’s light enough after dinner, I want to take you down to the stables. 43. Trees loose their leaves once the weather turns chilly. 44. Linus always waits in a sincere pumpkin patch lest he miss the Great Pumpkin. 45. Although that she hated his mother surprised him, he still allowed her to attend the family dinner. 46. He took down his drink as if it were a drop in the bottom of the glass. 47. Somehow it seemed as if they couldn’t have got through the day without Mother smil- 68 ing. 48. Considering he bravely flew during battle, Snoopy is a great World War I Flying Ace. 49. She’s acting like she really doesn’t like him. 50. No matter how smart they are, they are required to do the revision. 51. If it wasn’t for the mist we could see your home across the bay 52. So terrible a disease broke out that only few people survived. 53. Wedging his tense arm imperatively under mine, Tom Buchanan compelled me from the room as though he were moving a checker to another square. 54. However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his first entering a neighbourhood, his truth is so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families, that he is considered as the rightful property of some one or other of their daughters. 55. His mouth was such a post-office of a mouth that he had a mechanical appearance of smiling. 56. You know how I detest it, unless I am particularly acquainted with my partner. 57. As he had shown no diffidence on the subject, I ventured on the liberty of asking him the question, when he stood before me, dusting his hands. 58. It was no time to be thinking about Masters or friends, and I could not look to the side to see if Petrus would be able to save me if I should slip. 59. Didn’t they talk as if they had read the book? Exercise 4. Analyze and state the type of the following complex sentences by defining the clauses and indentifying the connectors. 1. When I was coming up, I practiced all the time because I thought if I didn’t I couldn’t do my best. 2. The more I dressed him, and the better I dressed him, the more he looked like the slouching fugitive on the marshes. 3. According to legend, when Lady Godiva pleaded with her husband, the Earl of Mercia, to cancel a burdensome tax he had levied against his subjects, he agreed to do so only if she rode naked through the city. 4. Experience is what you get when you didn’t get what you wanted. 5. I thought of the many tests I had endured, of all I had learned, and of the strange phenomena I had been able to invoke simply because I had had that ancient and friendly sword with me. 6. And the power that you think you have is worthless, because it is a power that is shared by all. 7. He should have brought 69 along something warm to wear, because it was much colder up there than he had expected. 8. The lie worked: the agent gave us a declaration stating that we had entered the country with the sword at the Bajadas airport, and he told us that if we had any problems trying to leave the country with it, we need only show the declaration to the customs officials. 9. She had smiled and said that my excuse was dumb, that during the entire seven months I had done nothing but ask myself day and night whether or not I should go. 10. I don’t know if this will even work, since I let another person make the decision for me to seek out my sword. 11. In spite of the knowledge that there were many ways in which I could fail, I had taken the first step. 12. All I could think of was that in two days, I was going to relive, in the latter part of the twentieth century, something of the great human adventure that had brought Ulysses from Troy, that had been part of Don Quixote’s experience, that had led Dante and Orpheus into hell, and that had directed Columbus to the Americas: the adventure of travelling toward the unknown. 13. It was only then that I noticed my mistake: the gate led onto an immense courtyard, around which were situated medieval houses with balconies. 14. She gave me a small card that would help me to get lodging at the monasteries along the Road, stamped it with the seal of Saint-Jean-de-Port to indicate that I had started the pilgrimage there, and said that I could leave with God’s blessing. 15. That poor thief, while he defended himself, picked out of the air the very words that needed to be said to you. 16. Although I had noticed this, I had not drawn the only possible conclusion: that we had gone back and forth many times. 17. But I don’t think the little we should spend would do any good. 18. I know that they will remember all I said to them, that they will be loving children to you, will do their duty faithfully, fight their bosom enemies bravely, and conquer themselves so beautifully that when I come back to them I may be fonder and prouder than ever of my little women. 19. In spite of her small vanities, Margaret had a sweet and pious nature, which unconsciously influenced her sisters, especially Jo, who loved her very tenderly, and obeyed her because her advice was so gently given. 20. But when all is said and done, you’re the one who must decide how you 70 handle it. 21. My imagination, which was unavailable when I was tense, began to work to my advantage. 22. And when I think about it, I guess it is true that people always arrive at the right moment at the place where someone awaits them. 23. Experience is what you get when you didn’t get what you wanted. 24. The unqualified truth is, that when I loved Estella with the love of a man, I loved her simply because I found her irresistible. 25. The air of completeness and superiority with which she walked at my side, and the air of youthfulness and submission with which I walked at hers, made a contrast that I strongly felt. 26. As my eyes followed her white hand, again the same dim suggestion that I could not possibly grasp, crossed me. 27. That is what I mean when I say that she is a lady. 28. I have no idea what he is like, and wonder whether you would bring him that I may find out. 29. I suppose it was a wonderful visit, though none of us knew it by the time. 30. As the weather was fine, they had a pleasant walk of about half a mile across the park. 31. When, after examining the mother, in whose countenance and deportment she soon found some resemblance of Mr Darcy, she turned her eyes on her daughter, she could almost have joined in Maria’s astonishment, at her being so thin, and so small. 32. She asked her at different times, how many sisters she had, whether they were older or younger than herself, whether any of them were likely to be married, whether they were handsome, where they had been educated, what carriage her father kept, and what had been her mother’s maiden name? 33. Anne would have been a delightful performer, had her health allowed her to learn. 34. But why he came so often to the Parsonage, it was more difficult to understand. 35. Vanity and pride are different things, though the words are often used synonymously. 36. But after dinner, when I made him take his pipe, and when I had loitered with him about the forge, and when we sat down together on the great block of stone outside it, we got on better. 37. She was so quiet and had such an orderly, good, and pretty way with her, that I did not like the thought of making her cry again. 38. Thinking that he did this to give me an opportunity of taking his Walworth sentiments, I seized the opportunity as soon as we were out of the Castle. 39. After a little further conversation to 71 the same effect, we returned into the Castle, where we found Miss Skiffins preparing tea. 40. Wemmick explained to me while the Aged got his spectacles out, that this was according to custom, and that it gave the old gentleman infinite satisfaction to read the news aloud. 41. As he wanted the candles close to him, and as he was always on the verge of putting either his head or the newspaper into them, he required as much watching as a powder-mill. 42. Before a week was out, I received a note from Wemmick, dated Walworth, stating that he hoped he had made some advance in that matter appertaining to our private and personal capacities, and that he would be glad if I could come and see him again upon it. 43. My dread always was, that this knowledge on her part laid me under a heavy disadvantage with her pride, and made me the subject of a rebellious struggle in her bosom. 44. All I possess is freely yours. And if you ask me to give you what you never gave me, my gratitude and duty cannot do impossibilities. 45. When I left, Estella was yet standing by the great chimney-piece, just as she had stood throughout. 46. Whereupon, I made him the extreme reply that I believed he knew where I was to be found. 47. Whether it was impossible in a Christian country to get on without blood, after this, was a question on which the Finches were divided. 48. The debate upon it grew so lively, indeed, that at last six more honourable members told six more, during the discussion, that they believed they knew where they were to be found. 49. “One suffers so much”, Dennis went on, “From the fact that beautiful words don’t always mean what they ought to mean.” 50. I have just received your letter, and shall devote this whole morning to answering it, as I foresee that a little writing will not comprise what I have to tell you. 51. He came to tell Mr Gardiner that he had found out where your sister and Mr Wickham were, and that he had seen and talked with them both, Wickham repeatedly, Lidia once. 52. The reason why all this was to be done by him alone, was such as I have given above. 53. But he had given a reason, which asked no extraordinary stretch of belief. 54. That you were gone into the army, and she was afraid had not turned out well. 55. As the man made no answer when I asked him what he did there, but eluded my touch in silence, I ran to the Lodge and urged the watchman to come quickly: telling him of the inci- 72 dent on the way back. 56. As he was at present dressed in a seafaring slop suit, in which he looks as if he had some parrots and cigars to dispose of, I next discussed with him what dress he should wear. SUGGESTED WAYS OF COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE ANALYSIS The table was in no way different from any other, and it was not more advantageously placed, but because the oldest residents sat there it was looked upon as the most desirable place to sit, and several elderly women were bitterly resentful because Miss Otkin, who went away for four or five months every summer, should be given a place there while they who spent the whole year in the sanatorium sat at other tables. The table was in no way different from any other it was not more advanand tageously placed it was looked several elupon as the derly women but most desirable and were bitterly place to sit resentful because the oldest residents sat there because Miss Otkin ... should be given a place there who went away for four or five months every summer while they ... sat at other tables. who spent the whole year in the sanatorium 73 It is a compound-complex sentence which consits of 9 clauses: 4 coordinate and 5 subordinate. The first (the table was in no way different from any other) and the second (it was not more advantageously placed) coordinate clauses are joined by copulative coordination (the meaning of addition) by means of the copulative conjunction and. The second (it was not more advantageously placed) and the third (it was looked upon as the most desirable place to sit) coordinate clauses are joined by adversative coordination (the meaning of opposition) with the help of the adversative conjunction but. The third coordinate clause is extended by the subordinate clause of reason (because the oldest residents sat there) which is introduced by the conjunction because. The last coordinate clause (several elderly women were bitterly resentful) is linked to the previous by copulative coordination (the meaning of addition) with the help of the copulative conjunction and. The fourth coordinate clause has 4 subordinate clauses which are of different degree of subordination and perform different syntactic functions in the sentence. The first subordinate clause (because Miss Otkin should be given a place there) is of the first degree of subordination and it acts as the adverbial clause of reason introduced by the subordinating conjunction because. This subordinate clause is extended by two more subordinate clauses of the second degree of subordination: (who went away for four or five months every summer) and (while they sat at other tables). The first subordinate clause modifies the noun Miss Otkin, so it is an attributive descriptive clause giving additional information about the noun it modifies and linked to the modified clause with the help of the relative pronoun who. The second subordinate clause (while they sat at other tables) gives information about time of the previous clause, so it acts as the adverbial clause of time introduced by the subordinating conjunction while. The last subordinate clause (who spent the whole year in the sanatorium) modifies the pronoun they in the clause (while they sat at other tables), so it is of third degree of subordination and performs the syntactic function of an attributive descriptive clause, as it gives additional information about the subject (they) of the modified clause. 74 PRACTICE SECTION Exercise 1. Analyse the following compound-complex sentences stating the type of coordination between coordinate clauses and the syntactical function of the subordinate clauses. 1. You and the girls may go, or you may send them by themselves, which perhaps will be still better, for as you are as handsome as any of them, Mr Bingley might like you the best of the party. 2. In the morning he had read Theocritus, whom he believed to be the greatest of Greek poets; he had lunched with a merry don and had tasted Zwieback biscuits; then he had walked with people he liked, and had walked just long enough; and when they left he would go and have supper with Ansell, whom he liked as well as anyone. 3. He was never told anything, but he discovered for himself that his father and mother did not love each other, and that his mother was lovable. 4. The room above the shops still seemed as comfortable, the garden behind it as gracious, as they had seemed fifteen years before, when he would sit behind Miss Appleblossom’s central throne, and she, like some allegorical figure, would send the change and receipted bills spinning away from her in little boxwood balls. 5. But the village was very peaceful and quiet, and the light mists were solemnly rising, as if to show me the world, and I had been so innocent and little there, and all beyond was so unknown and great, that in a moment with a strong heave and sob I broke into tears. 6. When I told the clerk that I would take a turn in the air while I waited, he advised me to go round the corner and I should come into Smithfield. 7. To fortune I am perfectly indifferent, and shall make no demand of that nature on your father, since I am well aware that it could not be complied with; and that one thousand pounds in the 4 per cents which will not be yours till after your mother’s decease, is all that you may ever be entitled to. 8. When my brother left us yesterday, he imagined that the business which took him to London, might be concluded in three or four days, but as we are certain it cannot be so, and at the same time convinced that when Charles gets to 75 town, he will be in no hurry to leave it again, we have determined on following him thither, that he may not be obliged to spend his vacant hours in a comfortless hotel. 9. I told him, and he was attentive until I had finished, and then burst out laughing again, and asked me if I was sore afterwards? 10. I further mentioned that as I had been brought up a blacksmith in a country place, and knew very little of the ways of politeness, I would take it as a great kindness in him if he would give me a hint whenever he saw me at a loss or going wrong. 11. In the evening we went out for a walk in the streets, and went half-price to the Theatre; and next day we went to church at Westminster Abbey, and in the afternoon we walked in the Parks; and I wondered who shod all the horses there, and wished Joe did. 12. As we walked along westward, he was recognized ever and again by some face in the crowd of the streets, and whenever that happened he talked louder to me; but he never otherwise recognized anybody, or took notice that anybody recognized him. 13. We played until nine o’clock, and then it was arranged that when Estella came to London I should be forewarned of her coming and should meet her at the coach; and then I took leave of her, and touched her and left her. 14. As we were going back to London by the midday coach, and as I breakfasted under such terrors of Pumblechook that I could scarcely hold my cup, this gave me an opportunity of saying that I wanted a walk, and that I would go on along the London-road while Mr Jaggers was occupied, if he would let the coachman know that I would get into my place when overtaken. 15. Some ladies who did not know what had happened bowed and smiled as she passed, and she returned their salute. 16. What she really abominated was questions, and she saw that Ansell was turning serious. 17. But they made friends and treated each other, and slanged the proprietor and ragged the pretty girls; while Rickie, as each wave of vulgarity burst over him, sunk his head lower and lower, and wished that the earth would swallow him up. 18. I suppose there was a time once, when my father had not given matters up; but if ever there was, the time is gone. 19. We live in so different a part of town, all our connections are so different, and, as you well know, we go out so little, that it is very improbable they should meet at 76 all, unless he really comes to see her. 20. In short, my dear aunt, I should be very sorry to be the means of making any of you unhappy; but since we see every day that where there is affection, young people are seldom withheld by immediate want of fortune, from entering into engagements with each other, how can I promise to be wiser than so many of my fellow creatures if I am tempted, or how am I even to know that it would be wisdom to resist? 21. Miss de Bourgh was pale and sickly; her features, though not plain, were insignificant; and she spoke very little, except in a low voice, to Mrs Jenkinson, in whose appearance there was nothing remarkable, and who was entirely engaged in listening to what she said, and placing a screen in the proper direction before her eyes. 22. The dinner was exceedingly handsome, and there were all the servants, and all the articles of plate which Mr Collins had promised; and, as he had likewise foretold, he took his seat at the bottom of the table, by her ladyship’s desire, and looked as if he felt that life could furnish nothing greater. 23. His eyes had been soon and repeatedly turned towards them with a look of curiosity; and that her ladyship after a while shared the feeling, was more openly acknowledged, for she did not scruple to ask what Fitzwilliam was saying. 24. That the place could possibly be, without her, was something my mind seemed unable to compass; whereas she had seldom or never been in my thoughts of late, I had now the strangest idea that she was coming towards me in the street, or that she would presently knock at the door. 25. It was fine summer weather again, and, as I walked along, the times when I was a little helpless creature, and my sister did not spare me, vividly returned. 26. I don’t ask you what you owe, because you don’t know; and if you did know, you wouldn’t tell me; you would say less. 27. And as I felt that it came quicker, and as I felt that he saw that it came quicker, I felt that I had less chance than ever of getting anything out of him. 28. And for this hour I have not the faintest notion of what he meant, or what joke he thought I had made. 29. I informed Wemmick that I was anxious in behalf of Herbert Pocket, and told him how we had first met, and how we had fought. 30. The Aged prepared such a haystack of buttered toast, that I could scarcely see him over it as it simmered 77 on an iron stand hooked on to the top-bar; while Miss Skiffins brewed such a jorum of tea, that the pig in the back premises became strongly excited, and repeatedly expressed his desire to participate in the environment. 31. This was all the preparation I received for that visit, or for others like this: Miss Havisham never wrote to me, nor had I ever so much as seen her handwriting. 32. Before we left next day, there was no revival of the difference between her and Estella, nor was it ever revived on any similar occasion; and there were four similar occasions, to the best of my remembrance. 33. He didn’t say any more, but we’ve always been unusually communicative in a reserved way, and I understood that he meant a great deal more than that. 34. If we had no winter, the spring would not be so pleasant; if we did not sometimes taste of adversity, prosperity would not be so welcome. 35. All of us spread our arms wide, and the Master, invoking his power, created a strange light that surrounded us; it did not illuminate, but it was clearly visible, and it caused the figures of those who were there to take on a colour that was different from the yellowish tinge cast by the fire. 36. By the time Spain had regained control of the country, the militant orders had become so strong that they posed a threat to the nobility, and the Catholic kings had to intervene directly to prevent the orders from mounting an insurgency. 37. Even this high in the Pyrenees, it was hot during the day, and I was soaked with perspiration as I got out of the car. 38. My wife had said that I had to arrive there exactly on that day, but no one answered when I called out. 39. I was waiting for you, but I didn’t know that I was going to meet you so soon. 40. The ship is safest when it’s in port, but that’s not what ships were built for. 41. The other girl, Daisy, made an attempt to rise – she leaned slightly forward with a conscientious expression – then she laughed, an absurd, charming little laugh, and I laughed too and came forward into the room. 42. You know the reason Mother proposed not having any presents this Christmas was because it is going to be a hard winter for everyone; and she thinks we ought not to spend money for pleasure, when our men are suffering so in the army. 43. We will take this moment to give them a little sketch of the four sisters, who sat knitting in the twilight, while the December snow 78 fell quietly without, and the fire crackled cheerfully within. 44. It was a comfortable old room, though the carpet was faded and the furniture very plain; for a good picture or two hung on the walls, books filled the recesses, chrysanthemums and Christmas roses bloomed in the windows, and a pleasant atmosphere of home peace pervaded it. 45. Her father called her “Little Tranquillity”, and the name suited her excellently, for she seemed to live in a happy world of her own, only venturing to meet the few whom she trusted and loved. 46. A year seems very long to wait before I see them, but remind them that while we wait we may all work, so that these hard days need not be wasted. 47. No stockings hung at the fireplace, and for a moment she felt as much as disappointed as she did long ago, when her little sock fell down because it was so crammed with goodies. 48. You can do as you please, but I shall keep my book on the table here and read a little every morning as soon as I wake, for I know it will do me good and help me through the day. 49. She found it harder to bear than the others because she could remember a time when home was beautiful, life full of ease and pleasure, and want of any kind unknown. 50. Poor Meg seldom complained, but a sense of injustice made her feel bitter toward everyone sometimes, for she had not yet learned to know how rich she was in the blessings which alone can make life happy. 51. I couldn’t guess what Daisy and Tom were thinking, but I doubt if even Miss Baker, who seemed to have mastered a certain hardy scepticism, was able utterly to put this fifth guest’s shrill metallic urgency out of mind. 52. I saw that turbulent emotions possessed her, so I asked what I thought would be some sedative questions about her little girl. 53. As I waited for my hat in the hall the door of the library opened and Jordan Baker and Gatsby came out together. 54. He was saying some last word to her, but the eagerness in his manner tightened abruptly into formality as several people approached him to say good-bye. 55. As I crossed by the fountain, I saw his lighted windows looking bright and quiet, and, when I stood for a few moments in the doorway of the building where I lived, before going up the stairs, Garden Court was as still and lifeless as the staircase was when I ascented it. 56. It troubled me that there should have been a lurker on the 79 stairs, on that night of all nights in the year, and I asked the watchman, on the chance of eliciting some hopeful explanation as I handed him a dram at the door, whether he had admitted at his gate any gentleman who had perceptibly been dining out? 57. Again, the only other man who dwelt in the house of which my chambers formed a part, had been in the country for some weeks; and he certainly had not returned in the night, because we had seen his door with his seal on it as we came upstairs. 58. If she heard me, it was by good luck, for I am sure she did not listen. 59. When all this was resolved on, he returned again to his friends, who were still staying at Pemberley; but it was agreed that he should be in London once more when the wedding took place, and all money matters were then to receive the last finish. 60. He was exactly what he had been, when I knew him in Hertfordshire; but I would not tell you how little I was satisfied with her behaviour while she stayed with us, if I had not perceived, by Jane’s letter last Wednesday, that her conduct on coming home was exactly of a piece with it, and therefore what I now tell you, can give you no fresh pain. 61. Already when, at the age of thirteen, fourteen and fifteen, he began looking in the papers, which, being too wordly, had never been admitted to his home, he found that mostly skilled help was wanted. 62. In view of this, Mrs. Griffiths, who was more practical than her husband at all times, and who was intensely interested in Clyde’s economic welfare, as well as that of her other children, was actually wondering why Clyde should of a sudden become so enthusiastic about changing to this new situation, which, according to his own story, involved longer hours and not so very much more pay, if any. 63. However, as he began to see afterwards, time passed and he was left to work until, depressed by the routine and meager pay, he began to think of giving up this venture here and returning to Chicago or going to New York, where he was sure that he could connect himself with some hotel if need be. 64. He was developing a sense of humour and found that he had a knack of saying bitter things, which caught people on the raw; he said them because they amused him, hardly realizing how much they hurt, and was much offended when he found that his victims regarded him with active dislike. 80 Exercise 2. Using the first sentence as the main clause, combine the sentences in each of the following examples to make one new sentence. In each sentence you will need to use at least one item from List A and one from List B. EXAMPLE: He sold the farm. His family had owned it for centuries. He was desperately short of cash. Although his family had owned the farm for centuries, he sold it because he was desperately short of cash. A although as even if whenever where which while whose B because but in case in order that so.......... that unless whereas who 1. They cut down the trees. The trees had been there for sixty years. Their purpose was to sell the timber. 2. He returned to the village. He had been born and brought up there. It had changed beyond recognition. 3. He walked across the common. It was wet and muddy. This would save him at least ten minutes. 81 4. Hans took a rope-ladder with him. He stayed in hotels. They might catch fire. 5. It was cold. He suffered frostbite in several toes. He wore several pairs of socks. 6. The price of cabbages has doubled. The weather has been extremely poor. The price of potatoes has remained steady. Supplies have been imported from Egypt. 7. He swallowed the fish’s eye. It made him feel sick. He wanted to impress his friends. 8. He wrote a letter to Mr and Mrs Edwards. He had stayed in their house for eight weeks. He gave a series of lectures at the university. He thanked them for their hospitality. 9. Candidates will not be interviewed for this post. They have extremely good qualifications. They have at least five years’ experience. 10. He sold the painting. He was short of money. His grandfather had given it to him. His grandfather had known the artist well. 82 II. THE MOOD Language is a means of giving and receiving information through communication between/among people, especially in modern times. Since the sentence nearly always expresses a complete thought, it can serve to convey the speaker’s communicative intentions. In terms of grammar, the grammatical category that comprises ‘relations between the actions expressed by the predicate verbs and reality’ (Krylova 2007: 100) from the speaker’s point of view is called the Mood (Lat. modus ‘manner’). GENERAL REMARKS ON MODALITY AND MOODS Matthews (2005:228) holds that “Indications either of a kind of speech act or of the degree of certainty with which something is said are covered by the category of modality. Thus, He left at once (declarative) differs in modality from Leave at once! (imperative); He can’t have left (epistemic, expressing factual (im)probability, necessity, possibility, etc.) from You can’t leave (deontic, indicating the presence or absence of obligation, prohibition, etc.); You must leave (obligation) from You can leave if you like (permission); He has perhaps left (doubt) from He has definitely left (fact of present reality).” Modality in English is expressed by: 1. Modal verbs (can – could, may – might, must, shall – should, ought to, will – would, need, dare, have and be), which express the speaker’s attitude (obligation, possibility, ability, etc.) towards the action of the predicate-verb. In the sentence, they are used as link verbs, parts of the compound verbal modal predicate. 83 I can speak two foreign languages. (ability) We must study if we want to succeed. (obligation from the speaker’s point of view) We have to hand in our papers in time. (obligation due to circumstances: if we don’t, there’ll be trouble) We ought to/should pay more attention to the people around us: they may need our help.(obligation - recommendation) Sorry, I cannot stay here any longer, I am to meet my sister. (lack of possibility, obligation due to the previous arrangement) You needn’t hurry, we shall catch up with them anyway. (absence of necessity, promise) 2. Modal words or attitudinal adverbs (Krylova 2007: 102), which express the speaker’s subjective or personal attitude towards the situation the utterance/sentence denotes. Their syntactical function in the sentence is that of parenthesis, an independent element of sentence. Differently from the adverbial modifier of sentence, which carries important information about the circumstances of the action expressed by the predicate, the modal words may easily be omitted leaving the sentence real, i.e. in the Indicative Mood. Compare: He is possibly the best candidate I know for the post (supposition, doubt). He is the best candidate for the post (the fact at present). They denote: • certainty (certainly, of course, indeed, really, no doubt, etc.): She will certainly get the book for you. Surely she didn’t mean it – it was just a thoughtless remark. • supposition (perhaps, maybe, possibly, etc.): It is perhaps not a good idea for a seven-year-old to use a calculator. He is possibly the best candidate for the post. 84 • positive or negative estimation ((un)fortunately, (un)luckily, happily, etc.): There was a proposal to change the exam system again, but fortunately it was rejected. 3. The mood, a grammatical category of the verb, which refers to the speaker’s attitude towards reality expressed by means of the simple or analytical form of the predicate verb. In everyday speech, the noun mood literally denotes the way someone is feeling, whether they are angry, sad or happy (liet. nuotaika): I have never seen Ann in such a good mood before. This meaning serves as basis for the linguistic term the Mood, a grammatical category that relates to “the informative or communicative status of utterances, e.g. whether they refer to established facts, questions, express a supposition or condition, deny, request” (Swan 2005: 122) and has its own grammatical means of expression (liet. nuosaka). Depending on the type of reality disclosed in the sentence the English Moods are Real/Direct (liet. faktinė) and Unreal/Indirect (liet. hipotetinė). The Real Moods are realized in two forms: • The Indicative Mood (liet. tiesioginė nuosaka) is used to introduce reality as established positive and negative facts in the past, present or future in the form of an active or passive statement, question or exclamation: All the students are/were given the subject programmes at the beginning of the term. They have already been told the news. 85 Why didn’t they arrive on Monday? What a lovely morning it is! • The Imperative Mood (liet. liepiamoji nuosaka) is used to express positive or negative orders and requests valid in the situation: Do it today (please)! Do come before nine. (the auxiliary verb do serves to emphasize the request) Don’t cross the street here. It’s dangerous. The Unreal Moods – Subjunctive, Suppositional and Conditional – refer to reality as half- or fully unreal: desired, possible or expected form the speaker’s point of view. Some authors (Matthews 2005) distinguish only the Subjunctive Mood on the basis of the verb form in the sentence. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD The Subjunctive Mood (liet. tariamoji nuosaka) is expressed through a grammatical form of the verb that is used to denote doubts and wishes realized through the predicate of the sentence. From a structural point of view, the forms are synthetic (one form – one or two meanings: Past Simple for present/ future desired actions) and analytical (two or more words – a few meanings: Past Perfect/modal verb + Infinitive for past possible desired actions). The synthetic Subjunctive Mood form is employed in two structural types of sentences: simple and complex. In simple sentences, the Past Simple form expresses wish: 86 Oh, if only that storm were over! (liet. O kad ta audra jau baigtųsi!) If only I were a little taller! (liet. O kad būčiau šiek tiek aukštesnė!) The use of the form is determined by the communicative type of sentence, an exclamatory one, introduced by if only for something not (easily) realized. Note: It is of interest to note that the verb wish is used for saying that something is not true: ‘Did she give you some money?’ ‘I wish.’ (liet. Norėčiau!) ‘I told Sally that Ben was my boyfriend!’ ‘You wish!’ (liet. Norėtum! (Bet to nebus!)) In complex sentences, the use of the synthetic Subjunctive form is determined by the main clause, which refers to time and wish, followed by an attributive clause: It’s time we went home (though it’s so nice here). (liet. Jau būtų laikas eiti namo, (bet/nors čia taip gera.)) It’s time they were at home. It’s time is also followed by an infinitive, which makes the sentence simple in the Indicative Mood to denote a real fact of the action: It’s time to go home: it’s very late. (liet. Laikas eiti namo. Jau vėlu.) It’s time for them to take up something new. Complex sentences with the main clause I wish usually take object clauses for desired actions not possible at the time of speaking: I wish the people here were more polite (=I would like things to be different from what they are). (liet. Norėčiau, kad čia žmonės būtų mandagesni). We wish he went there as soon as possible. 87 The synthetic form is also found in subordinate clauses of comparison, concession and unreal present/future condition: They loved the girl as if she were their daughter. Even if it were raining, I should go to see them. If I were at home, I should/would see them by all means. As we have already mentioned, the analytical Subjunctive forms are realized through Past Perfect and a modal verb + a bare infinitive. The Past Perfect form refers to realized or unrealized past actions both in simple and complex sentences from the point of view of the speaker’s wish or desire: If only she had asked me for advice! – She didn’t ask me for advice and now she is in trouble. (liet. O kad ji būtų paprašiusi mano patarimo!) The Lithuanian language has an absolutely equivalent form for Past Perfect – būtajį atliktinį laiką, which points to a totally unreal past situation viewed from the present time in expressing the speaker’s regret about it. In complex sentences, the Past Perfect form is found in predicative, object and adverbial clauses of comparison, concession and unreal condition: 88 It looks as if they had never heard of university studies (university studies are different from those at school). I wish she had asked more questions on the subject (she didn‘t ask more questions and the results of the test are deplorable). The man gazed at the picture as if he had not seen anything like that in his life. Even if he had had a map, he would not have got out of the forest on his own. Would you have given him the money if he had asked you for it? It is important to distinguish between two functions Past Perfect can perform in a sentence: the first and the basic function is to express past actions completed before another past action or past time, as in: He said he had been to London twice. He had already done it by 12 o’clock. In both cases the Past Perfect form presents real past actions in the Indicative Mood. When Past Perfect refers to unreal past actions, wished, regretted, etc., they perform the function of the Subjunctive Mood form; then it is accompanied by additional semantic units – conjunctions (if only, even if, as if, etc.) and main clauses which indicate the speaker’s subjective personal attitude towards the situation described (I wish he would have done it, etc.). The analytical Subjunctive form (modal verb + infinitive) is also used in simple and complex sentences; however, the meaning of the desire or regret is always accompanied by the meaning of the employed modal verb, i.e. ability for can/could, possibility for may/might, duty, recommendation for should, and volition, regret, dissatisfaction for would. If only he could/might/should get the job! I wish you could/might/should/would stay with us. The bare indefinite infinitive refers the action to the present or future (liet. sugebėtų/galėtų/norėtų, etc.: Gaila, kad negali, neprivalai, nenori pasilikti su mumis). When the indefinite infinitive is replaced by a perfect infinitive, the latter indicates the past time of the action: If only he could have passed the exam! (liet. O kad jis būtų sugebėjęs išlaikyti egzaminą!) 89 I wish he would have entered a university. (liet. Gaila, kad jis nenorėjo įstoti į universitetą.) The following table will illustrate the Subjunctive Mood forms, ways of their expression and types of syntactic structures. Table 1. Modern English Subjunctive Mood forms in time and sentence type. Forms and Synthetic Analytical time (Past Simple) (Past Perfect or Cont./Modal + Infinitive) Sentence types Present/future Present/future Past Simple sentences If only he a) If only he could a) If only they had helped me with pass the exam! taken our advice! my English! If only he would see b) If only he could his grandparents have used the map! more often! (The Perfect Infinib) If only he were tive is used for the coming here! (Past past actions) Continuous refers to the process of the action) Complex senIt’s (high) time The suggestion that a) It’s (high) time he tences he came back. he would do it seems had chosen some1) Appositive/Atto be sensible. where to study. tributive clauses b) The idea that he (after time) could have done everything by himself sounded unbelievable. 2) Predicative He looks as if a) He looks as if he a) He looks as if he clauses he were huncould solve any prob- had read everything gry. lems. on the subject. b) He looks as if he b) He looked as if he were coming here could have changed every day. the plan of the paper. 90 Forms and Synthetic Analytical time (Past Simple) (Past Perfect or Cont./Modal + Infinitive) Sentence types Present/future Present/future Past a) We wish they had 3) Object clauses I wish he gave a) I wish he could/ (after wish) me an English would speak some arrived the previous book for a foreign languages. week. present. b) I wish he were b) We wish they coming more often. could/would have done better in the finals. 4) Adverbial He looked at a) He talked as if he a) He behaved as clauses of me as if he did would make an imthough he had never a) comparison not know me. pression on the audi- been abroad. ence. b) After the funeral b) She was staring she burst into tears outside the window as though her heart as if she were remem- would have broken. bering something. b) concession Poor though a) Whatever he would a) Even if they had her famtake up, he never had good qualificaily were, they came to an end. tions, they wouldn’t would never b) Whatever he were have got the job. ask for help. doing, everything b) Whatever the conturned out a failure. ditions might have been, we would have done our best to get to the point. c) condition If I were on a) If he could/would a) If he had taken holiday, you help us, I would/ our advice, he would would not find should be surprised. have achieved his me here. b) If he were coming aim. tomorrow, we would/ b) If they would have should finish the work introduced the new in time. methods, we would have succeeded. 91 Forms and Synthetic Analytical time (Past Simple) (Past Perfect or Cont./Modal + Infinitive) Sentence types Present/future Present/future Past d) purpose a) She always sets __________ close to the stage so ______________ ____ that she can see eve- _____ rything better. b) She sat close to the stage so that she could see the stage better. THE SUPPOSITIONAL MOOD The Suppositional Mood (liet. geidžiamoji nuosaka) is a grammatical form of the verb that expresses the speaker’s belief that something is probably true, based on his/her experience, knowledge and any other information possessed. This Mood has two ways of expression: synthetic and analytical. The synthetic Suppositional form is a plain verb stem for all persons (a survival of the Old (English) Subjunctive Mood (Krylova 2007: 140). It expresses wish, concession and command in simple sentences: Long live the Queen! (liet. Tegyvuoja karalienė!) So be it! (liet. Tebūnie! Telieka kaip yra!) Everybody leave the room! (liet. Tegu visi išeina iš kambario!) In complex sentences, the plain verb stem is found in the following clauses: 1) Subject clauses introduced by the introductory it: It is necessary that new programmes be implemented the following year. (liet. ...būtų...) 92 2)Object clauses after expressions of: a) Order or suggestion: We demand that drugs be prohibited. He suggested that the Chairman be chosen our delegate. b) Fear: He feared lest he be mistaken. (liet. Jis bijojo, kad neapsiriktų.) 3) Adverbial clauses of a) Concession: Whatever the reason be, the fact remains. b) Condition: If in this heart a hope be dear, that sound shall charm it forth again. (Byron) c) Purpose or reason: We shall start early lest we be late. The use of the plain verb stem is usually determined by the style of communication, i.e. it is preferred in formal/official/bookish style (reports, rules, regulations). The analytical Suppositional Mood form should + bare infinitive replaces the synthetic form in neutral informal contexts to indicate the present/ future and past suppositions of the speaker. The present/future reference to the action is always presented in the form of recommendation or advice: People should drive more carefully nowadays. (liet. Žmonės turėtų važinėti atsargiau.) You shouldn’t say things like that about your Granny. (liet. Neturėtum taip kalbėti apie savo senelę.) Applications should be sent before December 30th. In the latter example should might be replaced by must, which would be less polite. This fact may be explained through a deeper look into the meaning of the very modal auxiliary should. Since Old English the modals 93 shall and should have expressed one’s (the Subject’s) duty and obligation based on social rules, traditions, etc., while must refers to the speaker’s personal subjective attitude towards the action. (Cf. You should learn it for tomorrow (we may need it in class) and You must learn it for tomorrow (There is no supposition, it is the speaker’s order, which may arouse some dissatisfaction on the listener’s part). In interrogative sentences, should is employed to ask for advice or instructions nor being sure about the performance of the action: Should I go and call the police? (I might go but is it really necessary?) What should we do? The past reference to events which didn’t happen or may not have happened is related to the meaning of regret because of not doing what was supposed or expected: I should have brought the book today, but I forgot. (I am sorry) (liet. Turėjau atnešti...) In this meaning should is always followed by a perfect infinitive. Sometimes should may be replaced by ought to to express advice in cases when we refer to a more objective force (Swan 1995:550), when we talk about laws, duties and regulations or when we want our opinion to sound strong enough related to the moral aspect of behaviour: 94 You should/ought to go and see Mary some day. (Both possible) We ought to go and see Mary tomorrow, but I don’t think we will. (liet. Turėtume nueiti...) – The subject cannot give advice to itself. So far, the analytical Suppositional Mood forms have been described in simple sentences; however, they are quite common in the subordinate clauses of complex sentences: 1) Subject clauses with the introductory it: It is necessary/important that we should take part at the meeting. The introductory subject it introduces the real Subject – a clause (Cf. That we should take part at the meeting is necessary/important). The purpose of the formal introductory subject it is to draw the listener’s attention to the real ‘substantial’ Subject expressed by an infinitive phrase. The Subject Complement or Predicative is usually an adjective or a participle denoting necessity, importance, recommendation, suggestion, order, decision, etc.: It was suggested by John that we should join them later. It was surprising that they should read books like that. (They are too young to read them.) 2)Predicative/Subject Complement clauses usually have the Subject expressed by the nouns: aim, suggestion , wish, idea, etc. Which are semantically related to supposition: My suggestion was that we should discuss fundamental values as soon as we face them. His desire was that they should have no financial difficulties, at least this year. 3)Object clauses usually follow predicate verbs of decision, suggestion, order, fear, etc. As well as verbal phrases with nouns of the same meaning: to give instructions/orders, to make up one’s mind (=to decide), etc.: 95 We decided that the children should spend their holidays at the seaside. I was determined that they should see our old house. The doctor suggested that we should rest a longer time. Haven’t you made up your mind where we should go after school? They feared lest they should lose their way. The latter sentence causes difficulty for the learners because of the conjunction lest, which introduces something unpleasant on the one hand, and a contradiction between the positive form and negative meaning of the object clause. (liet. Kad nepasimestų/nepasiklystų.) 4) Adverbial clauses of a)Concession: Though it should rain, we’ll have to go. (liet. Nors ir lytų...) – should indicates very little possibility (liet. Jei kartais ir lytų...). b)Condition, which may have should + infinitive in both parts – main and subordinate clauses: If it were not so late, I should stay longer. When the analytical Suppositional Mood form is found in the main clause, the subordinate conditional takes the synthetic Subjunctive Mood form for present/future reference. When should + infinitive is used in the subordinate conditional clause, it always points to a faint or remote very little possibility of the action: If you should meet him, as him to call me. (liet. Jeigu kartais sutiktum jį...) c)Purpose/reason: We shall start at seven lest we should miss the train. He turned the radio down so that he shouldn’t disturb the lady down stairs. 96 5) Attributive/appositive clauses, introduced by the conjunction that, may have a variety of verb tense-aspect forms in the Indicative Mood: He had the impression that the man was lying. (liet. …kad jis meluoja.) The Suppositional Mood form should + infinitive is also found in appositive clauses whose antecedent is a noun expressing order, suggestion, demand, etc. Her desire that we should visit Australia may be realized next year. There is a possibility that she should recognize us at once. The child’s idea that we should live in the country struck all of us. Thus, the main reason for using the Suppositional Mood is semantic-communicative, the speaker’s supposition that the information presented is true for some reason. Table 2. The Suppositional Mood forms in Time and Sentence. Forms / time Sentence types Simple sentences (command, concession, wish, recommendation, advice, etc.) Complex sentences 1) formal introductory subject clauses 2) Predicative clauses Synthetic (Plain verb stem) Present / future All come out at once! So be it! Long live your family! It is advisable that you leave your things here. _____________ Analytical (should + infinitive) Present/future Past You should see it You should have yourself. been quicker to get it. It is advisable that you should leave your things here. His wish was that they should spend their holidays somewhere away from home. ___________ ___ His wish was that they should have spent their holidays somewhere away from home. 97 Forms / time Sentence types 3) Object clauses 4) Attributive/Appositive clauses 5) Adverbial clauses of a) concession Synthetic (Plain verb stem) Present / future He suggested the girl be taken home at once. She feared lest the meeting be postponed. _____________ Analytical (should + infinitive) Present/future Past He suggested that the girl should ____________ be taken home at once. Whatever the reason be, we can’t forgive you now. Whatever you should say now, it’ll be difficult to believe. If the values be kept, we’ll survive. If they should meet ____________ Ann, tell them to congratulate her on the success. ____________ The idea that they ____________ should arrive on Friday surprised us. ____________ b) condition c) purpose, reason We’ll hurry lest She came in on tipwe be late for the toe lest she should train. wake up the child. THE CONDITIONAL MOOD The Conditional Mood (liet. sąlyginė nuosaka) is a grammatical way of expressing a speaker’s attitude towards reality characterized by the presence of a constraint, a condition, i.e. circumstances under which the information presented is valid and understood by the listener/reader. The Mood is 98 realized through certain verb forms of the Subjunctive and Suppositional Moods as well as the conjunction if both in simple and complex sentences. In simple sentences, the condition is expressed directly by the conjunction if and the analytical Subjunctive Mood form: If I only could speak Spanish! In sentences of this type the result (the main clause) is not indicated (the speaker might go to Spain or have a chat with a peer or someone from Spain, etc.), the speaker expressing his wish, desire and emotional attitude. However, the condition may be expressed indirectly, without if, unreality present in the predicate verb – the analytical Subjunctive or Suppositional Mood forms with the so-called hidden or implied condition: I could help you (if you asked me). I should do it (if need be). The implied condition is to explain the situation making the sentence complete and encouraging the partner to continue the conversation. In complex sentences, the condition is expressed in subordinate conditional clauses introduced by the conjunctions if, in case, unless, on condition (that), providing (provided) that, supposing (suppose) that, which usually add a meaning of their own due to their lexical content, as in: I leave my telephone number in case you need me. Here in case has the noun case, which adds the meaning of purpose (liet. … tuo atveju/tada, kai…). Thus, unless introduces negation (only if… not) (liet. jeigu ne…); on condition that implies constraint as well as a stylistic connotation – being formal, etc. The Conditional Mood is used for real and unreal condition, which have their own verb forms. 99 Real conditional sentences take the Indicative/Imperative Mood verb forms – Present Simple/ Continuous/Perfect and Future tense-aspect forms for present and future actions respectively: If I work hard, I always succeed. If you are doing something, I won’t disturb you. If you have finished the report by 5, call me. If you will help me, I’ll be really grateful. Real conditional sentences may occasionally refer to past actions, as in: In the evenings we used to play badminton if there was no wind. Unreal conditional sentences take the Subjunctive and Suppositional Mood verb forms – Past Simple/Continuous/Perfect and modal verb + infinitive forms for present/future and past situations respectively: If I were you, I would/should/could, etc. go there every weekend. If they had had more practice, they would have done the job better. The examples above illustrate two types of the unreal Conditional Mood: Conditional 1 for present/ future situations and Conditional 2 for past unrealized actions (they had no or not enough practice). Another type – Conditional 3 – is also called Mixed Conditional, which means that the two clauses refer to different time or reality situations: Present – Past: If I were more serious, he wouldn’t have been involved in the matter. Past – Present: If he had studied harder, he wouldn’t have so much trouble now. Real action – unreal action: Keep an eye on him, in case he should think of something that might ruin our plans. 100 PRACTICE SECTION Exercise 1. Find and comment on the structure and meaning of the Mood forms: 1. If that staid old house near the Green at Richmond should ever come to be haunted when I am dead, it will be haunted, surely, by my ghost. 2. I wish you had been there. 3. I have no idea what he is like, and wonder whether you would bring him that I may find out. 4. I almost think I’ll go with Dawes, if he’ll have me. 5. Vicky observed the scene out-of-body, as if it were happening to a girl with a better sense of humour. 6. Now and then he would make a motion with his feet as if he were running quickly backward upstairs ... 7. You are to take me there, and bring me back, if you will. 8. If you were to renounce this patronage and these favours, I suppose you would do so with some faint hope of one day repaying what you have already had. 9. We ordered something rather special for dinner, with a bottle of something similarly out of the common way, in order that our minds might be fortified for the occasion, and we might come well up to the mark. 10. So you wish I’d taken a hundred pounds a year from him. 11. The client looked scared, but bewildered too, as if he were unconscious what he had done. 12. I only wish, dear man, you could be happier. 13. Mike looked hard at my guardian, as if he were trying to learn a lesson from his face... 14. When all this was resolved on, he returned again to his friends, who were still staying at Pemberley; but it was agreed that he should be in London once more when the wedding took place, and all money matters were then to receive the last finish. 15. If that’s Mr Rickety Elliot’s idea of a soldier and an Englishman, it isn’t mine, and I wish I’d had a horsewhip. 16. I wish you weren’t so modest. 17. We shut our outer door on these solemn occasions in order that we might not be interrupted. 18. If only it had been anyone else! 19. I wish I could see her. 20. For a reason that I had, I felt as if my eyes would start out of my head. 21. You speak of yourself as if you were someone else.. 22. Having thought of the matter with care, I approached my subject as if I had never hinted at it before. 23. When I left, Estella was yet standing by 101 the great chimney-piece, just as she had stood throughout. 24. But he insisted on walking home with me, in order that I might make no extra preparation for him, and first he had a letter or two to write, and (of course) had his hands to wash. 25. The kid’s long fingers trembled on the gun’s cross-hatched grip as if he were hiding something. 26. He was released and restored to his job on the condition, which he accepted, that he speak for Peron at public meetings. 27. If only Evita would lend him to me – just for fifteen minutes. 28. If we miss the last bus., we’ll have to walk home. 29. If you should happen to meet Diana, would you give her a message? 30. OK. I’ll come with you if you will promise not to go too fast. 31.“You shouldn’t have used it all up before your birthday, then,” I told him angrily. 32. People would talk about it and I hoped I would be liked. 33. If I had won the lottery, I’d have bought a Ferrari. 34. If anyone were to complain, I should merely tell them to write to the manager. 35. I suggest that everything be finished by May. 36. Their decision was that the child should be sent to school immediately. 37. Odo resolved that this year he would rectify matters, but knew, even as the thought occurred, that he would not. 38. Eddie didn’t respond. He turned the pages of the Irish Times, wishing it were something livelier, the Star or the Express. 39. If for any reason a police car signalled him to stop, he would be found to have more than the permitted quantity of alcohol in his bloodstream. 40. If you had followed the map, we would be at home by now. 41. All the time when there had been that silence they had gone on eating, as if leaving the food on their plates would be too dramatic a gesture. 42. You should have seen the look on his face when I told him I’d won. 43. If anyone has found a bunch of keys, would they please leave them on my desk? 44. Wouldn’t it be nice if we could spend more time with the children? 45. The officer ordered that everyone stay in their places. 46. If he were more careful, there wouldn’t have been an accident. 47. “What happened to my bag?” – “How should I know?” 48. “Ken would never break his promise.” – “I should hope not.” 49. “Should it start raining, get the children inside, will you?” – “Why should I? Ann could do it.” 50. If you should need any help, just call. 51. I said we should meet the guests ourselves. 102 Exercise 2. a) Express regret/wish about the indicated present and future events using the Subjunctive Mood. Follow the example: - What a pity we don’t go to the cinema today! - If only we went to the cinema today! (the film is said to be very interesting) 1. It is a pity we have not enough money for the books. 2. What a pity it’s so late! 3. It seems such a pity to be indoors in lovely weather like this. 4. It is a great pity we cannot visit the Louvre! 5. ‘I cannot get any tickets for the game!’ ‘Oh, what a pity!’ 6. Why is he so unkind to us? 7. Unfortunately, it is so hot today! 8. I am sorry I cannot do it for you right now. 9. Your sister is always like this. 10. It is a pity we are not at the seaside now. b) Express regret about the past events in the sentences below using the Subjunctive Mood. Follow the example: - I saw both of them at the cinema yesterday. - If only you hadn’t seen them together. 1. We had no money left then. 2. Unfortunately, I spent all your money on books. 3. He forgot to give us the change. 4. He did not get any letters from his uncle. 5. We had to pay for the books twice, I am sorry. 6. Why didn’t you interfere? 7. You spoke to them very rudely. 8. Why did they arrive so late? 9. I didn’t know how to tell them about the incident. 10. He came in drunk. Exercise 3. Make your choice of a correct form of the Subjunctive Mood in the following sentences. Comment on the situation. I wish I were at the seaside now. The sea and the sand are so pleasant at this time of the year. 103 I wish you would give me an English book as a present. You have never given me one. I wish I hadn’t spent so much time with you. It was useless to persuade you to change your mind. 1. I wish I (have) a good time at the party. 2. My friend wishes he (spend) his holiday somewhere far from home. 3. I wish you (make) an appointment with the doctor. 4. We wish he (not commit) all those crimes. 5. I wish I (be) as good a dancer as Ann. 6. I wish the weather (be) warmer at this time of the year. 7. He wishes his sister (not be) rude to Mary. 8. I wish I (not answer) his letter so soon. 9. I wish my teacher (give) me another chance. 10. She wishes her brother (take) her for the holiday in France. Exercise 4. Paraphrase with WISH: 1. I’m sorry I haven’t got a washing machine. 2. I’m sorry I don’t live near my work. 3. I’m sorry our garden doesn’t get any sun. 4. I’m sorry I called him a liar. 5. I’m sorry I didn’t book a seat. 6. I’m sorry I can’t drive. 7. I’d like you to keep quiet, you are making so much noise that I can’t think. 8. It’s a pity you are going out tonight. 9.I’d like you to wait for me. 10. I’m sorry I left my last job. 11. It’s a pity you didn’t ask him how to get there. 12. I’m sorry you aren’t going to a job where you could use your English. Exercise 5. Replace the verbs in brackets by suitable Indirect Mood forms to indicate a) comparison, concession, condition or purpose and b) subject, predicative, attributive/appositive and object syntactic relationships. You may use a modal verb if need be: a) 1. She breathed as if she (to run) a long way. 2. When we came, she was arranging books on the table so that every visitor (to see) all of them. 3. They talked in low voices so that the parents (not to hear) them. 4. She put her hand over her eyes as if she (to be blinded) by the strong light. 5. He would 104 be happy if Mary (to agree) to spend the weekend at his parents’ place. 6. If he (to be) my husband, I’d divorce him. 7. And if (to come) such a birthday, I would charter the boat without hesitation. 8. We went to the theatre together so that we (to get) home safely after the performance. 9. The man stepped aside so that we (to speak) to the cashier who (to know) the prices of the tickets. 10. The man closed the gates at once so that nobody (to get) into the yard. 11. I wonder what would happen if Jack (to return) earlier. 12. He was standing in the shadow so that I (to see) his face clearly. 13. The old man would complain to anyone so that he (to get) money, food or a little attention, at least. 14. What happened? You look as if you (to lose) everything you had. 15. At first he sounded as if he (not to understand) what was happening. 16. She looked as though she (to win) a million. Do you happen to know the reason for it? 17. If I could influence the party policies, the situation surely (to change) for the better. 18. If they (to think) of the consequences, their decision would have been different. 19. Whatever they (to decide), we’ll accept. 20. The children looked at me as though they (to know) me for ages. 21. The girl spoke French as if she (to live) in Paris for years. 22. He left quietly lest his neighbours (to see) him. b) 1. They looked as if they (not to sleep) a few days and nights. 2. I wished I (to know) what to say at the moment. It might have changed the situation. 3. We were anxious that the children (to choose) the right professions in life. 4. Children demand that teachers (to be) kind, tolerant and understanding, but they do not care how they (to behave) themselves. 5. Her wish that we (to come) to her place for the holiday was quite unexpected. 6. It is important that students (to understand) the necessity of serious university studies. 7. I cannot understand why you (to be) so angry about my words. 8. The man looked as though he (to know) everything in the house. 9. Your status requires that you (to dress) in a different way. 10. The suggestion that Mary (to give up) her bad habits appealed to her parents most of all. 11. It is necessary that the Mayor (to pay) more attention to the needs of the city. 12. They were anxious that the food (to be) of the best quality. 13. I was 105 surprised that such young children (to know) so many poems in English and Russian. 14. His desire was that his family (to move) to the capital city with more chances to get better jobs. 15. We wish the neighbours (to keep) quiet at the weekend. 16. The boy wished his parents (to tell) the truth about his birth. 17. It was strange that the child (to behave) in an unusual way. 18. Her advice that we (to make) another attempt was encouraging. 19. We demand that the work (to finish) by Monday. 20. We were surprised that such a young child (to know) Shakespeare. Exercise 6. Translate the sentences into English, using Indirect Mood verb forms: a)Comparison 1. Jis sėdėjo už stalo tarytum rašytų, bet jis nei rašė, nei skaitė. 2. Jis žiūrėjo į mane tarytum manęs nesuprasdamas. 3. Šuo sveikino šeimininką lyg jie seniai būtų matęsi. 4. Jis atrodė taip, lyg tuoj tuoj pravirktų. 5. Ji jautėsi labai pavargusi, lyg būtų ilgai vaikščiojusi. 6. Ji ir toliau apžiūrinėjo kambarį, lyg kažko tai ieškotų. 7. Atrodė, lyg derybos užsitęs dar keletą dienų. b)Purpose 1. Aš informuoju tave apie visus šiuos dalykus tam, kad mes galėtume viens kitą geriau suprasti. 2. Jis liepė mums sėsti ant mašinos galinės sėdynės tam, kad mes galėtume pasikalbėti. 3. Jis apsimetė, kad su kažkuo kalba, tam kad tarnas nepagalvotų, jog jis kambaryje vienas. 4. Ji kalbėjo tyliai, kad motina mūsų neišgirstų. 5. Paskambink man, kai išvažinėsi, kad aš žinočiau, kada tavęs laukti. c)Condition 1. Aš niekad nebūčiau pagalvojęs, kad tai įmanoma, jei nebūčiau matęs to savo akimis. 2. Tuo atveju, jei tau kartais tektų netikėtai išvykti, atsiųsk man raštelį. 3. Man pjesė būtų patikusi labiau, jei ji nebūtų tokia ilga. 4. Jei jis būtų atėjęs laiku, tai galėjo ir neįvykti. 5. Pasilik su juo. Jeigu jis kartais ko nors 106 paprašytų, pranešk man. 6. Užrakink duris, kad niekas netrukdytų. 7. Jeigu ne tu, nežinau, ką būčiau daręs. 8. Jis pasakė, ką ir kiti būtų galėję pasakyti, jei tik jie būtų buvę atviri. d) Object/Subject 1. Paskui jis pasiūlė nutraukti diskusiją ir pakalbėti apie ką nors kitą. 2. Jis pyksta, kad Paul įsimylėjo jo seserį. 3. Tėvas norėjo eiti pėsčiomis, bet mama primygtinai reikalavo, kad važiuotume mašina. 4. Kai tik mes atsisėdome, jis pareikalavo, kad nuimtų žvakes. 5. Čarlis patarė pavalgyti ir paskui eiti į teatrą. 6. Aš buvau susijaudinęs, kad jis man nepaskambino. 7. Aš džiaugiuosi, kad jūs taip gerai galvojate apie mano sūnų. 8. Keista, kad ji pati ėmėsi šios užduoties. 9. Šiuo atveju labai svarbu, kad jis nepadarytų klaidos. 10. Buvo kvaila, kad ji taip supyko dėl prisvilusių pietų. 11. Įmanoma ir tai, kad jis išvyko vienas. 12. Gaila, kad tavo dukra visai nepanaši į tave. 13. Kartais gailiuosi, kad nusprendei parašyti šią knygą, Semai. 14. O kad tu vėl pradėtum rašyti eilėraščius. 15. Ji apgailestavo, kad ji negalėjo girdėti, apie ką buvo kalbama apačioje. 16. Jam seniai laikas mums paaiškinti, ką jis sugalvojo. 17. Kaip manai, ar ne laikas mums prisijungti prie svečių? Exercise 7. Translate into English using the proper Mood forms. 1. Gaila, kad tavęs ten nebuvo. 2. Tu nori, kad būčiau paėmusi iš jo 100 svarų? 3. O kad tu malonėtum būti ne tokia įžūli! 4. Aš tik noriu, mano brangioji, kad tu būtum laimingesnė. 5. Gaila, kad ten buvai tu. 6. O kad ji malonėtų/teiktųsi man parašyti bent žodelį! 7. Jei tik tu nebekalbėtum apie jo pasiekimus! 8. Atrodo, lyg greitai pradėtų lyti. 9. Ji atrodė lyg verktų/būtų verkusi. 10. Jeigu jis ateitų anksčiau, paprašyk palaukti. 11. Jeigu jis būtų susidomėjęs muzika, lankytų muzikos mokyklą. 12. O kad jis mus dažniau aplankytų! 13. Gaila, kad jis negali pernakvoti pas mus. 14. O kad jie nebūtų pamiršę išsiųsti laiškų! 15. Gaila, kad jie negalėjo apsispręsti imtis naujos veiklos. 16. Jam seniai laikas apsispręsti. 17. Grindys kambaryje buvo tokios purvinos, lyg jų nebūtų plovę keletą savaičių. 18. Jei mes neturėtume 107 bagažo, galėtume pasiekti stotį pėstute. 19. Tavo vietoje to nedaryčiau. 20. Mergaitė tyliai sėdėjo, lyg žiūrėtų TV. 21. Buvo nuspręsta, kad vaikai eis į zoologijos sodą iškart po pusryčių. 22. Jis pareikalavo, kad su juo iš karto atsiskaitytų. 23. Aš nuėjau į savo kambarį tam, kad niekas manęs netrukdytų valandą ar dvi. 24. Dabar jis nepadarytų tokios klaidos. 25. Aš manyčiau, jis tai galėtų sugebėti. 26. Apie ją nuolat kalbėjo taip, 3-iuoju asmeniu, lyg jos ten nebūtų. 27. Jei aš kada nors jį vėl sutikčiau, žinosiu, ką daryti. 28. Gaila, aš negaliu tau apie tai papasakoti. 29. Man pasiūlė parašyti knygai recenziją. 30. Jei ne jo šypsena, aš nieko nebūčiau įtarus. 31. Būk atsargus su raktu. Jei kartais jį pamestum, mes niekada neatrakinsime tų durų. 32. Mes bijojome, kad tik jis nesusirgtų. 33. Laikas jį budinti. 34. Kaip gaila, kad aš nežinojau, kad tau reikalinga ta knyga. Aš galėjau ją nupirkti Londone. 35. Svarbu, kad nepadarytum nė vienos klaidos. 36. Jei kartais situacija nepasikeistų, nežinosiu, ką daryti. 37. Jis bijojo, kad nebūtų dukterėčiai blogu pavyzdžiu. 38. Niekad nebūčiau pagalvojęs, kad tai galėjo atsitikti, jei nebūčiau visko matęs savo akimis. 39. Tavim dėtas šito nedaryčiau. 40. Jie mums pasiūlė praleisti savaitgalį prie jūros. Ką tu pasakysi apie tai? 41. Spektaklis man būtų patikęs labiau, jei nebūtų buvęs toks ilgas. 42. Jei ne jo liga, šeima būtų persikrausčiusi gyventi į miestą. 43. Jei jis būtų atėjęs laiku, nieko nebūtų įvykę. 44. Kur tu eitum, jei nelytų? 45. Aš būsiu namuose, jei kartais nuspręstum užsukti puodeliui arbatos. 46. Jei nebūtum toks užsiėmęs, galėtume nueiti kur nors papietauti. 47. Jei neturėtumėte šitiek lagaminų, galėtume nueiti iki stoties pėsčiomis. 48. Būsiu savo biure, jei kartais kas klaustų. 49. Jei situacija nepasikeis iki sekmadienio, pakliūsiu į bėdą. 50. Aš tikrai pabandyčiau pelnyti tavo pasitikėjimą, jei suteiktum man antrą šansą. 51. Jei taip atsitiktų, mes turėtume išsiųsti tave namo. 52. Būčiau dėkingas, jei niekam nepasakotum, kas nutiko. 53. Tavim dėta (tavo vietoj), Meg, aš netikėčiau šiomis paskalomis. 54. Alice manė, kad būtų gražu, jei ir tu prisijungtum. 55. Jei atsisakytum jos dovanos, ji labai nuliūstų. 56. Jei ne brolio artėjančios vestuvės, būčiau išvykęs į Paryžių. 57. Jeigu mama paklaustų, kur aš, pasakyk, kad išėjau pasivaikščioti. 58. Po 10 minučių pirmininkas pasiūlė baigti diskusijas ir pakeisti temą. 59. Mama primygtinai reikalavo, 108 kad eičiau (pasiimčiau) atostogų. 60. Nustebau, kad toks mažas vaikas skaitytų šią knygą. 61. Jie suplanavo, kad vaikai išvažiuotų pailsėti į Italiją. 62. Buvo svarbu, kad niekas neįspėtų jų apie netikėtą užpuolimą. 63. Man atrodo būtina, kad niekas netrukdytų jiems užbaigti darbą. 64. Nepanašu, kad jie susidraugautų ir pasikeistų adresais. 65. Susitarėme, kad Ana kalbėtų pirmoji. 66. Patartina ją labiau prižiūrėti. 67. Gaila, kad negalime susisiekti su savo atstovu tuojau pat. 68. Jie pareikalavo, kad mes įteiktume programas kitą savaitę. 69. Atrodė būtina, kad tyrimą pradėtų nedelsiant. 70. O kad viskas kuo greičiau susitvarkytų! (got patched up) 71. Gaila, kad jie taip retai atvažiuoja pas mus. 72. Gerai būtų, kad jis teiktųsi/malonėtų paskambinti tuojau pat, kai tik atvyks. 73. Kaip norėčiau, kad jis parašytų daugiau. 74. Paskubėkime! Jau pats laikas pietauti. 75. Ji bijojo, kad lėktuvas nevėluotų. 76. Jei turėčiau savo namą, auginčiau katę ir šunį. 77. Būtum mačiusi, kaip ji atrodė po tos kelionės! 78. Tau reikėjo tik paklausyti, kaip ji kalbėjo apie tuos vaikus. 79. Jeigu tik būčiau spėjusi į traukinį! 80. Gaila, kad jie nesuprato mūsų ketinimų. 81. Man atrodo, kad jos tėvai turėtų būti labai nusiminę. Jos semestro rezultatai visai prasti. 82. O kad būčiau žinojusi apie jos dabartinę padėtį! 83. Jau būtų laikas eiti namo, bet čia taip malonu. 84. Jau laikas miegoti. Kur tavo pižama? 85. Ji atrodė, lyg būtų nemiegojusi visą parą. 86. Gaila, kad ji neturi su kuo pasitarti. Jai labai reikia gero patarimo iš žmogaus, kuriuo galėtų pasitikėti. 87. Siūlau eiti pasivaikščioti, nes jau per ilgai čia sėdime. Exercise 8. Complete the sentences giving your reasons for the choice of the Mood form. 1. If I can, ......... 2. Should Ms Brown call, ......... 3. I would have done it ......... 4. If they were on holiday, ......... 5. He suggested ......... 6. I wish he ......... 7. You should ......... 8. If I had had more sense, ......... 9. But for the weather......... 10. The order was ......... 11. He suggested that......... 12. Why should .........? 13. If only they.........! 14. They wished......... 15. It was time......... 16. The suggestion was ......... 17. I felt as if ......... 18. She promised ......... 19. If Luke paid more attention to his classes, ......... 20. She said she......... 109 Exercise 9. Express the following meanings using suitable predicate verb forms in the corresponding Mood. Give your reason for the chosen form. 1. Advice (should/ought to) (If you should need..., I’ll.....) 2. Offering your opinion (I should think/imagine...) 3. Surprise (you shouldn’t....) 4. A possible wish (I wish I went... / if only....!) 5. An unrealized desire (I wish he had done...) 6. Doubt (If you should...) 7. Willingness of the Subject 8. Order (S1) 9. Imaginary situations 10.Polite requests 11. Suggestion 12.Disbelief 110 REFERENCES 1. Alexander, L.G. ((1998). Longman English Grammar. Longman Ltd. 2. Biber, D., Conrad, S., Leech, G. (2002) Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Pearson Education Ltd. 3. Downing, A., Locke, P. (1995). A University Course in English Grammar. Prentice Hall International. 4. Halliday, M A K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. Oxford University Press. 5. Kobrina, N.A., Korneyeva, M.I., Osovskaya, K.A., Guzeyeva, K.A. (2006). An English Grammar. Morphology. Syntax. St.Petersburgh. 6. Krylova, I.P., Gordon, E.M. (2007) A Grammar of Present-Day English. Moscow. 7. Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1975). A Communivative Grammar of English. Longman Group Limited. 8. Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2002). Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 9. Matthews, P.H. (2005) The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford University Press. 10.Norušaitienė, V., Trapnauskienė, J. (2008) The Basics of English Syntax: the Simple Sentence. Vilnius: Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto leidykla. 11. Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English (2002). Oxford University Press. 12.Parrott, M. (2000) Grammar for English Language Teachers. Cambridge University Press. 13.Swan, M. (1995) Practical English Usage. Oxford University Press. 111 SOURCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Alcott L.M. (1994). Little Women. Penguin Popular Classics. Austen, J. (1994). Pride and Prejudice. Wordsworth Editions Limited. Coelho P. (2004). The Pilgrimage. Harper Collins Publishers. Dickens Ch. (1994). Great Expectations. Penguin Popular Classics. Fitzgerald F. S. (1994). The Great Gatsby. Penguin Popular Classics. Forster, E. M. (1984). The Longest Journey. Penguin Books Ltd. Galsworthy J. The Apple Tree (available at: http://www.readbookonline.net/readOnLine/13984/) Lawrence D.H. (1995). Sons and Lovers. Penguin Popular Classics. Birthday Stories (2006). Selected and Introduced by Haruki Murakami. Vintage books. London. 112 113 Gerda Mazlaveckienė, Valerija Norušaitienė, Jurgita Trapnauskienė ENGLISH SYNTAX: THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE. THE MOOD: Teaching Aid. Vilnius: Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto leidykla, 2010. 114 p. ISBN 978-9955-20-574-6 Ši metodinė priemonė skiriama anglų filologijos bakalauro studijų programos studentams, taip pat mokytojų perkvalifikavimo programų dalyviams, studijuojantiems sudėtinio anglų kalbos sakinio struktūrą, nuosaką, jų semantiką ir komunikacinės raiškos aspektus. UDK 802.0-56(075.8) Ma724 Redagavo autorės Maketavo Donaldas Petrauskas Viršelio autorė Dalia Raicevičiūtė SL 605. 7,25 sp. l. Tir. 150. Užsak. Nr. 010-135 Išleido ir spausdino Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto leidykla T. Ševčenkos g. 31, LT-03111 Vilnius Tel. +370 5 233 3593, el. p. [email protected] www.leidykla.vpu.lt 114