Download ENGLISH SYNTAX: THE coMpoSITE SENTENcE. THE Mood

VILNIAUS PEDAGOGINIS UNIVERSITETAS
Filologijos FAKULTETAS
ANGLŲ KALBOS DIDAKTIKOS KATEDRA
Gerda Mazlaveckienė
Valerija Norušaitienė
Jurgita Trapnauskienė
ENGLISH SYNTAX:
THE composite SENTENCE. The mood
Teaching Aid
Vilnius, 2010
UDK 802.0-56(075.8)
Ma724
Metodinė priemonė apsvarstyta Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto Filologijos
fakulteto Anglų kalbos didaktikos katedros posėdyje 2010 m. rugsėjo 27 d. (protokolo Nr. 4), Filologijos fakulteto tarybos posėdyje 2010 m. rugsėjo 29 d. (protokolo
Nr. 1) ir rekomenduota spausdinti.
Recenzavo:
dr. Jurga Cibulskienė (Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas)
Birutė Bersėnienė (Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas)
© Gerda Mazlaveckienė, 2010
© Valerija Norušaitienė, 2010
© Jurgita Trapnauskienė, 2010
ISBN 978-9955-20-574-6
© Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas, 2010
Contents
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
I. THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
SUGGESTED WAYS OF COMPOUND SENTENCE ANALYSIS . . 24
PRACTICE SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
SUGGESTED WAYS OF COMPLEX SENTENCE ANALYSIS . . . . . 35
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH A NOMINAL CLAUSE . . . . . . 36
PRACTICE SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE . . 44
PRACTICE SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE . . . 52
OTHER TYPES OF COMPLEX SENTENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
PRACTICE SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
SUGGESTED WAYS OF COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE
ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
PRACTICE SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
II. THE MOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
GENERAL REMARKS ON MODALITY AND MOODS . . . . . . . . . . 83
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
THE SUPPOSITIONAL MOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
THE CONDITIONAL MOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
PRACTICE SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
PREFACE
This teaching aid, a follow-up to The Basics of English Syntax: the Simple Sentence, is meant, first and foremost, for 2nd year bachelor students of English
as well as for in-service teachers of English at the Competence Development Centre of Vilnius Pedagogical University. Other readers interested in
English syntax may also find something of interest in the comprehensive
approach towards the subject under discussion.
It deals with English composite syntactic structures and covers the following questions:
• How can you expand a simple English sentence and why?
• How could/would you fully express your feelings and moods?
• What is the difference between the predicate verb forms in English
sentences in expressing real and unreal actions?
• What ways of expanding separate parts of a sentence could you suggest?
The teaching aid also provides Practical Sections to enable the reader to use
the acquired knowledge of composite sentence and mood.
Our teaching aid is a matter of team work: Composite and Compound sentence sections were prepared by J. Trapnauskienė, the Complex sentence
by G. Mazlaveckienė and the Mood by V. Norušaitienė.
We express our sincere gratitude to the Lect. Birutė Bersėnienė and Dr Jurga
Cibulskienė who kindly agreed to review the book. We also appreciate the
goodwill of Ms Gwyneth Fox, the Associate Editor of the Macmillan English
Dictionary, for permission to include some examples from the Macmillan
dictionary materials as illustrations to our statements.
INTRODUCTION
Syntax is a part of grammar, which deals with ways of combining words
into phrases in a language (Biber 2002:460), i.e. combinations of individual lexemes arranged according to certain principles, which determine the
length and meaning of the phrase through a proper choice of morphological partners.
The most important phrase is a sentence - a relatively complete and independent communicative unit, which usually realizes a speaker’s communicative intentions and contains one or more subject-predicate units, present or implied.
According to their structure, sentences fall into the following groups:
1. Simple or composite
2. Complete or incomplete (elliptical)
3. Two-member or one-member.
Sentences fall into simple and composite depending on the number of
Subject-Predicate units in them. A sentence with one Subject-Predicate
unit is called a simple sentence, while a sentence with two or more SubjectPredicate units is called a composite sentence. Subject-Predicate units in a
composite sentence are called clauses:
Well, you look better than you did.
Don’t you realize the damage these chemicals are doing to our environment?
Harry is unemployed at the moment but he does lots of jobs around the
house to earn his keep.
The latter two groups are discussed in Chapter II of ‘The Basics of English Syntax: the Simple Sentence’. (Norušaitienė, Trapnauskienė 2008: 16).
I. THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE
A clause in a composite sentence is similar in its structure to a simple sentence though it acts as a part of a bigger syntactical unit. There are two
main ways of linking clauses in a composite sentence: coordination and
subordination.
Coordination is a way of linking grammatical elements making them equal
in rank.
Subordination is a way of linking grammatical elements that makes one of
them dependent upon the other (or they are mutually dependent). (Kobrina
2006: 421)
As a result, two possible types of a composite sentence are usually distinguished:
1. The compound sentence, consisting of two independent clauses,
linked in a relationship of coordination, as in I missed supper and I’m
starving!
2. The complex sentence, consisting of one independent clause and
one or more dependent clauses, linked in a relationship of subordination, as in I’m starving because I missed supper.
Two simple sentences, for example,
He heard an explosion.
He phoned the police.
may be joined into one sentence, either by coordinating the two clauses
by the coordinating conjunction and or by making one clause into a main
clause and the other into a subclause (subordinate):
Coordination He heard an explosion and he phoned the police.
Subordination When he heard an explosion, he phoned the police. (Leech,
Svartvik 1975: 288)
Such sentences may be graphically presented in the following way:
1. Her age was between elderly and old, and her forehead was wrinkled with an
expression of slight but perpetual pain. (compound)
Her age was between elderly and her forehead was wrinkled with an exand old,
pression of slight but perpetual pain.
2. I promise to tell you the time of their arrival as soon as I find it out. (complex)
I promise to tell you the time of their arrival
as soon as I find it out.
Not all structures seem to be so simple. In the following complex sentence
we deal with 4 clauses where each of the successive clauses is linked to the
previous one. Each clause then is of different degree of subordination. The
first subordinate clause is of first degree of subordination, the second subordinate clause is of second degree of subordination, etc.
3. John reported that Frank had told him that Mary had said the day would be
fine. (complex)
John reported
that Frank had told him
that Mary had said
the day would be fine.
A complex sentence may contain several subordinate clauses which are of
the same degree of subordination (first), that is they are all linked to the
main clause and perform different syntactic functions.
4. When I raised my eyes again, I found that he had been shrewdly looking at me
all the time, and was doing so still. (complex)
I found
When I raised my eyes again,
that he had been shrewdly looking at
me all the time, and was doing so still.
Another possibility is for the complex sentence to have two homogenous
subordinate clauses (clauses joined by means of coordination) linked to the
main one.
5. We ordered something rather special for dinner, with a bottle of something
similarly out of the common way, in order that our minds might be fortified for
the occasion, and we might come well up to the mark. (complex)
We ordered something rather special for
dinner, with a bottle of something similarly
out of the common way,
in order that our minds might
be fortified for the occasion,
and
we might come well up to the
mark.
A complex sentence may contain a subordinate subject and predicative
clause. Since these clauses occupy the positions of the main parts of the
sentence, the main clause is reduced to the link verb only.
6. What I want is what everybody wants these days. (complex)
What I want
is
what everybody wants these days
A compound sentence may contain coordinate clauses extended by subordinate clauses, and the result is a compound-complex sentence.
7. I believe she had not shown much susceptibility up to that time; but all the susceptibility she possessed, certainly came out then, and she passionately loved
him. (compound-complex)
I believe
she had not shown
much susceptibility up to that time;
all the susceptibilshe passionately
but ity... certainly came and loved him.
out then,
she possessed
Other grammarians distinguish logico-semantic relationships between
clauses alongside the syntactic ones too. According to Downing, Locke, Halliday (1995: 279, 1994: 218), etc., there are certain syntactic and logico-semantic relationships between clauses:
1) the syntactic relationship of interdependency. The clauses are related to each other basically in one or two ways: either the relationship
is one of equivalence, both or all the clauses having the same syntactical status; or the relationship is of non-equivalence, the clauses
having different status. A relationship of equivalence is called a paratactic relationship. Parataxis (Greek for ‘coordination’) is the relationship between units of equal status. A relationship of non-equivalence is called a hypotactic relationship. Hypotaxis (Greek for ‘subordination’) is the relationship between units of unequal status.
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2) the logico-semantic relations do not simply link clauses within a sentence, they can also link clauses within a paragraph and paragraphs
within a text. The logico-semantic relations can be grouped together
under the two main headings of expansion, by which a nuclear situation is expanded by means of other situations, and projection, by
which a situation is ‘projected’ through a verb of saying or thinking.
(Downing, Locke 1995: 279)
Semantically, as paratactically linked clauses have equal status, the information presented in one clause is as important as that presented in the other
or others. In the sentence Hundreds of Parisians have seen the exhibition and
many hundreds of visitors are expected to see it in the next ten days there is
no hierarchisation of the information. In hypotactically related clauses, one
clause is syntactically and semantically subordinated to another or the other. Semantically, the information contained in the subordinate clause often
serves as background to the information contained in the main clause (superordinate). In the sentence Since you have come after all, why don’t you join
us? the clause since you have come after all is presented as given or known
information indicating the reason or possibility for the action of joining.
Thus, any pair of related clauses by interdependency relationship results in
one clause being primary and the second one – secondary. The primary
clause is the initiating clause in paratactic relationship and the dominant
clause in hypotactic relationship; the secondary one is the continuing
clause in the first type of relationship and the dependent clause in case of a
hypotactic relationship. (Halliday 1994: 218)
Table 1. Primary and secondary clauses
parataxis
hypotaxis
primary
initiating
dominant
secondary
continuing
dependent
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The classification for logico-semantic relationships between clauses proposed by Halliday suggests that the secondary clause expands the primary
clause by a) elaborating, b) extending, c) enhancing it, either paratactically
or hypotactically.
Table 2. Logico-semantic relations between clauses: expansion
expansion
a) elaboration
paratactic
John didn’t wait;
he ran away.
b) extension
John ran away,
and Fred stayed behind.
c) enhancement John was scared,
so he ran away.
hypotactic
John ran away,
which was unusual.
John ran away,
whereas Fred stayed behind.
John ran away,
because he was scared.
When the clauses are combined by elaboration, one clause expands another by elaborating on it in greater detail, by exemplifying, restating in
other words or commenting. In clauses combined by extension one clause
expands another by adding something new, giving an alternative or an exception. In clause combining by enhancement, clauses of time, place, condition, purpose, cause or concession expand the primary one by adding the
corresponding circumstantial features.
The secondary clause is projected through the primary clause as a) a locution, with a help of a verb of saying, or b) an idea, with a help of a verb of
thinking.
Table 3. Logico-semantic relations between clauses: projection
projection
a) locution
b) idea
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paratactic
John said:
‘I’m running away’.
John thought to himself:
‘I’ll run away’.
hypotactic
John said
he was running away.
John thought
he would run away.
(Halliday 1994: 220, Downing, Locke 1995: 281–282)
As it is seen from the examples above, paratactic is mostly preferred in direct speech, while hypotactic – in reported speech.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses of equal rank, which
form one syntactical whole in meaning and intonation. (Kobrina 2006: 423)
Clauses in a compound sentence are joined by means of coordination, so
they are called coordinate. There are two ways of linking clauses in a compound sentence: syndetic and asyndetic. When clauses are joined with a
help of a connector, such as and, but, or, etc., the linking is called syndetic:
The cloud parted and the increase of light made her look up.
He wants her to live in the towns, but she only cares for woods.
Do you want to leave now or would you rather set off later?
I heard a noise so I got out of bed and turned the light on.
When clauses are joined without a connector, by means of a comma or semicolon, etc. – asyndetic:
Man wants to love mankind; woman wants to love one man.
The church lay up by the railway, the farm was down by the water meadows.
Rickie had warned her; now she began to warn him.
Her attention was drawn to the other messy areas in the bedroom; to the left
was a closet with louvered doors open and clothing spilling out.
Syndetic coordination is realized by a number of connectors – conjunctions, such as and, but, or, nor, for, etc., or by conjunctive adverbs, such
as moreover, besides, however, yet, still, otherwise, therefore, etc. In speaking
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coordinate clauses are separated by pauses, while in writing they may be
marked off by a comma, a semicolon, a colon or occasionally a dash.
The main semantic feature of the compound sentence is that each successive clause is related to the previous one, that is a secondary clause is always
continuing the primary one, so a compound sentence always follows a flow
of thought. This results in two syntactic features of the compound sentence
which distinguish it from the complex sentence:
1. The opening or primary clause mostly plays the leading role, and
each successive clause is joined to the previous one. For example,
But now the air was like wine, and the stubble was smelling of wet,
and over his head white clouds trundled more slowly and more seldom
through broadening tracts of blue.
This compound sentence has three coordinate clauses, where the second
one, the stubble was smelling of wet, is joined to the first clause and the
last one, over his head white clouds trundled more slowly and more seldom
through broadening tracts of blue, is linked to the second clause of the sentence.
Sometimes a sentence begins with a coordinating connector, but in this
case the whole sentence is joined to the previous sentence in the text.
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I do not trust my own partiality. When she was only fifteen, there was
a gentleman at my brother Gardiner’s in town, so much in love with
her, that my sister-in-law was sure he would make her an offer before
we came away. But however he did not. Perhaps he thought her too
young. However, he wrote some verses on her, and very pretty they
were.
2. The second syntactic feature of the compound sentence is that the
clauses are sequentially fixed. Thus, clauses cannot change place in
the sentence without changing or distorting the meaning of the
whole unit.
The view never came, for none of the inclines were sharp enough, and
they moved over the skull for many minutes, scarcely shifting a landmark
or altering the blue fringe of the distance.
It is important to note that communicatively clauses of a compound sentence either primary or secondary, may belong to different communicative
types from a semantic point of view.
I am to have a carriage, and you are to take me. (declarative and imperative)
This is my purse, and you are to pay my charges out of it. (declarative and
imperative)
Why don’t you invite Steve or whatever he’s called, to supper? (interrogative and declarative)
Depending on the relationship between coordinate clauses in a compound
sentence, grammarians distinguish different types of connection between
them.
According to Halliday, there are three principle markers of extending paratactic relationship (clauses equal in rank): addition, variation and alteration. (Halliday 1995: 233)
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Table 4. Principle markers of extending clauses
paratactic
1) addition
‘and’, positive
‘nor’, negative
‘but’ adversative
2) variation
‘instead’, replacive
‘except’, subtractive
3) alteration
‘or’, alternative
(both...) and; not only... but also
(neither..) nor
(and) yet; but
but not; not ... but
only; but; except
(either...) or (else)
According to Kobrina, there are four types of coordinate connection between
coordinate clauses: copulative, adversative, disjunctive and causativeconsecutive. (Kobrina 2006: 424) In fact, copulative coordination coincides
with positive and negative addition; adversative coordination conveys the
same meaning as adversative addition and disjunctive coordination may be
replaced by alteration. The last type, that is causative-consecutive connection, needs separate analysis as in many cases it borders on subordination
(hypotactic relationship). Besides, the type of connection is expressed not
only through the coordinating connectors but also by the general meaning
of clauses conveyed by their lexical and grammatical content. Thus, in case
of asyndetic coordination the type of coordinate connection is still distinguished.
Copulative coordination (liet. kopuliacinis, sudedamasis) joins clauses the
information of which is in some way similar.
And is the most frequently used conjunction to realize copulative coordination, which basically denotes mere addition. Other copulative conjunctions
are: nor, neither... nor, also, not only... but also, as well as, and the conjunctive adverbs then, moreover, furthermore, besides. Conjunctions
consisting of two or more parts, such as neither... nor, not only... but also,
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are called correlative conjunctions. And usually denotes positive addition
while nor suggests negative addition.
The flowers in the vases rustled, and the flame of the lamp shot up and
smoked the glass. (positive addition)
Her air was not conciliating, nor was her manner of receiving them, such
as to make her visitors forget their inferior rank. (negative addition)
Unfortunately lunch was a quarter of an hour late, and during that quarter of an hour the aunt and the nephew quarrelled. (positive addition)
Coordinate clauses joined by copulative coordination often denote simultaneous or successive events. The most frequent copulative conjunction
for the case is and though the conjunctive adverb then is also used for describing successive events.
There was the sound of a train, and presently white smoke appeared, rising laboriously through the heavy air. (simultaneity)
The invitation was accepted of course, and at a proper hour they joined
the party in Lady Catherine’s drawing-room. (succession)
I do all the washing and cleaning then there’s the ironing too. (succession)
Sometimes the second coordinate clause may contain some commentary
on the previous clause.
He was familiar with their usual gossip about neighbours, and it bored
him.
Occasionally coordinate clauses joined by the copulative conjuction and
may denote spatial relationship, manner or even comparison.
Alice looked up, and there stood the Queen in front of them. (same
place)
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Keep on subtracting the difference, and in that way you will arrive at the
correct figure. (manner/means)
She likes the simple life, and so does he. (comparison)
Sometimes the copulative meaning of and is weakened and it may join
clauses with adversative or causative-consecutive connections. The meaning of the second clause is either contrasted to the first or contains its consequence.
He had had a bad night, and the strong air made him sleepy.
You have been very good to me, and I owe everything to you.
If a sentence begins with a verb in the imperative mood, the first clause implies a condition for the fulfilment of the action in the continuing clause.
Serve a friend with it, and you may know the end of it too – but it’s a less
pleasant and profitable end. (If you serve...)
The conjunction nor joins two negative clauses.
I don’t expect children to be rude, nor do I expect to be obeyed.
I did not want to go out, nor did I wish to stay with the guests.
The correlative pairs neither... nor, not only... but (also) express mere addition,
sometimes with emphasis on the second clause.
The report has not only attracted much attention but it also caused some
sharp criticism.
Copulative connection may also be expressed asyndetically, the clauses
then describe simultaneous or successive events.
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The mother looked young and the daughter looked young; the mother’s
complexion was pink, and the daughter’s was yellow; the mother set up
for frivolity, and the daughter for theology.
The day passed most pleasantly away; the morning in bustle and shopping, and the evening at one of the theatres.
The second sentence consists of three coordinate clauses, the first two are
joined asyndetically. Notice must be taken of the structure of the second
and third clauses as they are elliptical due to the ellipsis of the verb passed.
Adversative coordination (liet. priešpriešinis) joins clauses containing opposition, contradiction or contrast. Adversative connectors are: the conjunctions but, while, whereas, the conjunctive adverbs however, yet, still,
nevertheless, and the conjunctive particle only. Some grammarians, such
as Halliday, Downing and Locke, treat the conjunctions while and whereas
as subordinate conjunctions which are found in hypotactic relationship.
Adversative connection as well as copulative connection may be realized
asyndetically. But is the most frequently used conjunction to express adversative connection in a very general way. The clause introduced by but
conveys some event that is opposite to what is said or expected from the
contents of the primary clause.
Miss Havisham sat listening, but she still made no answer. We had some pale efforts in the beginning to applaud Mr Wopsle; but
they were too hopeless to be persisted in.
Ar first the atmosphere seemed unreal, but gradually they got used to it,
and breathed scarcely anything throughout the meal.
The conjunction but may link clauses contrasted in meaning.
My mother would have had no objection, but my father hates London.
Life and death were not involved, but comfort and dicomfort were.
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Yet, in the same way as but, joins coordinate clauses carrying the meaning
of opposition.
I never had one hour’s happiness in her society, and yet my mind all
round the four-and-twenty hours was harping on the happiness of having her with me unto death.
The conjunctions while and whereas (whereas is more formal than while) are
usually used to express contrastive relations.
The main garden was to the left, while to the right was that laurel avenue, leading up to Mrs Failing’s arbour.
That region has plenty of natural resources while this one has none.
Why are some cancers cured by chemotherapy alone, whereas others are
unaffected by drugs?
The particle only is frequently used to join clauses with adversative coordination, mainly in colloquial English.
I’d offer to help you, only I’m really busy just now.
Peaches are marvelous just now, only they are very expensive.
Contrastive relationship may be conveyed by asyndetic coordination.
Two or three questions of him were to the point – all the rest had no sense
at all.
Disjunctive coordination (liet. skiriamasis, alternatyvinis) joins clauses
which imply a choice between two mutually exclusive alternatives. The
disjunctive connectors are: the conjunctions or, either... or, and the conjunctive adverbs else (or else), otherwise. The most frequent connector of
disjunctive coordination is the conjunction or.
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You must have gloves, or I won’t go.
The thing is settled and done, or Mr Jaggers would not be in it.
Most people misunderstood him, or they only understood him when he
was dead.
It is impossible to turn this leaf of my life without putting Bentley
Drummle’s name upon it; or I would, very gladly.
The correlative either emphasizes the exclusion of one of the alternatives.
It’s your choice! Either she leaves or I will!
Either keep silence or I shall stop explaining it to you.
Sometimes clauses introduced by or may express restatement or correction
of what is said in the primary clause.
They were relating their war experiences, or rather Griffith was speaking
and the rest sat silent.
Coordinate clauses joined by disjunctive coordination may contain an implied condition, real or unreal. Otherwise conveys the meaning of ‘if not’
and is often used when there will be a negative result if something does not
happen.
They got two free tickets to Canada, otherwise they’d never have been
able to afford to go. (If they hadn’t got two free tickets to Canada, they
would have never been able to afford to go there.) (unreal condition implied)
You’ll have to go now, otherwise you’ll miss your bus. (If you don’t go
now, you will miss the bus.) (real condition implied)
Give me the ball, or I’ll throw a stone at you. (If you don’t give me the ball,
I’ll throw a stone at you.)
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If the first clause is negative, then the implied condition is positive.
Don’t speak, otherwise you may be charged with murder. (If you speak,
you may be charged with murder.)
Causative-consecutive coordination (liet. priežastinis-pasekminis) connects clauses in such a way that one of them denotes a reason and the
other – consequence. Coordinate clauses joined by causative-consecutive
connection may be joined by the following connectors: the conjunctions
for, so (informal), so that and the conjunctive adverbs therefore, hence
(formal), then, thus (rather formal). The meaning of the second clause depends on the connector. If the connector is the conjuction for, the second
clause denotes a reason, as for is a causative conjunction.
He found it increasingly difficult to read, for his eyes were failing.
We left in silence, for there was little we could say.
Say, rather, I should not be; for I have my letter to Satis House to write,
before I go to sleep.
A causative clause may be joined asyndetically.
At first I couldn’t understand them; they were so worried that they spoke
at random.
She was not cold; she would willingly embrace him.
The relationship between clauses joined by the conjunction for is intermediate between coordination and subordination, as sometimes for is used to
introduce a subordinate clause of reason. Still, it is mostly treated as a coordinating conjunction, because semantically it introduces clauses containing
an explanation or justification of the idea expressed by the previous clause
and that is a feature of paratactic relationship.
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We could see nothing, for the sky was pitch-black.
Everything seemed to die soon, for there had been no rain for more than
a month. I was with her, for I almost always accompanied them to and from such
places.
A for-clause differs from a subordinate clause of reason in the way that it can
never precede the clause it is joined to. (Note that clauses in a compound
sentence are sequentially fixed). If a sentence begins with the conjunction
for, it means that the conjunction joins the sentence to the previous one.
I tell this lightly, but it was no light thing to me. For, I cannot adequately
express what pain it gave to me to think that Estella should show any favour to a contemptible, clumsy, sulky booby, so very far below the average.
The rest of the connectors so, so that, therefore, hence, then and thus are used
to intoduce consequence as they are consecutive connectors.
Fortunately it was early, and they went through back streets, so few people saw them, and no one laughed at the queer party.
Mine (gloves) are spoiled with lemonade, and I can’t get any new ones,
so I shall have to go without.
You cannot be more than twenty – therefore you need not conceal your
age.
So that is one more conjunction which is intemediate between coordination
and subordination. It acts as subordinating conjunction when it intoduces a
subordinate clause of purpose.
Fasten the sunshade securely so that it won’t blow away. (a complex sentence with a clause of purpose)
23
When used after a comma in writing and a pause in speaking, its connection
with the primary clause is weaker and it performs the function of a coordinating conjunction.
They are unlikely to show up, so that we’d better be going alone.
Table 5. Summary of coordinating connectors
connector
copulative
conjunctions and, nor,
neither... nor,
not only...but also,
as well as, also
conjunctive then, moreover,
adverbs
besides,
futhermore
particles
adversative
disjunctive
but, while,
whereas
or,
either... or
causativeconsecutive
for,
so, so that
however,
else (or else), therefore,
yet, still,
otherwise
hence,
nevertheless
then,
thus
only
SUGGESTED WAYS OF COMPOUND SENTENCE
ANALYSIS
Blackbirds sang recklessly in the shrubbery, swallows were flying high, the leaves
above him glistened, and over the fields was every imaginable tint of early foliage...
Blackbirds sang
recklessly in the
shrubbery,
swallows
were flying
high,
over the fields was
the leaves
above him and every imaginable
tint of early foliage.
glistened,
It is a compound sentence, which consists of four coordinate clauses. The
first (blackbirds sang recklessly in the shrubbery), the second (swallows were
flying high) and the third (the leaves above him glistened) clauses are joined
24
asyndetically; the third and the fourth (over the fields was every imaginable
tint of early foliage) clauses are joined with the help of the copulative conjunction ‘and’. All the clauses of the sentence are joined by copulative coordination, as the events shown in them are simultaneous.
PRACTICE SECTION
Exercise 1. Analyze the following compound sentences stating the
type of connection between coordinate clauses.
1. Mr Darcy is impatient to see his sister, and to confess the truth, we are
scarcely less eager to meet her again. 2. He was still talking, or rather jerking,
and he was still lighting matches and dropping their ends upon the carpet.
3. Then he saw her host’s shoes: he had left them lying on the sofa. 4. I beg
your pardon, miss, but might I ask how many to lay? 5. All the spoons and
forks were anyhow, for Mrs Aberdeen’s virtues were not practical. 6. The other
night we had been discussing a long time, and suddenly the light was turned
on. 7. Mr Elliot laughed, and soon afterwards another lady came in, and they
went away. 8. She was much happier, she looked younger, and her mourning
was as unobtrusive as convention permitted. 9. Rickie was prepared to find his
old schoolfriend ungrammatical and bumptious, but he was not prepared to
find him peevish. 10. It had not the gracious antiquity of Eton or Winchester,
nor, on the other hand, had it a conscious policy like Lancing, Wellington, and
other purely modern foundations. 11. I am very sensible of the honour of your
proposals, but it is impossible for me to do otherwise than decline them. 12.
The marriage day was fixed, the wedding dresses were bought, the wedding
tour was planned out, the wedding guests were invited. 13. Our breakfast was
as good as the supper, and at half-past eight precisely we started for Little
Britain. 14. I have had occasion to notice many hands; but I never saw stronger
in that respect, man’s or woman’s, than these. 15. My little portmanteau was
in the boot under my feet; I had but to turn a hinge to get it out; I threw it
25
down before me, got down after it, and was left at the first lamp on the first
stones of the town pavement. 16. It was too early yet to go to Miss Havisham’s,
so I loitered into the country on Miss Havisham’s side of town. 17. I had leisure to entertain the retort in my mind, while he slowly lifted his heavy glance
from the pavement, up my legs and arms to my face. 18. My eye had been
caught by a gun with a brass-bound stock over the chimney-piece, and his
eye had followed mine. 19. You shall not shed tears from my cruelty to-day;
you shall be my Page, and give me your shoulder. 20. Ansell could discuss
love and death admirably, but somehow he would not understand lovers or
a dying man, and in the letter there had been scant allusion to these concrete
facts. 21. Her blue eyes were red-rimmed and puffy, her small nose pink at the
tip from crying, and her hair, jet-black and shoulder-length, looked unprofessionally messy. 22. We must drink it or we shall die. 23. You are too sensible a girl, Lizzy, to fall in love merely because you are warned against it; and,
therefore, I am not afraid of speaking openly. 24. Elizabeth asked questions in
vain; Maria would tell her nothing more, and down they ran into the diningroom in quest of this wonder; it was two ladies stopping in a low phaeton at
the garden gate. 25. We all three went into the street together, and from the
door-step Wemmick turned his way, and Mr Jaggers and I turned ours. 26.
Presently another click came, and another little door tumbled open with ‘Miss
Skiffins’ on it; then Miss Skiffins shut up and John tumbled open; then Miss
Skiffins and John both tumbled open together, and finally shut up together.
27. The success is not mine, the failure is not mine, but the two together make
me. 28. The strange light had disappeared, and his face had taken on a phantasmagoric appearance, heightened by the flames of the bonfire. 29. These
travellers were called pilgrims, and their symbol was the scallop shell. 30. I
asked for a soft drink and tried to watch television, but I was unable to concentrate. 31. He found the house, a weather-beaten cardboard bungalow at
eighty a month, but at the last minute the firm ordered him to Washington,
and I went out to the country alone. 32. My own house was an eyesore, but
it was a small eyesore, and it had been overlooked, so I had a view of the
water, a partial view of my neighbour’s lawn, and the consoling proximity of
26
millionaires – all for eighty dollars a month. 33. I can’t get over my disappointment in not being a boy; and it’s worse than ever now, for I’m dying to go and
fight with Papa, and I can only stay at home and knit, like a poky old woman!
34. Amy followed, but she poked her hands out stiffly before her, and jerked
herself along, and her “Ow!” was more suggestive of pins being run into her
than of fear and anguish. 35. Jo gave a despairing groan, and Meg laughed
outright, while Beth let her bread burn as she watched the fun with interest.
36. Meg arranged the tea table, Jo brought wood and set chairs, dropping,
overturning, and clattering everything she touched, Beth trotted to and fro
between parlour and kitchen, quiet and busy, while Amy gave directions to
everyone, as she sat with her hands folded. 37. I felt ashamed of my present,
after reading and talking about being good this morning, so I ran round the
corner and changed it: and I am so glad, for mine is the handsomest now.
38. My first name is Theodore, but I don’t like it, for the fellows called me Dora,
so I made them say Laurie instead. 9. I have been drunk just twice in my life,
and the second time was that afternoon; so everything that happened has a
dim, hazy cast over it, although until after eight o’clock the apartment was full
of cheerful sun. 40. They weren’t happy, and neither of them had touched the
chicken or the ale – and yet they weren’t unhappy either. 41. Either our union
must be consecrated and sealed by marriage or it cannot exist. 42. A painter
has to be forbidding, otherwise people would think he was cadging. 43. After
all, the two of them belonged to the same trade, so talk was easy and happy
between them. 44. He had a glass eye which remained stationary, while the
other eye looked at him. 45. He knew there were excuses for his father, yet he
felt sick at heart. 46. Papa did not lift his eyes from breakfast-plate for about
two minutes, nor did he speak. 47. Not only did he speak more correctly, but he
spoke more easily, and there were many new words in his vocabulary. 48. The
month was July, the morning fine, the glass door stood ajar, though it played a
fresh breeze... 49. There was something amiss with Mr. Lightwood, for he was
strangely grave and looked ill. 50. The darkness was stinning, but the street
was still dimly lighted. 51. Neither we have many enemies nor can we be sure
of all our friends. 52. The wind, blowing her dark frieze skirt against her legs,
27
lifted her battered peacock tam-o’-shanter; her grayish blouse was worn out
and old, her shoes were split, her hands rough and red, her neck browned.
53. Her dark hair waved untidily across her broad forehead, her face was short,
her upper lip short, showing a glint of teeth, her brows were straight and dark,
her lashes long and dark, her nose straight; but her grey eyes were the wonder-dewy as if opened for the first time that day. 54. The farm buildings and
the wheel-house were all dim and bluish, the apple trees but a blurred wilderness; the air smelled of woodsmoke from the kitchen fire. 55. He again spent
the morning in his chair on the grass patch, scribbling down verses; but in the
afternoon he wandered about with the two little boys Nick and Rick. 56. It was
Saturday, so they were early home from school; quick, shy, dark little rascals
of seven and six, soon talkative, for Ashurst had a way with children. 57. But
in the evenings he installed himself in the window seat in the kitchen, smoking and chatting with the lame man Jim, or Mrs. Narracombe, while the girl
sewed, or moved about, clearing the supper things away.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
The complex sentence (liet. sudėtinis prijungiamasis sakinys) is a type of
the composite sentence, which consists of at least two clauses: the main
clause and the subordinate clause, connected by means of subordination.
Subordination (liet. prijungimas) is a way of linking grammatical elements
(i.e. clauses) to make one of them dependent on (subordinate to) the other
or make them mutually dependent. (Kobrina 2006: 421). Consequently, two
main types of clauses are distinguished: the main clause and the subordinate clause.
The main clause (or the principal clause) (liet. pagrindinis dėmuo) is an element of the complex sentence, containing the main/principal verb. The main
clause may or may not have total/perfect meaning, and it needs subordinate
28
clauses to fulfil it; whereas the subordinate clause (liet. šalutinis dėmuo) is
a secondary/dependent clause in a complex sentence. Subordinate clauses
help to build the meaning in the main clause, or in other subordinate clauses,
hence, the sentence can contain more than one subordinate clause.
Depending on the relationship between the main and the subordinate
clauses, subordination may be of two types: consecutive (or successive)
and parallel (or co-subordination) (Kobrina 2006: 430).
Consecutive (or successive) subordination occurs when two or more
subordinate clauses form a hierarchy of clauses:
I know that you can do it if you try.
The main clause in the sentence is I know. Since the verb ‘know’ is a transitive
verb, it requires a direct object to complete its meaning. Hence the object
clause that you can do it follows, which in turn is extended by another subordinate clause if you try to disclose the condition of the action expressed in
the former clause.
Graphically, this sentence can be illustrated by the following chart:
main clause ← subordinate clause 1 ← subordinate clause 2
subordination of the 1st degree subordination of the 2nd degree
Thus, it is a complex sentence with the consecutive (successive) subordination.
Parallel (or co-)subordination appears when a complex sentence contains
two or more homogeneous clauses, i.e. clauses of equal rank:
I’m sure that you are mistaken and that you’ll change your mind.
29
In this case, the main clause is I’m sure, whose meaning is completed by
two parallel clauses: that you are mistaken and that you’ll change your mind,
joined by the copulative conjunction and. The graphical presentation of
this sentence is the following:
subordinate clause 1
Main clause and
Subordinate clause 2
The pattern introduces a complex sentence with parallel (or co-) subordination.
Subordinators (or connectors of subordination) (liet. jungiamieji žodžiai).
A complex sentence always has subordinators, which serve to indicate the
dependent status of the clause. The subordinate nature of the clause may
be indicated either by conjunctions (liet. prijungiamieji jungtukai), e.g. because, since, after, although, as if, as though, even if, even though etc., or by
connectives, which include conjunctive/relative pronouns (liet. santykiniai įvardžiai) such as that, who, which, whom, whose, etc. or conjunctive/
relative adverbs (liet. santykiniai prieveiksmiai) when, whenever, how, why,
etc.
Memory is deceptive because it is coloured by today’s events.
If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the
few who are rich.
Whenever you find yourself on the side of the majority, it is time to pause
and reflect.
Conjunctions may be of several types: one-word forms such as that, because, though, if, etc., phrasal in order that, for all that, so far as, etc., correlative as... as, such... as, etc. or combined with particles even though, even if, as
30
if, if only, etc. The main function of conjunctions is to link clauses and express
the relationship between them:
We didn’t enjoy the day because the weather was awful.
It was exactly five years since her father had died.
Although I can’t help admiring the man’s courage, I do not approve of
his methods.
Mrs Crump looked as if she was going to explode.
Even though he’s 24 now, he’s still like a little child.
Their usual position is to open a subordinate clause, except clauses of concession, as in:
Hard as he tried, he didn’t manage to finish it on time. (cf. Although he
had tried hard, he didn’t manage to finish it on time.)
Connectives perform two main functions: they link the clauses and are part
of the subordinate clause itself.
This is the place where we first met.
He doesn’t care what happens to us.
This is how it happens.
Connectives are further subdivided into conjunctive words (conjunctive
pronouns and adverbs) and relative words (relative pronouns and adverbs).
The former are used to join nominal clauses, and the latter link attributive
clauses. Some conjunctive and relative words coincide in form, therefore, it
is important to define the type of the clause in order to define the type of
the connective (Kobrina 2006: 428).
I don’t care who you are or what you want. (the subordinate object clauses
are introduced by conjunctive pronouns)
31
He, who was thought a man of fortune, could no longer bear it. (the
subordinate attributive clause is introduced by a relative pronoun)
Where you come from shouldn’t worry anybody at all. (the subordinate
subject clause is introduced by a conjunctive adverb)
The house, where we live, was built in the 19th century. (the subordinate
attributive clause is introduced by a relative adverb)
In some cases the clauses may be joined asyndetically or by means of inversion:
All she saw was a white sailing ship.
Hard though he worked, he couldn’t maintain his wife and six children.
The classification of subordinate connectors can be summarized in the following chart:
Chart 1. Classification of subordinators.
Subordinators
conjunctions connectives
conjunctive words
relative words
(used to join nominal clauses) (used to join attributive clauses)
conjunctive pronouns conjunctive adverbs
relative pronouns
relative adverbs
(Kobrina 2006: 429)
32
CLASSIFICATION OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES OF THE COMPLEX
SENTENCE
Analogy to Morphology. Subordinate clauses exhibit basic functions,
similar to morphologic sentence elements. Hence, there are three basic
types of subordinate clauses:
1) subordinate nominal (noun) clauses,
2) subordinate adjectival (adjective) clauses, and
3) subordinate adverbial (adverb) clauses.
Analogy to Sentence Syntax. In addition to morphological analogy, the
subordinate clauses in a complex sentence perform functions similar to syntactical elements. Therefore, subordinate clauses may also be categorized
as being:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
subject(ive),
predicative/complement,
object(ive),
attributive/appositive,
adverbial.
To sum up, the classification of subordinate clauses of the complex sentence
may be presented in the following table:
33
Table 1. Classification of subordinate clauses.
Morphological
Syntactical type
Examples
type of the subor- of the subordinate
dinate clause
clause
Nominal clauses
Subject
How we remember, what we remember,
and why we remember form the most
personal map of our individuality.
Predicative/
That was why the master refused to let
complement
you have the sword.
Object
I wonder what is making Tracy so unhappy.
Adjectival clauses Attributive proper He who can no longer pause to wonder
and stand rapt in awe is as good as
dead.
Appositive
The fact that the adult American Negro
female emerges a formidable character
is often met with amazement, distaste and even belligerence.
Adverbial clauses of manner
He could sing it as no one else could
have sung.
of time
When he confirmed this, I felt a mixture
of terror and relief.
of place
Let us go to where they asked us to
wait.
of cause/reason
I drank some boiling water because I
wanted to whistle.
of purpose
Get some chairs so that somebody can
sit down.
of result/
The pain in my muscles became so
consequence
intense that I couldn’t bear it.
of concession
Although the world is full of suffering, it
is full also of the overcoming of it.
of condition
If you want a friend in Washington, get
a dog.
of comparison
I was surprised to see that the sun was
not as bright as I had imagined.
34
SUGGESTED WAYS OF COMPLEX SENTENCE
ANALYSIS
The owner, who did not even look up from the television program he was watching, advised me that it was siesta time and suggested that I must be crazy to be
out walking in such heat. (a complex sentence with parallel and consecutive
subordination)
Main clause
The owner… advised
me… and suggested
subordination
of the 1st degree
subordinate attributive descriptive clause,
introd. by the relative
pronoun who
subordinate nominal objective clause, introduced
by the conjunction that
subordinate nominal
objective clause, introduced by the conjunction
that
Subordination
of the 2nd degree
Subordinate attributive
limiting contact clause,
introd. asyndetically
It is a complex sentence, which consists of the main clause and four subordinate clauses. The subject of the main clause (The owner) is the antecedent
(liet. pažymimasis žodis) of the subordinate attributive descriptive clause of
the first degree of subordination (who did not even look up from the television
programme), which is introduced by the relative pronoun who. The second
subordinate clause (he was watching) is of the second degree of subordination. It is a subordinate attributive contact clause (i.e. joined asyndetically),
whose antecedent is the prepositional object (from the television program)
of the subordinate clause of the 1st degree. The main clause (The owner...
35
advised me...and suggested) contains two homogeneous predicates (liet.
vienarūšiai tariniai) (advised and suggested) joined by the copulative conjunction and. Both predicates of the main clause are expanded by subordinate nominal objective clauses: (that it was siesta time) and (that I must be
crazy to be out walking in such heat). Both of them are joined to the main
clause by the conjunction that. Hence, it is a complex sentence with parallel
and consecutive subordination.
Now, let us have a look at various types of subordinate clauses of the complex sentence in greater detail.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH A NOMINAL
CLAUSE
All nominal clauses are controlled by a preceding verb, adjective, noun or
preposition. In the sentence, they usually perform the functions of a noun
or nominal phrase: the subject, the predicative (complement), and the object. (Kobrina attributes appositive clauses to the nominal group, since their
headword is usually a noun). Hence, the subject clause functions as the subject of the main clause, a predicative (complement) clause fulfils the function of the predicative (or complement) to the link verb of the main clause
while the object clause plays the role of the object (either direct, indirect or
prepositional).
All nominal clauses have a very strong connection to the main clause,
therefore, if such a clause is removed, the whole sentence either loses
its meaning or becomes grammatically incorrect. They are joined to the
main clause by conjunctions, conjunctive pronouns, conjunctive adverbs
or asyndetically.
36
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH A SUBJECT CLAUSE
Connectors. A subject clause (liet. šalutinis veiksnio sakinys) may be introduced either by conjunctions because, if, that, whether, whether… or,
the way, etc. or connectives, i.e. conjunctive pronouns who, whoever,
which, whichever, what, whatever or conjunctive adverbs where, wherever, when, whenever, why, how.
Complex sentences with subject clauses follow two main patterns:
1. The subject clause is in pre-position to the verb in the main clause:
What they did with the treasure remains a mystery.
Whatever you want for dessert is fine with me.
That you should feel this way about her came as a great surprise to us.
In such sentences the main clause is deficient in its structure and meaning,
since it possesses no subject. Therefore, subject clauses of this type cannot
be joined asyndetically.
2. The subject clause is placed in the final position. Such sentences usually begin with the formal introductory subject it. The clause itself
is introduced by the conjunction that, and therefore, very often is
called a that-clause or a real/notional subject.
It’s strange that there are no lights on. (cf. That there are no lights is
strange.)
It is essential that everybody should revise for the exam properly.
(cf. That everybody should revise for the exam properly is essential.)
It is necessary that he should go there. (cf. That he should go there is
necessary.)
In exclamatory sentences the formal it is usually implied; the subject clause
in this pattern of a complex sentence may be joined asyndetically:
37
How strange that they should leave so early!/How strange they
should leave so early!
How exciting that we should meet such a famous actor!/How exciting
we should meet such a famous actor!
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH A PREDICATIVE/COMPLEMENT
CLAUSE
Connectors. Similar to subject clauses, predicative clauses (liet. šalutiniai
tarinio sakiniai) may be introduced by the conjunctions because, that,
whether, whether... or, as, as if, as though, lest, the way, connectives, i.e.
conjunctive pronouns who, whoever, which, whichever, what, whatever
or conjunctive adverbs where, wherever, when, whenever, why, how, or
joined asyndetically.
A predicative clause has a rather fixed position in the complex sentence: it
usually follows a link verb, with which it forms a compound nominal predicate. The most common link verbs are to be, to seem, to appear, to feel,
to look, to sound, to taste, to become, to remain, etc.
Complex sentences with predicative clauses follow two main patterns:
1. A predicative clause follows the main clause, in which the subject
is expressed by a noun with a very general meaning (thing, idea,
problem, question, rule, trouble, news, etc.):
The trouble was that they had never been there before.
The biggest disappointment of last season was that the women’s team
didn’t make it to the final four.
In this case the predicative clause discloses the meaning of the subject in
the main clause.
38
2. A predicative clause follows the main clause, in which the subject is
expressed by the formal impersonal subject it:
It appeared that the team had fallen behind by ten points.
It sounded as if somebody was knocking on the door.
In this case the predicative clause describes the situation, either directly or
by means of comparison.
Care should be taken not to confuse this type of predicative clauses with
subject clauses (see The Complex Sentence with a Subject Clause) or with
adverbial clauses (see The Complex Sentence with Adverbial Clauses). In
predicative clauses the predicate consists only of the link verb (incomplete),
while in subject and adverbial clauses the predicate is complete, i.e. consists
of a link verb followed by a complement/predicative:
It seems that there is no cure. (a predicative/complement clause)
It seems evident that there is no cure. (a subject clause) (Kobrina
2006: 436)
They looked as if they were ill. (a predicative/complement clause)
They looked pale as if they were ill. (a subordinate adverbial clause of
comparison).
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN OBJECT CLAUSE
Connectors. An object clause (liet. šalutiniai papildinio sakiniai) may be introduced by the conjunctions that, if, whether, whether… or, lest, connectives, i.e. conjunctive pronouns who, whoever, what, whatever, which,
whichever, or conjunctive adverbs where, wherever, when, whenever,
why, how, or joined asyndetically.
An object clause may follow (and occasionally precede) both finite and nonfinite verb forms.
39
I realized that I had forgotten something very important.
You don’t have to climb a mountain to find out whether or not it’s
high.
Why they came East I don’t know.
Complex sentences with object clauses may follow four main patterns:
1.Object clauses parallel in function to direct objects. An object
clause may follow the verb of the main clause directly (in this case
it functions as a direct object). This pattern is typical of reported
speech, when an object clause follows verbs of saying to say, to notice, to ask, to know, to inquire, to believe, to wonder, etc.:
Before I left, I asked what I should do with the car, and she said I should
leave the keys with her.
I asked him who the gypsy was.
Like subject clauses, object clauses may be introduced by formal it, usually
after the verbs to feel, to believe, to consider, to insist on, to find, to
take, to like, etc.:
I felt it that I was a thousand meters tall and that I could embrace
mountains.
I believe it that they won’t hurt anyone but themselves.
or refer to formal it followed by the objective predicative after the verbs to
think, to consider, to find, to make, etc.:
40
You are to see to it that there is enough room for everyone.
I like it when people are nice to me.
2.Object clauses parallel in function to indirect objects. This type
of object clauses is very rare, and they should always be followed by
direct objects:
You may give whoever you want these delicacies.
3.Object clauses in the function of cognate objects:
They were talking what others would consider weird talks.
4.Object clauses parallel in function to prepositional objects. In
this case object clauses are joined to the main clause by the prepositions after, about, before, for, near, of, as to, except, etc.:
In fact, he wrote a book about what he had done over the years.
We are interested in what he does for a living.
PRACTICE SECTION
Exercise 1. State the type of the clause (subject or predicative).
1. That she is still alive is a consolation. 2. What she loved best in the world
just then was riding. 3. The trouble is that he didn’t find him in. 4. “My dear
boy, the difference between you and me is that you give too easily.” 5. This
was why he had thought of Bosinney. 6. That they were in truth sisters was
clear from the facial resemblance between them. 7. The fact was that I hardly knew what to say. 8. The question is how we are going to find the means
to do it. 9. It is cruel that I should make him suffer. 10. More important was it
that he should care for her enough. 11. He looked just as he had looked ten
years before. 12. Our fear was lest we should get lost in the forest. 13. Mary’s
wish was that we should stay at her place as long as possible. 14. It is funny
41
that I should make him suffer. 15. It was evident that he did not understand.
16. It is time you went to bed. 17. His suggestion was that we stop and have
a look round the castle. 18. The order was that we should come. 19. It is sad
that you should have heard of it on the day of your wedding. 20. It is not
possible that he should have guessed it. 21. It was surprising how little the
district had changed. 22. My suspicion was that he did not know how to do
it. 23. But the most drastic demand the new owner made was that half the
workmen be discharged at once. 24. My only wish was that he should be
altogether honest. 25. His intention was that his two sons should continue
his trade. 26. Is it possible that he should refuse to come? 27. It shocked him
that he should have been so blind. 28. It was suggested that somebody
should inform the police. 29. His idea was that the theatre should serve as
a means of education for the mass of the public. 30. How wonderful that
she should have such a feeling for you! 31. What a scandal that Palmer and
Antonia should go to the opera together! 32. That was what she did this
morning on reaching the attic. 33. Whether she ever tried or not, lay hidden
in her own closed heart. 34. Wherever you are is my home – my only home.
35. The arrangement was that they should take the Fishers to a play and to
supper at the Savoy afterwards. 36. But the chief reason is, that Mirah will
desire to watch over you, and that you ought to give her no reason to worry.
37. The question was how was the matter to be kept quiet. 38. The thing to
be settled on now is whether anything can be done to save him. 39. What I
want to do is to save us both. 40. But this time, just about sunset, was always
what I loved best. 41. I felt as if death had laid a hand on me. 42. It seems as
if all these years I’ve been living under false rules. 43. Whatever I can do for
you will be nothing but paying a debt... 44. It was unfortunate that the patient was brought in during the evening. 45. It’s a grand thing when you see
these people in action. 46. Whether she was determined to bring matters
to a crisis, or whether she was prompted by some private sign from Mr. Buff,
is more than I can tell. 47. Who her mother was, and how she came to occur
in such an awful situation, were questions that pressed on Jill’s mind. 48. It
was as if these men and women had grown up. 49. What was done could
42
not be undone. 50. What we want to know is what the French are going to
do now.
Exercise 2. Analyze the following complex sentences with nominal
clauses by defining their type and connector.
1. Whatever you do will be insignificant, but it is very important that you do
it. 2. I told her how I had stopped off in Chicago for a day on my way East and
how a dozen people had sent their love through me. 3. It was also possible
that I had arrived too late and that she had decided not to meet with me.
4. I thought that perhaps Mme Lourdes had gone out to watch the parade.
5. Because of your fascination with miracles, you will have to struggle to
recapture what was about to be given to you so generously. 6. That’s why
I was so much at ease. 7. How you ever get anything done is beyond me.
8. The world was there around me, and I realized that seldom had I paid attention to it. 9. That was why the Master refused to let you have the sword.
10. The boy was frightened by what I said. 11. It was a matter of chance that
I should have rented a house in one of the strangest communities in North
America. 12. My favourite part was when we came out on the flat roof. 13. He
only told me where I should hide it. 14. Miracles are important, don’t you
think? 15. I answered that I was thirty-eight and had been quite successful
in all of the trials. 16. It occurred to me now that I had seen her, or a picture
of her, somewhere before. 17. He just said that you should look on the map
of Spain for a medieval route known as Strange Road to Santiago. 18. One
of the first consequences was that Rickie was sent to a public school. 19. He
especially wanted to know if the women were as pretty as the ones here in
Spain. 20. Keep your eyes fixed on that point, and try to concentrate only
on what I am going to tell you. 21. And it is also believed that some mothers
disobeyed the rule about preparation, and allowed their sons to do all the
work overnight and have a longer sleep in the morning. 22. He was sorry
that he had forgotten, and that he had caused his visitors inconvenience.
23. Whatever he said, was said well; whatever he did, done gracefully. 24. It
43
was settled that I should stay there all the rest of the day, and return to the
hotel at night, and to London to-morrow. 25. We have tried two or three
subjects already without success, and what we are to talk of next I cannot
imagine. 26. The sight of young fellows making tea and drinking water had
made her wonder whether this was Cambridge College at all. 27. What I said
to you then is greater than what I say to you now. 28. Why I was trying to
pack mine into my tumbler, I am wholly unable to say. 29. He replied that
it would give him much pleasure, and that he would expect me at the office at six o’clock. 30. What he gave you then is greater than anything you
will get from me. 31. They discuss what one knows and what one never will
know and what one had much better not know. 32. No, Lizzy, that is what I
do not choose. 33. I told him I had come up again to say how sorry I was that
anything disagreeable should have occurred, and that I hoped he would
not blame me much. 34. It was plain, pitiably plain, that she was aware of his
own defect of memory, and that he was made to hide it from the observation of his friends. 35. It was possible that they might encounter someone.
36. Our attitude simply is that facts are facts. 37. That was why you were
not one bit frightened. 38. It was not till she was quite close that he could
believe her to be Lidia.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN
ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE
Attributive clauses (liet. šalutiniai pažyminio sakiniai) modify words of
nominal character, which are generally referred to as antecedents (liet.
pažymimasis žodis). They usually follow the antecedent immediately,
though occasionally they may be placed at a distance. Attributive clauses
fall into two types: attributive proper and appositive. Some grammarians (Alexander 1998, Biber 2002, Parrott 2000) refer to attributive proper
clauses as relative.
44
Attributive proper/relative clauses. An attributive proper clause may be
joined by connectives: the relative pronouns who, whose, whom, what,
which, that, as or relative adverbs where, whence, when, etc. The choice
of a relative word depends on the meaning of the antecedent. A relative
pronoun is used if the antecedent denotes a living being, a thing or a notion:
Mr. Mann has small, dark eyes, which peer inquisitively from behind
metal-rimmed glasses.
The Master approached me and placed my new sword on the earth that
now covered the grave of my ancient one.
The relative pronouns who or that are used if the antecedent is expressed
by the universal pronoun all denoting a living being, a thing or a notion, or
the subordinate clause may be joined asyndetically:
I began to review all that I had learned about the road to Santiago.
All they think of is money.
The relative pronoun that is used if the antecedent is expressed by the indefinite pronouns everything/everybody, something/somebody, anything/anybody or the negative pronoun nothing/nobody, as in:
I’ll give you everything that you need.
Everybody I knew was in the bond business (…). (This type of a clause
may be joined asyndetically.)
or if the antecedent is modified by the adjective only, the indefinite pronoun any or an adjective in the superlative degree:
He is the only person that can help you in this situation.
This is the best chance that we have.
45
The relative pronoun as is used if the antecedent is modified by the demonstrative pronoun such:
She was playing the piano with such feeling as couldn’t be expected
from a girl of her age.
Attributive clauses introduced by the relative adverbs when, where,
whence, etc. refer to antecedents denoting spatial or temporal notions:
This is the best place where you can sit and relax.
I remembered the time when I was young and pretty.
An attributive clause introduced by the relative adverb why refers to the
antecedent denoting cause or reason:
I see no point in why I should go there.
Depending on the relationship and degree of connection to the antecedent,
attributive clauses may be of two types: non-defining and defining. Some
authors (Kobrina 2006: 441) refer to non-defining clauses as non-restricting
or descriptive attributive clauses, and restricting or limiting to name a defining attributive clause.
An attributive non-defining clause is characterized by a rather loose connection with the main clause: it provides additional information about the
antecedent and is usually separated by a comma. The sentence does not
really change or lose its meaning, if the clause is left out. This type of clause
is joined to the main clause by means of relative pronouns (except that),
relative adverbs or conjunctions; they are hardly ever joined asyndetically:
46
Its travellers, who were called wanderers, took the cross as their symbol.
I looked back at my cousin, who began to ask me questions in her
low, thrilling voice.
Relative pronouns and adverbs introducing non-defining attributive clauses
can sometimes occur in prepositional phrases, such as according to which,
in spite of which, to whom, since then, etc. or nominal phrases each of which,
the largest part of which, during which time, many examples of which, etc.:
In ten years’ time he wrote me only three letters, each of which I know
by heart.
He came to see me off, which fact made me feel suspicious.
The art of Egypt, about which such a lot has been written, should not
be missed.
A non-defining attributive clause referring to a whole clause, sentence or
a series of sentences is called a continuative (or sentential) attributive
clause. It is generally introduced by the connective which and occasionally
that. These clauses can be separated by a comma, a semicolon, a dash or
even a full stop depending on whether they refer to a clause, sentence or
the whole situation.
He admires Mrs Brown, which I find very strange. (liet. Jis žavisi ponia
Brown, ir/o tai man atrodo keista.)
Several times he caught her looking at him with a hurt, puzzled expression, which pleased his evil mood. (liet. ....o/ir tai maloniai glostė jo
bjaurią savijautą.)
A defining attributive clause is very closely connected with the antecedent and cannot be removed from the sentence without destroying or
changing its meaning. The information provided by a defining attributive
clause singles out, particularizes or determines the person, thing or notion
expressed by the antecedent. The antecedent is usually preceded by arti-
47
cles, demonstrative pronouns or words with a demonstrative or particularizing force (the same, the only, the best, etc.), whose presence is justified by
the following attributive clause:
It was the kind of voice that the ear follows up and down.
The committee who were responsible for their decision were to meet
again.
“Hola,” I said in Spanish, with the same timidity that I show whenever I
meet anyone new.
Defining attributive clauses may also be joined by a connective with a preposition:
I stayed seated, observing the casual way in which she carried my
sword.
or asyndetically (such clauses are called contact clauses):
I felt an enormous anxiety about the business matters I had left behind
in Brazil.
On most journeys you don’t understand the language the people
speak.
Contact clauses are always limiting/defining, since both the main and the
subordinate clause complete each other’s meaning. They are possible only
if the antecedent is used in the position of a direct or prepositional object or
in the position of a predicative/complement in the subordinate clause.
Attributive-appositive clauses. An appositive clause may be introduced
by the conjunctions that, whether, as if, as though, conjunctive pronouns
what, which and conjunctive adverbs why, how. These clauses cannot be
joined asyndetically and are never separated by a comma; they tend to be
48
limiting, since they disclose or complete the meaning of the noun (antecedent). An appositive clause usually follows the antecedent (a noun with a
very general meaning, like thing, idea, reason, point, fact, consequence, feature, probability, remark, etc.) to disclose its meaning.
One of the symptoms of an approaching nervous breakdown is the belief that one’s work is terribly important.
I also had the vague impression that I knew him.
I like the idea that students might become independent learners.
Occasionally, an appositive clause may refer to the antecedent, a whole
clause:
Cecilia at once noted what Stephen in his preoccupation had not
– that Hilary had come to tell them something.
Appositive clauses can sometimes be formed by means of nominalization
(transforming verb forms into verbal nouns, like: to believe – belief, to know –
knowledge, knowing, etc.):
I believe that students can become independent learners. The belief that students can become independent learners is common
among teachers.
I know that students can become independent learners.
Our knowledge that students can become independent learners drives
our work.
I feel that students can become independent learners.
My feeling that students can become independent learners is shared by
many other teachers.
49
As it is seen from the given examples, the second sentence of each pair contains an appositive clause, whose antecedent is made from the verbs of the
first sentence.
Note: There exists another type of an attributive limiting clause – the
apokoinu clause – in which the main and the subordinate clauses have a
common part which functions as the predicative/complement of the main
clause and the subject of the subordinate clause (Kobrina 2006: 443). This
type of sentence is retained only in dialects and in fiction to give the narration a local colouring, therefore it will not be examined in detail here.
There was no breeze came through the door.
There was a door led into the kitchen.
PRACTICE SECTION
Exercise 1. Analyze the following complex sentences by defining attributive clauses and stating the type of the connector.
1. He returned my gaze coldly, called to my wife, and gave her the sword,
speaking a few words that I could not hear. 2. I hugged her passionately,
trying to convey all the love I felt for her at that moment. 3. I ran across the
courtyard and up to the house that the child had indicated. 4. Mme Lourdes
snatched from my hands the card she had given me a few moments earlier.
5. This immensity created a terrible fear that I would not be able to succeed.
6. In my haste, I had forgotten the most elementary rules of self-protection
and had thrown myself body and soul into the arms of the first stranger I
had met. 7. We continued walking, passing from a desertlike area to one
where small trees were scattered here and there. 8. I saw the house where
a queen had spent the last night of her life and a small chapel encrusted
50
with rocks, which had been the hermitage of a saintly man who the few
inhabitants of the area swore could perform miracles. 9. Petrus went to the
stream that ran nearby and caught some fish, which he fried over the fire.
10. Among the greatest sensations that I have experienced in my life were
those I felt on that unforgettable first night on the Road to Santiago. 11. The
only thing that existed was your desire to arrive at your goal. 12. I was under
the impression that you were disappointed. 13. The cold – about which I
had already forgotten – returned, and I looked at Petrus with desperation.
14. Very few letters were written in those hard times that were not touching, especially those which fathers sent home. 15. Beth went faithfully on
by herself and did the best she could. 16. I saw something that I liked this
morning, and I meant to tell it at dinner, but I forgot. 17. All I did was to follow different routes, using the paths made through the woods by the smugglers. 18. Time isn’t something that proceeds at the same pace. 19. This is
the sword killed him. 20. I put myself into a strange state, one in which time
was something distant and of no interest to me. 21. We are always suffering
because of someone who doesn’t love us, or someone who has left us, or
someone who won’t leave us. 22. The family fulfils functions that are divided among many specialized institutions in modern societies.23. The largest
and the most complex group that sociologists study is society, which consists of people who share a culture and a territory. 24. The demise of hunter-gatherer groups came because modern societies took over the areas on
which these groups depended for their food. 25. The individuals who first
used the new technology accumulated great wealth. 26. The term networking, which has appeared in popular speech, refers to using or even developing social networks. 27. There is a man below wants to speak to you. 28. No
one who has ever seen you together, can doubt his affection. 29. His voice,
which he did not transmit, was very suave, with a fine command of cynical
intonation. 30. And so the only person he came to know at all was himself.
31. Hearing high voices from his father’s room, he went upstairs in the hope
that the sound of his tread might stop them. 32. He would remember every
word they spoke. 33. People who suffer as I do from nervous complaints
51
can have no great inclination for talking. 34. We dined very well, and were
waited on by a maid-servant whom I had never seen in all my comings and
goings, but who, for anything I know, had been in that mysterious house
the whole time. 35. They waited for the other tram by the Roman Catholic
Church, whose florid bulk was already receding into twilight. 36. All that you
have given me, is at your command to have again.
Exercise 2. Change the following simple sentences into complex ones
with subordinate attributive clauses.
1. Julius Caesar came to Britain in 55 B.C. He was a powerful Roman general.
2. Those dead flowers smell awful. You put them in the vase ten days ago.
3. My neighbour is very pessimistic. He says there will be no apples this year.
4. I met your school friend yesterday. You introduced me to him last week.
5. The Great Fire of London destroyed a large part of the city. It broke out in
1666. 6. Peter was driving all day. He suggested stopping at the next town.
7. The travellers knew about the floods. They took another road. 8. She could
say a lot. However, nothing had any influence. 9. I looked back at my cousin.
She began to ask me questions in her low, thrilling voice. 10. Someone is going to rent this apartment. The person might have trouble with it.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL
CLAUSE
Adverbial clauses (liet. šalutiniai aplinkybių sakiniai) are classified according
to their semantics, i.e. according to the relation they bear to the main clause.
Thus, adverbial clauses of manner, place, time, purpose, cause/reason,
result/consequence, condition, concession and comparison are distinguished. An adverbial clause may qualify the whole main clause, the verbal
predicate or any verbal part, or parts expressed by adjectives and adverbs.
52
Therefore, depending on the position of the part of the sentence it refers to,
the position of an adverbial clause varies: it may be initial, medial or final.
When we met him, the puppy licked our faces.
The puppy, when we met him, licked our faces.
The puppy licked our faces when we met him.
Connectors. Adverbial clauses differ from nominal and attributive clauses
in the more distinct meaning of the connectors they are introduced by.
Compare the following complex sentences:
I was so surprised that I forgot about the village and the temperature. (adverbial clause of result/consequence)
The town that I reached by car was completely deserted. (attributive
limiting clause)
Petrus said that we were going to sleep right there. (object clause)
Moreover, most types of adverbial clauses may be introduced by several
different conjunctions, whereas the same conjunction can be used to introduce different adverbial clauses. Compare the clauses introduced by the
conjunction as:
As Dave was eating, the doorbell rang. (adverbial time clause)
As it was getting late, I decided I should go home. (adverbial clause of
reason)
She made the cake as her mother had taught her. (adverbial clause of
manner)
Therefore, in order not to confuse the types of clauses, it is essential to refer to the meanings and relationships of clauses, rather than rely upon the
meaning of the connector.
53
Adverbial clauses are rarely joined asyndetically, except for some cases of
conditional clauses (see The Complex Sentence with an Adverbial Clause
of Condition).
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF MANNER
Adverbial clauses of manner (liet. šalutiniai būdo aplinkybės sakiniai) characterize actions, states, qualities and circumstances, therefore, they may
modify different parts of the main clause:
a) the predicate: He finished his work as she requested.
b) attributes or predicatives: Astonished, as one could be in such circumstances, he didn’t give a sign of it.
c) adverbial modifiers: He was running so quickly as nobody could imagine him doing so.
The main conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of manner are as,
like and the way.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME
An adverbial clause of time (liet. šalutinis laiko aplinkybės sakinys) characterizes the action expressed in the main clause from the temporal point of
view. (Kobrina 2006: 446). Thus the action of the subordinate clause may be
treated as prior, simultaneous, successive, repetitive, coinciding or gradually developing with the other action, etc.
54
After the law was passed, this type of crime ceased. (a prior action)
There was silence as the leader spoke. (simultaneous actions)
When you have finished your work, you may go home. (successive
actions)
Whenever he took up some work, he never finished it. (repetitive actions)
There was a pause while he raised his cup and drank some tea. (simultaneous actions)
Adverbial clauses of time may be introduced by the following connectors:
as, as soon as, as long as, when/whenever, while, now that, once, till/
until, after, before, since, the time that/the day (that), immediately, directly, next time, every (each) time, etc.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PLACE
An adverbial clause of place (liet. šalutinis vietos aplinkybės sakinys) defines
the place or direction of the action expressed in the principal clause (Kobrina
2006: 445). It may be joined by the conjunctions where, wherever, whence,
everywhere (that), etc. or conjunctive adverbs with prepositions:
Where gold is abundant, mining becomes important.
Everywhere I look, I see mothers with newborn babies.
His faithful dog accompanied him wherever he went.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE/
REASON
Adverbial clauses of cause/reason (sometimes referred to as causative clauses) (liet. šalutinis priežasties aplinkybės sakinys) express the reason, cause or
motivation of the action expressed in the main clause or of the content of
the whole sentence. Adverbial clauses of cause may be introduced by the
following conjunctions: as, because, since, so, (now) that, lest, seeing
(that), considering, by reason of, for the reason that, etc.
55
Now that the finance has been secured, the production of the film is
assured.
I decided to go with them, mainly because I had nothing better to do.
Seeing that he’s been off sick all week he’s unlikely to come today.
In as much as I already know you, I shall call you Jim, not James.
He fled the country lest he be captured and imprisoned.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PURPOSE
An adverbial clause of purpose (liet. šalutinis tikslo aplinkybės sakinys) expresses
the purpose of the action stated in the main clause. The predicate of the subordinate clause is used in the subjunctive mood as it expresses a planned but not
a real action. Adverbial clauses of purpose are introduced by such conjunctions
as that, so that, so, so as, lest, for fear that, in order that, in case, etc.
She brought the credit card in case she did not have enough cash.
They brought a lot of food for fear that they would be hungry during
the trip.
Sunlight is needed in order that the process of photosynthesis could
take place in plants.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF RESULT/
CONSEQUENCE
An adverbial clause of result (liet. šalutinis pasekmės aplinkybės sakinys)
denotes some consequence or result of the action expressed in the main
clause. It may be introduced by the conjunctions so that or that or correlatives so... that, such... that, etc.
56
It was such a strange story that no one believed it.
So bravely did they fight that the enemy was driven off.
Heavy rain fell that the rivers were soon in flood.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF
CONCESSION
Adverbial clauses of concession or concessive clauses (liet. šalutiniai
nuolaidos aplinkybės sakiniai) are used to concede a given point of argument, i.e. the action of the principle clause is carried out or takes place
despite the action expressed in the subordinate clause. This type of clause
is introduced by the conjunctions although, though, if, correlatives
though... yet, whether... or, composite conjunctions no matter how/
what, for all that, in spite of/despite the fact, even if, even though,
even when or conjunctive pronouns and adverbs whoever, whichever,
whatever, whenever, as, etc.
Although the elephant was strong it was no match for the agile tiger.
I wasn’t an idiot, even if I had felt like one.
Even though there are many advantages to working the night
shift, people who do so generally feel that the disadvantages greatly
outweigh any financial advantages that might be gained.
I would always be an outsider here - no matter what fluent Spanish I
spoke.
She’s going to have problems finding a job even if she gets her A levels.
Whatever you do, slow down and take your time.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF
CONDITION
Complex sentences with conditional clauses (liet. šalutiniai sąlygos
aplinkybės sakiniai) are sentences discussing factual implications or hypothetical situations and their consequences. Conditional sentences contain
two clauses: the condition and its consequence and are introduced by the
conjunctions if, unless, in case, provided/providing (that), suppose/sup-
57
posing (that), considering (that), given (that), granted/granting (that),
presuming (that), seeing (that), etc.
If it rains (condition), the picnic will be cancelled (consequence).
You won’t pass the examination (consequence) unless you revise
thoroughly (condition).
In case I’m late (condition), start without me (consequence).
He can come with us (consequence), provided/providing he pays for
his own meals (condition).
I think I did all right (consequence), given that I didn’t study much for
the test (condition).
I won’t stay long (consequence) seeing you’re busy (condition).
Suppose we miss the train (condition), what shall we do (consequence)?
The conjunction unless, differently from other connectors, as a rule expresses the idea of if not:
Unless she hurries up, we won’t arrive in time. (= if she doesn’t hurry up,
we won’t arrive on time.)
Unless the directors can increase sales, we’ll have to close this shop.
(= If the directors cannot increase sales, we’ll have to close this shop.)
However, the unless-clause is not always equivalent to an if-not-clause. To
illustrate this, compare the following two sentences, which are completely
different in meaning:
58
I won’t come unless you invite me. (Aš ateisiu, tik jeigu jūs mane pakviesite // Aš neateisiu, nebent jūs mane pakviesite.)
I won’t come if you don’t invite me. (Aš neateisiu, jei manęs nekviesi.)
Conditional clauses may be joined to the main clause asyndetically by
means of partial inversion. Inversion is possible only if the predicate of the
subordinate clause is in the subjunctive mood:
Were the virus to reappear, hospitals would now be ready for it.
Had I known, I’d never have gone there.
Depending on the relation between the subordinate and the main clauses,
complex sentences with subordinate conditional clauses are subdivided
into three types:
Conditional 1 (real condition) regards the actions expressed in both clauses as real facts:
You’ll get fat if you eat too much.
We won’t finish in time unless everyone works fast.
Conditional 2 (unreal or hypothetical condition) describes an imaginary
or hypothetical future situation or suggests that the situation is unlikely to
happen:
If I knew they were honest, I’d gladly lend them the money.
If I were you, I’d put that gun down!
Conditional 3 (unfulfilled or rejected condition) implies non-fulfilment
of the condition, as the actions in both clauses refer to the past and the time
of their realization is over:
The dog wouldn’t have attacked you, if you hadn’t teased it.
Gerry might have convinced his grandmother to see the doctor if he had
talked to her.
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Note: Some grammarians, e.g. Parrott, Swan and some others also distinguish the zero (open) conditional, which is used to denote general truths.
In such sentences the conjunction if can be replaced by when:
If I sleep well at night, I feel much happier next morning. (When I
sleep well at night...)
If the temperature falls below zero, it freezes. (When the temperature falls below zero...)
Mixed types of conditionals also exist depending on the sense and context
of the whole sentence:
If I were as clever as you think (Type 2), I should have been rich by now
(Type 3).
If she had enough money (Type 2), she could have done this trip to Hawaii (Type 3).
If I had known that you are going to come by tomorrow (Type 3), I would
be in then (Type 2).
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE WITH AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF
COMPARISON
Adverbial clauses of comparison (liet. šalutiniai lyginimo aplinkybės sakiniai) characterize the action expressed by the predicate of the main clause
by comparing it with some real or hypothetical circumstances or action.
They are introduced by the conjunctions as, like, as if, as though, than,
correlatives as... as, so... as, as... as if, etc.
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Dreams provide nourishment for the soul, just as a meal does for the
body.
We were moving, but it seemed as if we had not left our original spot.
She stared at me as though I were a complete stranger.
SUMMARY OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Table 2. Kinds of adverbial clauses.
Kind of an adverbial clause
Common conjunctions
Function
Example
Clauses of
manner
as, like, the way
These clauses are used
to talk about someone’s behaviour or the
way something is done
and answer the question how?
Time clauses
when, before, after,
since, while, as, as
long as, until, till,
hardly, scarcely, no
sooner, whenever,
now that, immediately, directly, every
time, etc.
These clauses are used
to say when something
happens by referring
Her father died
to a period of time or
when she was
to another event and
young.
answer the question
when?
These clauses are used
where, wherever,
to talk about the loClauses of
anywhere, everycation or position of
place
where, whence, etc. something and answer
the question where?
because, since, as,
These clauses are used
lest, seeing (that),
to indicate the reason
Clauses of
considering, by
for something and usucause/reason
reason of, for the
ally answer the quesreason that, etc.
tion why?
These clauses are used
so that/as, so, lest,
to indicate the purpose
Clauses of pur- in order that, for
of an action and usually
pose
fear that, in case,
answer the questions
etc.
what for? or why?
I was never allowed to do
things the way
I wanted to do
them.
He said he was
happy where he
was.
I couldn’t feel anger against him
because I liked
him too much.
They had to
take some of his
land so that they
could extend the
churchyard.

61

Kind of an adverbial clause
Common conjunctions
Function
Example
Clauses of
result/consequence
so… that, such…
that, etc.
My suitcase
had become so
These clauses are used
damaged on the
to indicate the result of
journey home
something.
that the lid would
not stay closed.
Concessive
clauses
although, though,
while, if, whether…
or, no matter how/
what, for all that,
in spite of/despite,
even if/though/
when, etc.
These clauses are used
to make two statements, one of which
contrasts with the
other or makes it seem
surprising.
Conditional
clauses
if, unless, provided
that
Clauses of
comparison
These clauses are used
to talk about a possible
situation and its consequences.
These clauses are used
to compare some acas, like, as if/though, tions with some real
than, etc.
or hypothetical circumstances or other
actions.
I used to read
a lot although I
don’t get much
time for books
now.
If they lose weight
during an illness,
they soon regain
it afterwards.
He did not need
to keep moving
house, as his father had.
OTHER TYPES OF COMPLEX SENTENCES
Complex sentences with mutually subordinate clauses. In this type of
complex sentences it is impossible to distinguish which clause is the main
and which is subordinate, since they follow either the same pattern (i.e. look
like twin clauses) or form an indivisible whole. N.A. Kobrina distinguishes
two main patterns of mutually subordinate clauses (Kobrina 2006: 463):
62
1. Clauses of proportionate agreement, which express proportionality or
equivalence (i.e. the more intensive is the action or quality described in one
clause, the more intensive it becomes in the following clause). These clauses
are joined by the correlative conjunction as... so, correlative adverb so...
so, or correlative particles the... the followed by the comparative degree of
adverbs or adjectives:
As it grew darker, so less comfortable I became.
The more I blinked, the longer the figure remained.
The more I looked at it, the more slowly the minutes passed.
2. Clauses expressing temporal relations, i.e. a quick succession of actions, which usually overlap with one another. The clauses are joined by the
correlative elements no sooner... than, scarcely... when/before, hardly...
when, just... when, negation... when, or sometimes partial inversion in
the first clause:
No sooner the teacher finished the class than students started leaving
the room.
He had scarcely sat down when there was a knock at the door.
She had hardly entered the room when the phone rang.
He had not left home when it started to rain.
Cleft/pseudo-complex sentences. This type of complex sentences is used
to put emphasis on a part of the main clause (usually predicative or predicate). The main clause of the cleft sentence is usually based on the pattern
of it-clause (in case of emphasizing the predicative) or what- or who-clause
(in case of putting emphasis on the predicate):
Is that a dagger that I see before me?
It is we who determine how quickly time passes.
63
It was I whom he was to guide along the Milky Way in search of my
sword.
So what is missing is the Road of Diamonds to complete.
Who spoke to you must have been John’s teacher.
Sometimes cleft sentences may be introduced by the conjunction if. (In this
case it does not introduce a condition):
If I feel sorry for anyone it’s John.
If I read a book it’s a historical one.
Appended clauses are used to intensify the statement of the previous
clause. The most common type of appended clauses are tag questions:
She doesn’t like things that blow up, does she?
It seems a shame to break it up, doesn’t it, when it’s so good.
In informal style (dialects) there exists another form of appended clauses,
which is elliptical reinforcement of the previous clause:
She is a clever girl, is your cousin.
It is very angry, is your dog.
Parenthetical/comment clauses interrupt with another sentence, with
which they either do not have any syntactic connection or this connection
is very loose:
64
You won’t stop, you know, as long as you can trail round in a white gown
with your hair down, and wear gold-paper jewelry.
Just as Tom and Myrtle (after the first drink Mrs Wilson and I called
each other by our first names) reappeared, our company commenced
to arrive at the apartment-door.
Daisy was popular in Chicago, as you know.
He looked – and this is said in all contempt for the babbled slander
of his garden – as if he had ‘killed a man’.
Absolute clauses. Some subordinate clauses may be used as independent
exclamatory sentences, that may have the form of a conditional or comparative clause:
If I only had a silk scarf!
That he should call so late!
As though she didn’t know that!
PRACTICE SECTION
Exercise 1. Define the kinds of subordinate adverbial clauses (time,
place, manner, comparison and condition).
1. I’m quite comfortable where I am. 2. But as soon as I saw Susan I stopped
noticing my surrounding. 3. I shall hope to visit you whenever I happen to be
in London. 4. I will do anything you wish, provided it lies in my power. 5. Joe
left the house as he had entered. 6. My aunt died when I was eight years
old. 7. But I must have the doctor handy, in case she feels worse. 8. Hardly
had they entered the house, when a violent thunderstorm broke out. 9. He
looks as though he had plenty of determination. 10. It was a long time since
I had written to the States. 11. Jan waved till the taxi disappeared round the
bend of the road. 12. He was white and jaded, as if he had not slept for many
nights. 13. As he spoke there was a sharp ring of the bell. 14. I do not wish
you to be my wife unless you are bound to be my love. 15. My father consented to let him teach you, on condition that he never attempted to see
your mother. 16. Mr. Direck’s broken wrist healed sooner than he desired.
17. Our friends, once all the guests had come, invited everybody to table.
18. She could see his lips moving, from time to time, as though he were
65
talking to himself. 19. She prepared the chicken exactly as her grandma did.
20. She suddenly saw now that she did not love him as some women love
their husbands. 21. Her lips moved soundlessly, as if she were rehearsing.
22. Surprised, as anyone could be in such circumstances, he did not even
turn round. 23. The dog did as he was ordered. 24. This is the claim I make
on you, now that we have found each other. 25. We are prepared to sign the
agreement providing that you guarantee the highest quality of the goods.
26. The singers were making their nightly voyage, pausing, wherever they
saw a lighted window or a dark figure on a balcony. 27. They appeared again
soon after it was light. 28. They looked where she pointed. 29. We were
going up the road as fast as we could. 30. Wherever they travelled, police
looked at them suspiciously.
Exercise 2. State the type of the clause (predicative vs. adverbial clauses of comparison):
1. He was throwing his things into a suitcase as if the place were on fire. 2. She
always looked as though she had been in the beauty parlour all afternoon.
3. Mary is always saying she believes in her friend, and at the same time she
always behaves as if she were her enemy. 4. Our life goes on as if nothing had
happened. 5. Father sounded as if he would never agree to let me go on a
trip. 6. He came over to the table and stood in front of it as if it were a lectern.
7. He took off his hat and held it across his chest, almost as if he were saluting the flag. 8. Bernard sat in his chair looking as if he were going to be sick.
9. His head ached terribly. It felt as though all sorts of little savage things were
beating inside it, trying to get out. 10. It seemed as though the water drew
her irresistibly. 11. He felt as if he were being reprimanded. 12. After travelling
some distance the leather of the seats felt as if they might burst into flame. 13.
Sinclair was panting, as though he had been running. 14. Her lips were parted
as if she were out of breath. 15. He looked down at his feet as though he were
unconscious of the company. 16. He went into the house by the back door
and sneaked up the stairs as though he had something to hide.
66
Exercise 3. Analyze the following complex sentences with adverbial
clauses by stating the type of the clause and identifying the connector.
1. But as my hands touched the scabbard and as I prepared to pick it up, the
Master came forward and stepped on my fingers with all his might. 2. I have
walked the Road so many times that now I content myself with reading in
other pilgrims’ eyes the excitement that I still feel. 3. If you want me to, I can
find it for you. But you have to decide right now whether you want me to.
4. After I have driven for an hour or so, I began to feel the fatigue accumulated from the night before. 5. Even if I was not able to find my sword, the
pilgrimage along the Road to Santiago was going to help me to find myself.
6. We both did as the monument asked. 7. By the time I returned to my car,
I was a bit calmer. 8. But this was difficult only because you were a prisoner
of the past. 9. I asked Petrus if we couldn’t move along more quickly so that
I could warm up. 10. My journey along the Road to Santiago seemed to have
ended even before it had begun. 11. I was surprised to see that the sun was
not as bright as I had imagined. 12. Although the earth and my sleep were
full of comfort, the life “up there” was much more beautiful. 13. You begin
to attach much more importance to the things around you because your
survival depends on them. You begin to be more accessible to others because they may be able to help you in difficult situations. 14. It was sharply
different from the West, where an evening was hurried from phase to phase
towards its close, in a continually disappointed anticipation or else in sheer
nervous dread of the moment itself. 15. But since we are on the Strange
Road to Santiago, we should wait an hour before getting to the village. 16. A
breeze blew through the room, blew curtains in at one end and out the other like pale flags, twisting them up towards the frosted wedding-cake of the
ceiling, and then rippled over the wine-coloured rug, making a shadow on
it as wind does on the sea. 17. I’ve been lying on that sofa as long as I can remember. 18. We all looked – the knuckle was black and blue. 19. We walked
for the rest of the afternoon, and only when the sun began to disappear
behind the mountains did Petrus decide to stop again. 20. I like your nice
67
manners and refined ways of speaking, when you don’t try to be elegant.
21. There was so much to do, getting the boxes ready to go tomorrow, that
I didn’t come home to dinner. 22. I don’t remember much about it, except
that I was afraid of the cellar and the dark entry. 23. Meg told me to keep still
so no one would see it. 24. Whatever their mood might be, the last glimpse
of that motherly face was sure to affect them like sunshine. 25. Things went
from bad to worse, until finally he had to give up his position. 26. He cries
as if he were mad. 27. As if his absence quickened something within her,
Daisy leaned forward again, her voice glowing and singing. 28. Where the
fire had been, we saw nothing but blackened ruins. 29. But you’ll grow up an
affected little goose, if you don’t take care. 30. Something was making him
nibble at the edge of stale ideas as if his sturdy physical egotism no longer
nourished his peremptory heart. 31. Gatsby bought that house so that Daisy
would be just across. 32. If you see me doing anything wrong, just remind
me by a wink, will you? - I’ll lift my eyebrow if anything is wrong, and nod
if you are all right. 33. Gatsby was waiting where I had left him in the drive.
34. We were so close that I even could read the year when the tavern had
been built: 1652. 35. When I couldn’t resist any longer and took my watch
out again, only eleven minutes had passed. 36. I wasn’t an idiot, even if I had
felt like one. 37. If anybody had asked Amy what the greatest trial of her life
was, she would have answered at once, “My nose.” 38. The village was no
longer just a place where I could warm my soul with wine and my body with
a blanket. 39. As soon as daylight began to show itself in the two streets
of the village of Roncesvalles, Petrus knocked on my door. 40. Because the
evening was terribly chilly, we lit a roaring fire. 41. The old farmer nodded,
as though he understood every word. 42. If it’s light enough after dinner,
I want to take you down to the stables. 43. Trees loose their leaves once
the weather turns chilly. 44. Linus always waits in a sincere pumpkin patch
lest he miss the Great Pumpkin. 45. Although that she hated his mother
surprised him, he still allowed her to attend the family dinner. 46. He took
down his drink as if it were a drop in the bottom of the glass. 47. Somehow
it seemed as if they couldn’t have got through the day without Mother smil-
68
ing. 48. Considering he bravely flew during battle, Snoopy is a great World
War I Flying Ace. 49. She’s acting like she really doesn’t like him. 50. No matter
how smart they are, they are required to do the revision. 51. If it wasn’t for the
mist we could see your home across the bay 52. So terrible a disease broke
out that only few people survived. 53. Wedging his tense arm imperatively
under mine, Tom Buchanan compelled me from the room as though he were
moving a checker to another square. 54. However little known the feelings or
views of such a man may be on his first entering a neighbourhood, his truth is
so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families, that he is considered as
the rightful property of some one or other of their daughters. 55. His mouth
was such a post-office of a mouth that he had a mechanical appearance of
smiling. 56. You know how I detest it, unless I am particularly acquainted with
my partner. 57. As he had shown no diffidence on the subject, I ventured on
the liberty of asking him the question, when he stood before me, dusting his
hands. 58. It was no time to be thinking about Masters or friends, and I could
not look to the side to see if Petrus would be able to save me if I should slip.
59. Didn’t they talk as if they had read the book?
Exercise 4. Analyze and state the type of the following complex sentences by defining the clauses and indentifying the connectors.
1. When I was coming up, I practiced all the time because I thought if I didn’t
I couldn’t do my best. 2. The more I dressed him, and the better I dressed
him, the more he looked like the slouching fugitive on the marshes. 3. According to legend, when Lady Godiva pleaded with her husband, the Earl of
Mercia, to cancel a burdensome tax he had levied against his subjects, he
agreed to do so only if she rode naked through the city. 4. Experience is
what you get when you didn’t get what you wanted. 5. I thought of the
many tests I had endured, of all I had learned, and of the strange phenomena I had been able to invoke simply because I had had that ancient and
friendly sword with me. 6. And the power that you think you have is worthless, because it is a power that is shared by all. 7. He should have brought
69
along something warm to wear, because it was much colder up there than
he had expected. 8. The lie worked: the agent gave us a declaration stating
that we had entered the country with the sword at the Bajadas airport, and
he told us that if we had any problems trying to leave the country with it, we
need only show the declaration to the customs officials. 9. She had smiled
and said that my excuse was dumb, that during the entire seven months I
had done nothing but ask myself day and night whether or not I should go.
10. I don’t know if this will even work, since I let another person make the
decision for me to seek out my sword. 11. In spite of the knowledge that
there were many ways in which I could fail, I had taken the first step. 12. All I
could think of was that in two days, I was going to relive, in the latter part of
the twentieth century, something of the great human adventure that had
brought Ulysses from Troy, that had been part of Don Quixote’s experience,
that had led Dante and Orpheus into hell, and that had directed Columbus
to the Americas: the adventure of travelling toward the unknown. 13. It was
only then that I noticed my mistake: the gate led onto an immense courtyard, around which were situated medieval houses with balconies. 14. She
gave me a small card that would help me to get lodging at the monasteries
along the Road, stamped it with the seal of Saint-Jean-de-Port to indicate
that I had started the pilgrimage there, and said that I could leave with God’s
blessing. 15. That poor thief, while he defended himself, picked out of the
air the very words that needed to be said to you. 16. Although I had noticed
this, I had not drawn the only possible conclusion: that we had gone back
and forth many times. 17. But I don’t think the little we should spend would
do any good. 18. I know that they will remember all I said to them, that they
will be loving children to you, will do their duty faithfully, fight their bosom
enemies bravely, and conquer themselves so beautifully that when I come
back to them I may be fonder and prouder than ever of my little women.
19. In spite of her small vanities, Margaret had a sweet and pious nature,
which unconsciously influenced her sisters, especially Jo, who loved her
very tenderly, and obeyed her because her advice was so gently given.
20. But when all is said and done, you’re the one who must decide how you
70
handle it. 21. My imagination, which was unavailable when I was tense, began to work to my advantage. 22. And when I think about it, I guess it is true
that people always arrive at the right moment at the place where someone
awaits them. 23. Experience is what you get when you didn’t get what you
wanted. 24. The unqualified truth is, that when I loved Estella with the love
of a man, I loved her simply because I found her irresistible. 25. The air of
completeness and superiority with which she walked at my side, and the air
of youthfulness and submission with which I walked at hers, made a contrast that I strongly felt. 26. As my eyes followed her white hand, again the
same dim suggestion that I could not possibly grasp, crossed me. 27. That is
what I mean when I say that she is a lady. 28. I have no idea what he is like,
and wonder whether you would bring him that I may find out. 29. I suppose
it was a wonderful visit, though none of us knew it by the time. 30. As the
weather was fine, they had a pleasant walk of about half a mile across the
park. 31. When, after examining the mother, in whose countenance and deportment she soon found some resemblance of Mr Darcy, she turned her
eyes on her daughter, she could almost have joined in Maria’s astonishment,
at her being so thin, and so small. 32. She asked her at different times, how
many sisters she had, whether they were older or younger than herself,
whether any of them were likely to be married, whether they were handsome, where they had been educated, what carriage her father kept, and
what had been her mother’s maiden name? 33. Anne would have been a
delightful performer, had her health allowed her to learn. 34. But why he
came so often to the Parsonage, it was more difficult to understand. 35. Vanity and pride are different things, though the words are often used synonymously. 36. But after dinner, when I made him take his pipe, and when I had
loitered with him about the forge, and when we sat down together on the
great block of stone outside it, we got on better. 37. She was so quiet and
had such an orderly, good, and pretty way with her, that I did not like the
thought of making her cry again. 38. Thinking that he did this to give me an
opportunity of taking his Walworth sentiments, I seized the opportunity as
soon as we were out of the Castle. 39. After a little further conversation to
71
the same effect, we returned into the Castle, where we found Miss Skiffins
preparing tea. 40. Wemmick explained to me while the Aged got his spectacles out, that this was according to custom, and that it gave the old gentleman infinite satisfaction to read the news aloud. 41. As he wanted the candles
close to him, and as he was always on the verge of putting either his head or
the newspaper into them, he required as much watching as a powder-mill.
42. Before a week was out, I received a note from Wemmick, dated Walworth,
stating that he hoped he had made some advance in that matter appertaining to our private and personal capacities, and that he would be glad if I could
come and see him again upon it. 43. My dread always was, that this knowledge on her part laid me under a heavy disadvantage with her pride, and
made me the subject of a rebellious struggle in her bosom. 44. All I possess is
freely yours. And if you ask me to give you what you never gave me, my gratitude and duty cannot do impossibilities. 45. When I left, Estella was yet standing by the great chimney-piece, just as she had stood throughout. 46. Whereupon, I made him the extreme reply that I believed he knew where I was to be
found. 47. Whether it was impossible in a Christian country to get on without
blood, after this, was a question on which the Finches were divided. 48. The
debate upon it grew so lively, indeed, that at last six more honourable members told six more, during the discussion, that they believed they knew where
they were to be found. 49. “One suffers so much”, Dennis went on, “From the
fact that beautiful words don’t always mean what they ought to mean.” 50. I
have just received your letter, and shall devote this whole morning to answering it, as I foresee that a little writing will not comprise what I have to tell you.
51. He came to tell Mr Gardiner that he had found out where your sister and
Mr Wickham were, and that he had seen and talked with them both, Wickham repeatedly, Lidia once. 52. The reason why all this was to be done by him
alone, was such as I have given above. 53. But he had given a reason, which
asked no extraordinary stretch of belief. 54. That you were gone into the army,
and she was afraid had not turned out well. 55. As the man made no answer
when I asked him what he did there, but eluded my touch in silence, I ran to
the Lodge and urged the watchman to come quickly: telling him of the inci-
72
dent on the way back. 56. As he was at present dressed in a seafaring slop suit,
in which he looks as if he had some parrots and cigars to dispose of, I next
discussed with him what dress he should wear.
SUGGESTED WAYS OF COMPOUND-COMPLEX
SENTENCE ANALYSIS
The table was in no way different from any other, and it was not more advantageously placed, but because the oldest residents sat there it was looked upon as
the most desirable place to sit, and several elderly women were bitterly resentful because Miss Otkin, who went away for four or five months every summer,
should be given a place there while they who spent the whole year in the sanatorium sat at other tables.
The table was
in no way different from
any other
it was not
more advanand
tageously
placed
it was looked
several elupon as the
derly women
but
most desirable and were bitterly
place to sit
resentful
because the
oldest residents sat there
because Miss
Otkin ... should
be given a
place there
who went
away for four
or five months
every summer
while they ...
sat at other
tables.
who spent
the whole
year in the
sanatorium
73
It is a compound-complex sentence which consits of 9 clauses: 4 coordinate and 5 subordinate. The first (the table was in no way different from any
other) and the second (it was not more advantageously placed) coordinate
clauses are joined by copulative coordination (the meaning of addition) by
means of the copulative conjunction and. The second (it was not more advantageously placed) and the third (it was looked upon as the most desirable
place to sit) coordinate clauses are joined by adversative coordination (the
meaning of opposition) with the help of the adversative conjunction but.
The third coordinate clause is extended by the subordinate clause of reason
(because the oldest residents sat there) which is introduced by the conjunction because. The last coordinate clause (several elderly women were bitterly
resentful) is linked to the previous by copulative coordination (the meaning of addition) with the help of the copulative conjunction and. The fourth
coordinate clause has 4 subordinate clauses which are of different degree
of subordination and perform different syntactic functions in the sentence.
The first subordinate clause (because Miss Otkin should be given a place there)
is of the first degree of subordination and it acts as the adverbial clause of
reason introduced by the subordinating conjunction because. This subordinate clause is extended by two more subordinate clauses of the second degree of subordination: (who went away for four or five months every summer)
and (while they sat at other tables). The first subordinate clause modifies the
noun Miss Otkin, so it is an attributive descriptive clause giving additional
information about the noun it modifies and linked to the modified clause
with the help of the relative pronoun who. The second subordinate clause
(while they sat at other tables) gives information about time of the previous
clause, so it acts as the adverbial clause of time introduced by the subordinating conjunction while. The last subordinate clause (who spent the whole
year in the sanatorium) modifies the pronoun they in the clause (while they
sat at other tables), so it is of third degree of subordination and performs the
syntactic function of an attributive descriptive clause, as it gives additional
information about the subject (they) of the modified clause.
74
PRACTICE SECTION
Exercise 1. Analyse the following compound-complex sentences stating the type of coordination between coordinate clauses and the syntactical function of the subordinate clauses.
1. You and the girls may go, or you may send them by themselves, which
perhaps will be still better, for as you are as handsome as any of them, Mr
Bingley might like you the best of the party. 2. In the morning he had read
Theocritus, whom he believed to be the greatest of Greek poets; he had
lunched with a merry don and had tasted Zwieback biscuits; then he had
walked with people he liked, and had walked just long enough; and when
they left he would go and have supper with Ansell, whom he liked as well as
anyone. 3. He was never told anything, but he discovered for himself that his
father and mother did not love each other, and that his mother was lovable.
4. The room above the shops still seemed as comfortable, the garden behind it as gracious, as they had seemed fifteen years before, when he would
sit behind Miss Appleblossom’s central throne, and she, like some allegorical figure, would send the change and receipted bills spinning away from
her in little boxwood balls. 5. But the village was very peaceful and quiet,
and the light mists were solemnly rising, as if to show me the world, and I
had been so innocent and little there, and all beyond was so unknown and
great, that in a moment with a strong heave and sob I broke into tears.
6. When I told the clerk that I would take a turn in the air while I waited, he
advised me to go round the corner and I should come into Smithfield. 7. To
fortune I am perfectly indifferent, and shall make no demand of that nature
on your father, since I am well aware that it could not be complied with; and
that one thousand pounds in the 4 per cents which will not be yours till after
your mother’s decease, is all that you may ever be entitled to. 8. When my
brother left us yesterday, he imagined that the business which took him to
London, might be concluded in three or four days, but as we are certain it
cannot be so, and at the same time convinced that when Charles gets to
75
town, he will be in no hurry to leave it again, we have determined on following him thither, that he may not be obliged to spend his vacant hours in a
comfortless hotel. 9. I told him, and he was attentive until I had finished, and
then burst out laughing again, and asked me if I was sore afterwards? 10. I
further mentioned that as I had been brought up a blacksmith in a country
place, and knew very little of the ways of politeness, I would take it as a great
kindness in him if he would give me a hint whenever he saw me at a loss or
going wrong. 11. In the evening we went out for a walk in the streets, and
went half-price to the Theatre; and next day we went to church at Westminster Abbey, and in the afternoon we walked in the Parks; and I wondered
who shod all the horses there, and wished Joe did. 12. As we walked along
westward, he was recognized ever and again by some face in the crowd of
the streets, and whenever that happened he talked louder to me; but he
never otherwise recognized anybody, or took notice that anybody recognized him. 13. We played until nine o’clock, and then it was arranged that
when Estella came to London I should be forewarned of her coming and
should meet her at the coach; and then I took leave of her, and touched her
and left her. 14. As we were going back to London by the midday coach, and
as I breakfasted under such terrors of Pumblechook that I could scarcely
hold my cup, this gave me an opportunity of saying that I wanted a walk,
and that I would go on along the London-road while Mr Jaggers was occupied, if he would let the coachman know that I would get into my place
when overtaken. 15. Some ladies who did not know what had happened
bowed and smiled as she passed, and she returned their salute. 16. What
she really abominated was questions, and she saw that Ansell was turning
serious. 17. But they made friends and treated each other, and slanged the
proprietor and ragged the pretty girls; while Rickie, as each wave of vulgarity burst over him, sunk his head lower and lower, and wished that the earth
would swallow him up. 18. I suppose there was a time once, when my father
had not given matters up; but if ever there was, the time is gone. 19. We live
in so different a part of town, all our connections are so different, and, as you
well know, we go out so little, that it is very improbable they should meet at
76
all, unless he really comes to see her. 20. In short, my dear aunt, I should be
very sorry to be the means of making any of you unhappy; but since we see
every day that where there is affection, young people are seldom withheld
by immediate want of fortune, from entering into engagements with each
other, how can I promise to be wiser than so many of my fellow creatures if
I am tempted, or how am I even to know that it would be wisdom to resist?
21. Miss de Bourgh was pale and sickly; her features, though not plain, were
insignificant; and she spoke very little, except in a low voice, to Mrs Jenkinson, in whose appearance there was nothing remarkable, and who was entirely engaged in listening to what she said, and placing a screen in the
proper direction before her eyes. 22. The dinner was exceedingly handsome, and there were all the servants, and all the articles of plate which Mr
Collins had promised; and, as he had likewise foretold, he took his seat at
the bottom of the table, by her ladyship’s desire, and looked as if he felt that
life could furnish nothing greater. 23. His eyes had been soon and repeatedly turned towards them with a look of curiosity; and that her ladyship after a while shared the feeling, was more openly acknowledged, for she did
not scruple to ask what Fitzwilliam was saying. 24. That the place could possibly be, without her, was something my mind seemed unable to compass;
whereas she had seldom or never been in my thoughts of late, I had now the
strangest idea that she was coming towards me in the street, or that she
would presently knock at the door. 25. It was fine summer weather again,
and, as I walked along, the times when I was a little helpless creature, and
my sister did not spare me, vividly returned. 26. I don’t ask you what you
owe, because you don’t know; and if you did know, you wouldn’t tell me;
you would say less. 27. And as I felt that it came quicker, and as I felt that he
saw that it came quicker, I felt that I had less chance than ever of getting
anything out of him. 28. And for this hour I have not the faintest notion of
what he meant, or what joke he thought I had made. 29. I informed Wemmick that I was anxious in behalf of Herbert Pocket, and told him how we
had first met, and how we had fought. 30. The Aged prepared such a haystack of buttered toast, that I could scarcely see him over it as it simmered
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on an iron stand hooked on to the top-bar; while Miss Skiffins brewed such
a jorum of tea, that the pig in the back premises became strongly excited,
and repeatedly expressed his desire to participate in the environment. 31.
This was all the preparation I received for that visit, or for others like this:
Miss Havisham never wrote to me, nor had I ever so much as seen her handwriting. 32. Before we left next day, there was no revival of the difference
between her and Estella, nor was it ever revived on any similar occasion; and
there were four similar occasions, to the best of my remembrance. 33. He
didn’t say any more, but we’ve always been unusually communicative in a
reserved way, and I understood that he meant a great deal more than that.
34. If we had no winter, the spring would not be so pleasant; if we did not
sometimes taste of adversity, prosperity would not be so welcome. 35. All of
us spread our arms wide, and the Master, invoking his power, created a
strange light that surrounded us; it did not illuminate, but it was clearly visible, and it caused the figures of those who were there to take on a colour
that was different from the yellowish tinge cast by the fire. 36. By the time
Spain had regained control of the country, the militant orders had become
so strong that they posed a threat to the nobility, and the Catholic kings had
to intervene directly to prevent the orders from mounting an insurgency.
37. Even this high in the Pyrenees, it was hot during the day, and I was soaked
with perspiration as I got out of the car. 38. My wife had said that I had to
arrive there exactly on that day, but no one answered when I called out. 39.
I was waiting for you, but I didn’t know that I was going to meet you so soon.
40. The ship is safest when it’s in port, but that’s not what ships were built
for. 41. The other girl, Daisy, made an attempt to rise – she leaned slightly
forward with a conscientious expression – then she laughed, an absurd,
charming little laugh, and I laughed too and came forward into the room.
42. You know the reason Mother proposed not having any presents this
Christmas was because it is going to be a hard winter for everyone; and she
thinks we ought not to spend money for pleasure, when our men are suffering so in the army. 43. We will take this moment to give them a little sketch
of the four sisters, who sat knitting in the twilight, while the December snow
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fell quietly without, and the fire crackled cheerfully within. 44. It was a comfortable old room, though the carpet was faded and the furniture very plain;
for a good picture or two hung on the walls, books filled the recesses, chrysanthemums and Christmas roses bloomed in the windows, and a pleasant
atmosphere of home peace pervaded it. 45. Her father called her “Little
Tranquillity”, and the name suited her excellently, for she seemed to live in a
happy world of her own, only venturing to meet the few whom she trusted
and loved. 46. A year seems very long to wait before I see them, but remind
them that while we wait we may all work, so that these hard days need not
be wasted. 47. No stockings hung at the fireplace, and for a moment she felt
as much as disappointed as she did long ago, when her little sock fell down
because it was so crammed with goodies. 48. You can do as you please, but
I shall keep my book on the table here and read a little every morning as
soon as I wake, for I know it will do me good and help me through the day.
49. She found it harder to bear than the others because she could remember a time when home was beautiful, life full of ease and pleasure, and want
of any kind unknown. 50. Poor Meg seldom complained, but a sense of injustice made her feel bitter toward everyone sometimes, for she had not yet
learned to know how rich she was in the blessings which alone can make life
happy. 51. I couldn’t guess what Daisy and Tom were thinking, but I doubt if
even Miss Baker, who seemed to have mastered a certain hardy scepticism,
was able utterly to put this fifth guest’s shrill metallic urgency out of mind.
52. I saw that turbulent emotions possessed her, so I asked what I thought
would be some sedative questions about her little girl. 53. As I waited for my
hat in the hall the door of the library opened and Jordan Baker and Gatsby
came out together. 54. He was saying some last word to her, but the eagerness in his manner tightened abruptly into formality as several people approached him to say good-bye. 55. As I crossed by the fountain, I saw his
lighted windows looking bright and quiet, and, when I stood for a few moments in the doorway of the building where I lived, before going up the
stairs, Garden Court was as still and lifeless as the staircase was when I ascented it. 56. It troubled me that there should have been a lurker on the
79
stairs, on that night of all nights in the year, and I asked the watchman, on
the chance of eliciting some hopeful explanation as I handed him a dram at
the door, whether he had admitted at his gate any gentleman who had perceptibly been dining out? 57. Again, the only other man who dwelt in the
house of which my chambers formed a part, had been in the country for
some weeks; and he certainly had not returned in the night, because we
had seen his door with his seal on it as we came upstairs. 58. If she heard me,
it was by good luck, for I am sure she did not listen. 59. When all this was
resolved on, he returned again to his friends, who were still staying at Pemberley; but it was agreed that he should be in London once more when the
wedding took place, and all money matters were then to receive the last
finish. 60. He was exactly what he had been, when I knew him in Hertfordshire; but I would not tell you how little I was satisfied with her behaviour
while she stayed with us, if I had not perceived, by Jane’s letter last Wednesday, that her conduct on coming home was exactly of a piece with it, and
therefore what I now tell you, can give you no fresh pain. 61. Already when,
at the age of thirteen, fourteen and fifteen, he began looking in the papers,
which, being too wordly, had never been admitted to his home, he found
that mostly skilled help was wanted. 62. In view of this, Mrs. Griffiths, who
was more practical than her husband at all times, and who was intensely
interested in Clyde’s economic welfare, as well as that of her other children,
was actually wondering why Clyde should of a sudden become so enthusiastic about changing to this new situation, which, according to his own
story, involved longer hours and not so very much more pay, if any. 63. However, as he began to see afterwards, time passed and he was left to work
until, depressed by the routine and meager pay, he began to think of giving
up this venture here and returning to Chicago or going to New York, where
he was sure that he could connect himself with some hotel if need be. 64.
He was developing a sense of humour and found that he had a knack of saying bitter things, which caught people on the raw; he said them because
they amused him, hardly realizing how much they hurt, and was much offended when he found that his victims regarded him with active dislike.
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Exercise 2. Using the first sentence as the main clause, combine the
sentences in each of the following examples to make one new sentence. In each sentence you will need to use at least one item from List
A and one from List B.
EXAMPLE: He sold the farm.
His family had owned it for centuries.
He was desperately short of cash.
Although his family had owned the farm for centuries, he sold it because he was
desperately short of cash.
A
although
as
even if
whenever
where
which
while
whose
B
because
but
in case
in order that
so.......... that
unless
whereas
who
1. They cut down the trees.
The trees had been there for sixty years.
Their purpose was to sell the timber.
2. He returned to the village.
He had been born and brought up there.
It had changed beyond recognition.
3. He walked across the common.
It was wet and muddy.
This would save him at least ten minutes.
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4. Hans took a rope-ladder with him.
He stayed in hotels.
They might catch fire.
5. It was cold.
He suffered frostbite in several toes.
He wore several pairs of socks.
6. The price of cabbages has doubled.
The weather has been extremely poor.
The price of potatoes has remained steady.
Supplies have been imported from Egypt.
7. He swallowed the fish’s eye.
It made him feel sick.
He wanted to impress his friends.
8. He wrote a letter to Mr and Mrs Edwards.
He had stayed in their house for eight weeks.
He gave a series of lectures at the university.
He thanked them for their hospitality.
9. Candidates will not be interviewed for this post.
They have extremely good qualifications.
They have at least five years’ experience.
10. He sold the painting.
He was short of money.
His grandfather had given it to him.
His grandfather had known the artist well.
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II. THE MOOD
Language is a means of giving and receiving information through communication between/among people, especially in modern times. Since the
sentence nearly always expresses a complete thought, it can serve to convey the speaker’s communicative intentions. In terms of grammar, the grammatical category that comprises ‘relations between the actions expressed
by the predicate verbs and reality’ (Krylova 2007: 100) from the speaker’s
point of view is called the Mood (Lat. modus ‘manner’).
GENERAL REMARKS ON MODALITY AND
MOODS
Matthews (2005:228) holds that “Indications either of a kind of speech act
or of the degree of certainty with which something is said are covered
by the category of modality. Thus, He left at once (declarative) differs in
modality from Leave at once! (imperative); He can’t have left (epistemic, expressing factual (im)probability, necessity, possibility, etc.) from You can’t
leave (deontic, indicating the presence or absence of obligation, prohibition, etc.); You must leave (obligation) from You can leave if you like (permission); He has perhaps left (doubt) from He has definitely left (fact of present
reality).”
Modality in English is expressed by:
1. Modal verbs (can – could, may – might, must, shall – should, ought to,
will – would, need, dare, have and be), which express the speaker’s attitude (obligation, possibility, ability, etc.) towards the action of the
predicate-verb. In the sentence, they are used as link verbs, parts of
the compound verbal modal predicate.
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I can speak two foreign languages. (ability)
We must study if we want to succeed. (obligation from the speaker’s
point of view)
We have to hand in our papers in time. (obligation due to circumstances: if we don’t, there’ll be trouble)
We ought to/should pay more attention to the people around us: they
may need our help.(obligation - recommendation)
Sorry, I cannot stay here any longer, I am to meet my sister. (lack of possibility, obligation due to the previous arrangement)
You needn’t hurry, we shall catch up with them anyway. (absence of necessity, promise)
2. Modal words or attitudinal adverbs (Krylova 2007: 102), which
express the speaker’s subjective or personal attitude towards the
situation the utterance/sentence denotes. Their syntactical function
in the sentence is that of parenthesis, an independent element of
sentence. Differently from the adverbial modifier of sentence, which
carries important information about the circumstances of the action
expressed by the predicate, the modal words may easily be omitted
leaving the sentence real, i.e. in the Indicative Mood. Compare:
He is possibly the best candidate I know for the post (supposition, doubt).
He is the best candidate for the post (the fact at present).
They denote:
• certainty (certainly, of course, indeed, really, no doubt, etc.):
She will certainly get the book for you.
Surely she didn’t mean it – it was just a thoughtless remark.
• supposition (perhaps, maybe, possibly, etc.):
It is perhaps not a good idea for a seven-year-old to use a calculator.
He is possibly the best candidate for the post.
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• positive or negative estimation ((un)fortunately, (un)luckily, happily, etc.):
There was a proposal to change the exam system again, but fortunately
it was rejected.
3. The mood, a grammatical category of the verb, which refers to the
speaker’s attitude towards reality expressed by means of the simple
or analytical form of the predicate verb.
In everyday speech, the noun mood literally denotes the way someone is
feeling, whether they are angry, sad or happy (liet. nuotaika):
I have never seen Ann in such a good mood before.
This meaning serves as basis for the linguistic term the Mood, a grammatical category that relates to “the informative or communicative status of
utterances, e.g. whether they refer to established facts, questions, express
a supposition or condition, deny, request” (Swan 2005: 122) and has its own
grammatical means of expression (liet. nuosaka).
Depending on the type of reality disclosed in the sentence the English
Moods are Real/Direct (liet. faktinė) and Unreal/Indirect (liet. hipotetinė).
The Real Moods are realized in two forms:
• The Indicative Mood (liet. tiesioginė nuosaka) is used to introduce
reality as established positive and negative facts in the past, present
or future in the form of an active or passive statement, question or
exclamation:
All the students are/were given the subject programmes at the beginning of the term.
They have already been told the news.
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Why didn’t they arrive on Monday?
What a lovely morning it is!
• The Imperative Mood (liet. liepiamoji nuosaka) is used to express
positive or negative orders and requests valid in the situation:
Do it today (please)!
Do come before nine. (the auxiliary verb do serves to emphasize the
request)
Don’t cross the street here. It’s dangerous.
The Unreal Moods – Subjunctive, Suppositional and Conditional – refer to reality as half- or fully unreal: desired, possible or expected form the
speaker’s point of view. Some authors (Matthews 2005) distinguish only the
Subjunctive Mood on the basis of the verb form in the sentence.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
The Subjunctive Mood (liet. tariamoji nuosaka) is expressed through a grammatical form of the verb that is used to denote doubts and wishes realized
through the predicate of the sentence. From a structural point of view, the
forms are synthetic (one form – one or two meanings: Past Simple for present/
future desired actions) and analytical (two or more words – a few meanings:
Past Perfect/modal verb + Infinitive for past possible desired actions).
The synthetic Subjunctive Mood form is employed in two structural types
of sentences: simple and complex. In simple sentences, the Past Simple
form expresses wish:
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Oh, if only that storm were over! (liet. O kad ta audra jau baigtųsi!)
If only I were a little taller! (liet. O kad būčiau šiek tiek aukštesnė!)
The use of the form is determined by the communicative type of sentence,
an exclamatory one, introduced by if only for something not (easily) realized.
Note: It is of interest to note that the verb wish is used for saying that something is not true:
‘Did she give you some money?’ ‘I wish.’ (liet. Norėčiau!)
‘I told Sally that Ben was my boyfriend!’ ‘You wish!’ (liet. Norėtum! (Bet
to nebus!))
In complex sentences, the use of the synthetic Subjunctive form is determined by the main clause, which refers to time and wish, followed by an
attributive clause:
It’s time we went home (though it’s so nice here). (liet. Jau būtų laikas
eiti namo, (bet/nors čia taip gera.))
It’s time they were at home.
It’s time is also followed by an infinitive, which makes the sentence simple in
the Indicative Mood to denote a real fact of the action:
It’s time to go home: it’s very late. (liet. Laikas eiti namo. Jau vėlu.)
It’s time for them to take up something new.
Complex sentences with the main clause I wish usually take object clauses
for desired actions not possible at the time of speaking:
I wish the people here were more polite (=I would like things to be different from what they are). (liet. Norėčiau, kad čia žmonės būtų mandagesni).
We wish he went there as soon as possible.
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The synthetic form is also found in subordinate clauses of comparison, concession and unreal present/future condition:
They loved the girl as if she were their daughter.
Even if it were raining, I should go to see them.
If I were at home, I should/would see them by all means.
As we have already mentioned, the analytical Subjunctive forms are realized through Past Perfect and a modal verb + a bare infinitive. The Past
Perfect form refers to realized or unrealized past actions both in simple and
complex sentences from the point of view of the speaker’s wish or desire:
If only she had asked me for advice! – She didn’t ask me for advice and
now she is in trouble. (liet. O kad ji būtų paprašiusi mano patarimo!)
The Lithuanian language has an absolutely equivalent form for Past Perfect – būtajį atliktinį laiką, which points to a totally unreal past situation
viewed from the present time in expressing the speaker’s regret about it.
In complex sentences, the Past Perfect form is found in predicative, object
and adverbial clauses of comparison, concession and unreal condition:
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It looks as if they had never heard of university studies (university studies
are different from those at school).
I wish she had asked more questions on the subject (she didn‘t ask more
questions and the results of the test are deplorable).
The man gazed at the picture as if he had not seen anything like that in
his life.
Even if he had had a map, he would not have got out of the forest on his
own.
Would you have given him the money if he had asked you for it?
It is important to distinguish between two functions Past Perfect can perform in a sentence: the first and the basic function is to express past actions
completed before another past action or past time, as in:
He said he had been to London twice.
He had already done it by 12 o’clock.
In both cases the Past Perfect form presents real past actions in the Indicative Mood. When Past Perfect refers to unreal past actions, wished, regretted, etc., they perform the function of the Subjunctive Mood form; then it
is accompanied by additional semantic units – conjunctions (if only, even if,
as if, etc.) and main clauses which indicate the speaker’s subjective personal
attitude towards the situation described (I wish he would have done it, etc.).
The analytical Subjunctive form (modal verb + infinitive) is also used
in simple and complex sentences; however, the meaning of the desire or
regret is always accompanied by the meaning of the employed modal verb,
i.e. ability for can/could, possibility for may/might, duty, recommendation
for should, and volition, regret, dissatisfaction for would.
If only he could/might/should get the job!
I wish you could/might/should/would stay with us.
The bare indefinite infinitive refers the action to the present or future (liet.
sugebėtų/galėtų/norėtų, etc.: Gaila, kad negali, neprivalai, nenori pasilikti
su mumis).
When the indefinite infinitive is replaced by a perfect infinitive, the latter
indicates the past time of the action:
If only he could have passed the exam! (liet. O kad jis būtų sugebėjęs
išlaikyti egzaminą!)
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I wish he would have entered a university. (liet. Gaila, kad jis nenorėjo
įstoti į universitetą.)
The following table will illustrate the Subjunctive Mood forms, ways of their
expression and types of syntactic structures.
Table 1. Modern English Subjunctive Mood forms in time and sentence type.
Forms and
Synthetic
Analytical
time (Past Simple)
(Past Perfect or Cont./Modal + Infinitive)
Sentence types
Present/future
Present/future
Past
Simple sentences If only he
a) If only he could
a) If only they had
helped me with pass the exam!
taken our advice!
my English!
If only he would see
b) If only he could
his grandparents
have used the map!
more often!
(The Perfect Infinib) If only he were
tive is used for the
coming here! (Past
past actions)
Continuous refers to
the process of the
action)
Complex senIt’s (high) time The suggestion that
a) It’s (high) time he
tences
he came back. he would do it seems had chosen some1) Appositive/Atto be sensible.
where to study.
tributive clauses
b) The idea that he
(after time)
could have done
everything by himself sounded unbelievable.
2) Predicative
He looks as if
a) He looks as if he
a) He looks as if he
clauses
he were huncould solve any prob- had read everything
gry.
lems.
on the subject.
b) He looks as if he
b) He looked as if he
were coming here
could have changed
every day.
the plan of the paper.
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

Forms and
Synthetic
Analytical
time (Past Simple)
(Past Perfect or Cont./Modal + Infinitive)
Sentence types
Present/future
Present/future
Past
a) We wish they had
3) Object clauses I wish he gave a) I wish he could/
(after wish)
me an English would speak some
arrived the previous
book for a
foreign languages.
week.
present.
b) I wish he were
b) We wish they
coming more often.
could/would have
done better in the
finals.
4) Adverbial
He looked at
a) He talked as if he
a) He behaved as
clauses of
me as if he did would make an imthough he had never
a) comparison
not know me. pression on the audi- been abroad.
ence.
b) After the funeral
b) She was staring
she burst into tears
outside the window
as though her heart
as if she were remem- would have broken.
bering something.
b) concession
Poor though
a) Whatever he would a) Even if they had
her famtake up, he never
had good qualificaily were, they
came to an end.
tions, they wouldn’t
would never
b) Whatever he were have got the job.
ask for help.
doing, everything
b) Whatever the conturned out a failure.
ditions might have
been, we would
have done our best
to get to the point.
c) condition
If I were on
a) If he could/would
a) If he had taken
holiday, you
help us, I would/
our advice, he would
would not find should be surprised. have achieved his
me here.
b) If he were coming aim.
tomorrow, we would/ b) If they would have
should finish the work introduced the new
in time.
methods, we would
have succeeded.

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
Forms and
Synthetic
Analytical
time (Past Simple)
(Past Perfect or Cont./Modal + Infinitive)
Sentence types
Present/future
Present/future
Past
d) purpose
a) She always sets
__________
close to the stage so ______________
____
that she can see eve- _____
rything better.
b) She sat close to
the stage so that she
could see the stage
better.
THE SUPPOSITIONAL MOOD
The Suppositional Mood (liet. geidžiamoji nuosaka) is a grammatical form
of the verb that expresses the speaker’s belief that something is probably
true, based on his/her experience, knowledge and any other information
possessed. This Mood has two ways of expression: synthetic and analytical.
The synthetic Suppositional form is a plain verb stem for all persons (a
survival of the Old (English) Subjunctive Mood (Krylova 2007: 140). It expresses wish, concession and command in simple sentences:
Long live the Queen! (liet. Tegyvuoja karalienė!)
So be it! (liet. Tebūnie! Telieka kaip yra!)
Everybody leave the room! (liet. Tegu visi išeina iš kambario!)
In complex sentences, the plain verb stem is found in the following clauses:
1) Subject clauses introduced by the introductory it:
It is necessary that new programmes be implemented the following year.
(liet. ...būtų...)
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2)Object clauses after expressions of:
a) Order or suggestion:
We demand that drugs be prohibited.
He suggested that the Chairman be chosen our delegate.
b) Fear:
He feared lest he be mistaken. (liet. Jis bijojo, kad neapsiriktų.)
3) Adverbial clauses of
a) Concession: Whatever the reason be, the fact remains.
b) Condition: If in this heart a hope be dear, that sound shall charm it forth again. (Byron)
c) Purpose or reason: We shall start early lest we be late.
The use of the plain verb stem is usually determined by the style of communication, i.e. it is preferred in formal/official/bookish style (reports, rules,
regulations).
The analytical Suppositional Mood form should + bare infinitive replaces the synthetic form in neutral informal contexts to indicate the present/
future and past suppositions of the speaker.
The present/future reference to the action is always presented in the form
of recommendation or advice:
People should drive more carefully nowadays. (liet. Žmonės turėtų
važinėti atsargiau.)
You shouldn’t say things like that about your Granny. (liet. Neturėtum
taip kalbėti apie savo senelę.)
Applications should be sent before December 30th.
In the latter example should might be replaced by must, which would
be less polite. This fact may be explained through a deeper look into the
meaning of the very modal auxiliary should. Since Old English the modals
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shall and should have expressed one’s (the Subject’s) duty and obligation based on social rules, traditions, etc., while must refers to the speaker’s
personal subjective attitude towards the action. (Cf. You should learn it for
tomorrow (we may need it in class) and You must learn it for tomorrow (There
is no supposition, it is the speaker’s order, which may arouse some dissatisfaction on the listener’s part).
In interrogative sentences, should is employed to ask for advice or instructions nor being sure about the performance of the action:
Should I go and call the police? (I might go but is it really necessary?)
What should we do?
The past reference to events which didn’t happen or may not have happened is related to the meaning of regret because of not doing what was
supposed or expected:
I should have brought the book today, but I forgot. (I am sorry) (liet.
Turėjau atnešti...)
In this meaning should is always followed by a perfect infinitive.
Sometimes should may be replaced by ought to to express advice in cases
when we refer to a more objective force (Swan 1995:550), when we talk
about laws, duties and regulations or when we want our opinion to sound
strong enough related to the moral aspect of behaviour:
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You should/ought to go and see Mary some day. (Both possible)
We ought to go and see Mary tomorrow, but I don’t think we will. (liet.
Turėtume nueiti...) – The subject cannot give advice to itself.
So far, the analytical Suppositional Mood forms have been described in simple sentences; however, they are quite common in the subordinate clauses
of complex sentences:
1) Subject clauses with the introductory it:
It is necessary/important that we should take part at the meeting.
The introductory subject it introduces the real Subject – a clause (Cf. That we
should take part at the meeting is necessary/important). The purpose of the
formal introductory subject it is to draw the listener’s attention to the real
‘substantial’ Subject expressed by an infinitive phrase. The Subject Complement or Predicative is usually an adjective or a participle denoting necessity, importance, recommendation, suggestion, order, decision, etc.:
It was suggested by John that we should join them later.
It was surprising that they should read books like that. (They are too
young to read them.)
2)Predicative/Subject Complement clauses usually have the Subject
expressed by the nouns: aim, suggestion , wish, idea, etc. Which are
semantically related to supposition:
My suggestion was that we should discuss fundamental values as soon
as we face them.
His desire was that they should have no financial difficulties, at least this
year.
3)Object clauses usually follow predicate verbs of decision, suggestion, order, fear, etc. As well as verbal phrases with nouns of the same
meaning: to give instructions/orders, to make up one’s mind (=to decide), etc.:
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We decided that the children should spend their holidays at the seaside.
I was determined that they should see our old house.
The doctor suggested that we should rest a longer time.
Haven’t you made up your mind where we should go after school?
They feared lest they should lose their way.
The latter sentence causes difficulty for the learners because of the conjunction lest, which introduces something unpleasant on the one hand, and a
contradiction between the positive form and negative meaning of the object clause. (liet. Kad nepasimestų/nepasiklystų.)
4) Adverbial clauses of
a)Concession:
Though it should rain, we’ll have to go. (liet. Nors ir lytų...) – should indicates very little possibility (liet. Jei kartais ir lytų...).
b)Condition, which may have should + infinitive in both parts – main and subordinate clauses:
If it were not so late, I should stay longer.
When the analytical Suppositional Mood form is found in the main clause,
the subordinate conditional takes the synthetic Subjunctive Mood form for
present/future reference. When should + infinitive is used in the subordinate conditional clause, it always points to a faint or remote very little possibility of the action:
If you should meet him, as him to call me. (liet. Jeigu kartais sutiktum jį...)
c)Purpose/reason:
We shall start at seven lest we should miss the train.
He turned the radio down so that he shouldn’t disturb the lady down
stairs.
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5) Attributive/appositive clauses, introduced by the conjunction
that, may have a variety of verb tense-aspect forms in the Indicative
Mood:
He had the impression that the man was lying. (liet. …kad jis meluoja.)
The Suppositional Mood form should + infinitive is also found in appositive clauses whose antecedent is a noun expressing order, suggestion, demand, etc.
Her desire that we should visit Australia may be realized next year.
There is a possibility that she should recognize us at once.
The child’s idea that we should live in the country struck all of us.
Thus, the main reason for using the Suppositional Mood is semantic-communicative, the speaker’s supposition that the information presented is true
for some reason.
Table 2. The Suppositional Mood forms in Time and Sentence.
Forms / time
Sentence types
Simple sentences
(command, concession, wish, recommendation, advice,
etc.)
Complex sentences
1) formal introductory subject clauses
2) Predicative
clauses
Synthetic
(Plain verb stem)
Present / future
All come out at
once!
So be it!
Long live your
family!
It is advisable that
you leave your
things here.
_____________
Analytical
(should + infinitive)
Present/future
Past
You should see it
You should have
yourself.
been quicker to
get it.
It is advisable that
you should leave
your things here.
His wish was that
they should spend
their holidays
somewhere away
from home.
___________
___
His wish was that
they should have
spent their holidays somewhere
away from home.

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
Forms / time
Sentence types
3) Object clauses
4) Attributive/Appositive clauses
5) Adverbial clauses
of
a) concession
Synthetic
(Plain verb stem)
Present / future
He suggested
the girl be taken
home at once.
She feared lest
the meeting be
postponed.
_____________
Analytical
(should + infinitive)
Present/future
Past
He suggested that
the girl should
____________
be taken home at
once.
Whatever the
reason be, we
can’t forgive you
now.
Whatever you
should say now,
it’ll be difficult to
believe.
If the values be
kept, we’ll survive.
If they should meet ____________
Ann, tell them to
congratulate her on
the success.
____________
The idea that they ____________
should arrive on
Friday surprised us.
____________
b) condition
c) purpose, reason
We’ll hurry lest
She came in on tipwe be late for the toe lest she should
train.
wake up the child.
THE CONDITIONAL MOOD
The Conditional Mood (liet. sąlyginė nuosaka) is a grammatical way of expressing a speaker’s attitude towards reality characterized by the presence
of a constraint, a condition, i.e. circumstances under which the information presented is valid and understood by the listener/reader. The Mood is
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realized through certain verb forms of the Subjunctive and Suppositional
Moods as well as the conjunction if both in simple and complex sentences.
In simple sentences, the condition is expressed directly by the conjunction
if and the analytical Subjunctive Mood form:
If I only could speak Spanish!
In sentences of this type the result (the main clause) is not indicated (the
speaker might go to Spain or have a chat with a peer or someone from
Spain, etc.), the speaker expressing his wish, desire and emotional attitude.
However, the condition may be expressed indirectly, without if, unreality
present in the predicate verb – the analytical Subjunctive or Suppositional
Mood forms with the so-called hidden or implied condition:
I could help you (if you asked me).
I should do it (if need be).
The implied condition is to explain the situation making the sentence complete and encouraging the partner to continue the conversation.
In complex sentences, the condition is expressed in subordinate conditional clauses introduced by the conjunctions if, in case, unless, on condition
(that), providing (provided) that, supposing (suppose) that, which usually add
a meaning of their own due to their lexical content, as in:
I leave my telephone number in case you need me.
Here in case has the noun case, which adds the meaning of purpose (liet. …
tuo atveju/tada, kai…). Thus, unless introduces negation (only if… not) (liet.
jeigu ne…); on condition that implies constraint as well as a stylistic connotation – being formal, etc.
The Conditional Mood is used for real and unreal condition, which have
their own verb forms.
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Real conditional sentences take the Indicative/Imperative Mood verb
forms – Present Simple/ Continuous/Perfect and Future tense-aspect forms
for present and future actions respectively:
If I work hard, I always succeed.
If you are doing something, I won’t disturb you.
If you have finished the report by 5, call me.
If you will help me, I’ll be really grateful.
Real conditional sentences may occasionally refer to past actions, as in:
In the evenings we used to play badminton if there was no wind.
Unreal conditional sentences take the Subjunctive and Suppositional
Mood verb forms – Past Simple/Continuous/Perfect and modal verb + infinitive forms for present/future and past situations respectively:
If I were you, I would/should/could, etc. go there every weekend.
If they had had more practice, they would have done the job better.
The examples above illustrate two types of the unreal Conditional Mood:
Conditional 1 for present/ future situations and Conditional 2 for past unrealized actions (they had no or not enough practice).
Another type – Conditional 3 – is also called Mixed Conditional, which
means that the two clauses refer to different time or reality situations:
Present – Past: If I were more serious, he wouldn’t have been involved in the
matter.
Past – Present: If he had studied harder, he wouldn’t have so much trouble
now.
Real action – unreal action: Keep an eye on him, in case he should think of
something that might ruin our plans.
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PRACTICE SECTION
Exercise 1. Find and comment on the structure and meaning of the
Mood forms:
1. If that staid old house near the Green at Richmond should ever come to be
haunted when I am dead, it will be haunted, surely, by my ghost. 2. I wish you
had been there. 3. I have no idea what he is like, and wonder whether you
would bring him that I may find out. 4. I almost think I’ll go with Dawes, if he’ll
have me. 5. Vicky observed the scene out-of-body, as if it were happening to a
girl with a better sense of humour. 6. Now and then he would make a motion
with his feet as if he were running quickly backward upstairs ... 7. You are to
take me there, and bring me back, if you will. 8. If you were to renounce this
patronage and these favours, I suppose you would do so with some faint hope
of one day repaying what you have already had. 9. We ordered something
rather special for dinner, with a bottle of something similarly out of the common way, in order that our minds might be fortified for the occasion, and we
might come well up to the mark. 10. So you wish I’d taken a hundred pounds
a year from him. 11. The client looked scared, but bewildered too, as if he were
unconscious what he had done. 12. I only wish, dear man, you could be happier. 13. Mike looked hard at my guardian, as if he were trying to learn a lesson from his face... 14. When all this was resolved on, he returned again to his
friends, who were still staying at Pemberley; but it was agreed that he should
be in London once more when the wedding took place, and all money matters were then to receive the last finish. 15. If that’s Mr Rickety Elliot’s idea of
a soldier and an Englishman, it isn’t mine, and I wish I’d had a horsewhip. 16. I
wish you weren’t so modest. 17. We shut our outer door on these solemn occasions in order that we might not be interrupted. 18. If only it had been anyone else! 19. I wish I could see her. 20. For a reason that I had, I felt as if my eyes
would start out of my head. 21. You speak of yourself as if you were someone
else.. 22. Having thought of the matter with care, I approached my subject as
if I had never hinted at it before. 23. When I left, Estella was yet standing by
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the great chimney-piece, just as she had stood throughout. 24. But he insisted
on walking home with me, in order that I might make no extra preparation
for him, and first he had a letter or two to write, and (of course) had his hands
to wash. 25. The kid’s long fingers trembled on the gun’s cross-hatched grip
as if he were hiding something. 26. He was released and restored to his job
on the condition, which he accepted, that he speak for Peron at public meetings. 27. If only Evita would lend him to me – just for fifteen minutes. 28. If we
miss the last bus., we’ll have to walk home. 29. If you should happen to meet
Diana, would you give her a message? 30. OK. I’ll come with you if you will
promise not to go too fast. 31.“You shouldn’t have used it all up before your
birthday, then,” I told him angrily. 32. People would talk about it and I hoped I
would be liked. 33. If I had won the lottery, I’d have bought a Ferrari. 34. If anyone were to complain, I should merely tell them to write to the manager. 35. I
suggest that everything be finished by May. 36. Their decision was that the
child should be sent to school immediately. 37. Odo resolved that this year he
would rectify matters, but knew, even as the thought occurred, that he would
not. 38. Eddie didn’t respond. He turned the pages of the Irish Times, wishing
it were something livelier, the Star or the Express. 39. If for any reason a police
car signalled him to stop, he would be found to have more than the permitted
quantity of alcohol in his bloodstream. 40. If you had followed the map, we
would be at home by now. 41. All the time when there had been that silence
they had gone on eating, as if leaving the food on their plates would be too
dramatic a gesture. 42. You should have seen the look on his face when I told
him I’d won. 43. If anyone has found a bunch of keys, would they please leave
them on my desk? 44. Wouldn’t it be nice if we could spend more time with
the children? 45. The officer ordered that everyone stay in their places. 46. If
he were more careful, there wouldn’t have been an accident. 47. “What happened to my bag?” – “How should I know?” 48. “Ken would never break his
promise.” – “I should hope not.” 49. “Should it start raining, get the children
inside, will you?” – “Why should I? Ann could do it.” 50. If you should need any
help, just call. 51. I said we should meet the guests ourselves.
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Exercise 2.
a) Express regret/wish about the indicated present and future
events using the Subjunctive Mood. Follow the example:
- What a pity we don’t go to the cinema today!
- If only we went to the cinema today! (the film is said to be very interesting)
1. It is a pity we have not enough money for the books. 2. What a pity it’s
so late! 3. It seems such a pity to be indoors in lovely weather like this. 4. It
is a great pity we cannot visit the Louvre! 5. ‘I cannot get any tickets for the
game!’ ‘Oh, what a pity!’ 6. Why is he so unkind to us? 7. Unfortunately, it is
so hot today! 8. I am sorry I cannot do it for you right now. 9. Your sister is
always like this. 10. It is a pity we are not at the seaside now.
b) Express regret about the past events in the sentences below using the Subjunctive Mood. Follow the example:
- I saw both of them at the cinema yesterday.
- If only you hadn’t seen them together.
1. We had no money left then. 2. Unfortunately, I spent all your money on
books. 3. He forgot to give us the change. 4. He did not get any letters from
his uncle. 5. We had to pay for the books twice, I am sorry. 6. Why didn’t you
interfere? 7. You spoke to them very rudely. 8. Why did they arrive so late? 9.
I didn’t know how to tell them about the incident. 10. He came in drunk.
Exercise 3. Make your choice of a correct form of the Subjunctive Mood
in the following sentences. Comment on the situation.
I wish I were at the seaside now. The sea and the sand are so pleasant at this
time of the year.
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I wish you would give me an English book as a present. You have never given
me one.
I wish I hadn’t spent so much time with you. It was useless to persuade you
to change your mind.
1. I wish I (have) a good time at the party. 2. My friend wishes he (spend) his
holiday somewhere far from home. 3. I wish you (make) an appointment
with the doctor. 4. We wish he (not commit) all those crimes. 5. I wish I (be)
as good a dancer as Ann. 6. I wish the weather (be) warmer at this time of the
year. 7. He wishes his sister (not be) rude to Mary. 8. I wish I (not answer) his
letter so soon. 9. I wish my teacher (give) me another chance. 10. She wishes
her brother (take) her for the holiday in France.
Exercise 4. Paraphrase with WISH:
1. I’m sorry I haven’t got a washing machine. 2. I’m sorry I don’t live near my
work. 3. I’m sorry our garden doesn’t get any sun. 4. I’m sorry I called him a
liar. 5. I’m sorry I didn’t book a seat. 6. I’m sorry I can’t drive. 7. I’d like you to
keep quiet, you are making so much noise that I can’t think. 8. It’s a pity you
are going out tonight. 9.I’d like you to wait for me. 10. I’m sorry I left my last
job. 11. It’s a pity you didn’t ask him how to get there. 12. I’m sorry you aren’t
going to a job where you could use your English.
Exercise 5. Replace the verbs in brackets by suitable Indirect Mood
forms to indicate a) comparison, concession, condition or purpose and
b) subject, predicative, attributive/appositive and object syntactic relationships. You may use a modal verb if need be:
a) 1. She breathed as if she (to run) a long way. 2. When we came, she was
arranging books on the table so that every visitor (to see) all of them. 3. They
talked in low voices so that the parents (not to hear) them. 4. She put her
hand over her eyes as if she (to be blinded) by the strong light. 5. He would
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be happy if Mary (to agree) to spend the weekend at his parents’ place. 6.
If he (to be) my husband, I’d divorce him. 7. And if (to come) such a birthday, I would charter the boat without hesitation. 8. We went to the theatre together so that we (to get) home safely after the performance. 9. The
man stepped aside so that we (to speak) to the cashier who (to know) the
prices of the tickets. 10. The man closed the gates at once so that nobody
(to get) into the yard. 11. I wonder what would happen if Jack (to return)
earlier. 12. He was standing in the shadow so that I (to see) his face clearly.
13. The old man would complain to anyone so that he (to get) money, food
or a little attention, at least. 14. What happened? You look as if you (to lose)
everything you had. 15. At first he sounded as if he (not to understand) what
was happening. 16. She looked as though she (to win) a million. Do you happen to know the reason for it? 17. If I could influence the party policies, the
situation surely (to change) for the better. 18. If they (to think) of the consequences, their decision would have been different. 19. Whatever they (to
decide), we’ll accept. 20. The children looked at me as though they (to know)
me for ages. 21. The girl spoke French as if she (to live) in Paris for years. 22.
He left quietly lest his neighbours (to see) him.
b) 1. They looked as if they (not to sleep) a few days and nights. 2. I wished I
(to know) what to say at the moment. It might have changed the situation.
3. We were anxious that the children (to choose) the right professions in
life. 4. Children demand that teachers (to be) kind, tolerant and understanding, but they do not care how they (to behave) themselves. 5. Her wish that
we (to come) to her place for the holiday was quite
unexpected. 6. It is
important that students (to understand) the necessity of serious university
studies. 7. I cannot understand why you (to be) so angry about my words.
8. The man looked as though he (to know) everything in the house. 9. Your
status requires that you (to dress) in a different way. 10. The suggestion that
Mary (to give up) her bad habits appealed to her parents most of all. 11. It
is necessary that the Mayor (to pay) more attention to the needs of the city.
12. They were anxious that the food (to be) of the best quality. 13. I was
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surprised that such young children (to know) so many poems in English and
Russian. 14. His desire was that his family (to move) to the capital city with
more chances to get better jobs. 15. We wish the neighbours (to keep) quiet
at the weekend. 16. The boy wished his parents (to tell) the truth about his
birth. 17. It was strange that the child (to behave) in an unusual way. 18. Her
advice that we (to make) another attempt was encouraging. 19. We demand
that the work (to finish) by Monday. 20. We were surprised that such a young
child (to know) Shakespeare.
Exercise 6. Translate the sentences into English, using Indirect Mood
verb forms:
a)Comparison
1. Jis sėdėjo už stalo tarytum rašytų, bet jis nei rašė, nei skaitė. 2. Jis žiūrėjo
į mane tarytum manęs nesuprasdamas. 3. Šuo sveikino šeimininką lyg jie
seniai būtų matęsi. 4. Jis atrodė taip, lyg tuoj tuoj pravirktų. 5. Ji jautėsi labai
pavargusi, lyg būtų ilgai vaikščiojusi. 6. Ji ir toliau apžiūrinėjo kambarį, lyg
kažko tai ieškotų. 7. Atrodė, lyg derybos užsitęs dar keletą dienų.
b)Purpose
1. Aš informuoju tave apie visus šiuos dalykus tam, kad mes galėtume viens
kitą geriau suprasti. 2. Jis liepė mums sėsti ant mašinos galinės sėdynės tam,
kad mes galėtume pasikalbėti. 3. Jis apsimetė, kad su kažkuo kalba, tam kad
tarnas nepagalvotų, jog jis kambaryje vienas. 4. Ji kalbėjo tyliai, kad motina
mūsų neišgirstų. 5. Paskambink man, kai išvažinėsi, kad aš žinočiau, kada
tavęs laukti.
c)Condition
1. Aš niekad nebūčiau pagalvojęs, kad tai įmanoma, jei nebūčiau matęs to
savo akimis. 2. Tuo atveju, jei tau kartais tektų netikėtai išvykti, atsiųsk man
raštelį. 3. Man pjesė būtų patikusi labiau, jei ji nebūtų tokia ilga. 4. Jei jis būtų
atėjęs laiku, tai galėjo ir neįvykti. 5. Pasilik su juo. Jeigu jis kartais ko nors
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paprašytų, pranešk man. 6. Užrakink duris, kad niekas netrukdytų. 7. Jeigu
ne tu, nežinau, ką būčiau daręs. 8. Jis pasakė, ką ir kiti būtų galėję pasakyti,
jei tik jie būtų buvę atviri.
d) Object/Subject
1. Paskui jis pasiūlė nutraukti diskusiją ir pakalbėti apie ką nors kitą. 2. Jis
pyksta, kad Paul įsimylėjo jo seserį. 3. Tėvas norėjo eiti pėsčiomis, bet mama
primygtinai reikalavo, kad važiuotume mašina. 4. Kai tik mes atsisėdome,
jis pareikalavo, kad nuimtų žvakes. 5. Čarlis patarė pavalgyti ir paskui
eiti į teatrą. 6. Aš buvau susijaudinęs, kad jis man nepaskambino. 7. Aš
džiaugiuosi, kad jūs taip gerai galvojate apie mano sūnų. 8. Keista, kad ji
pati ėmėsi šios užduoties. 9. Šiuo atveju labai svarbu, kad jis nepadarytų
klaidos. 10. Buvo kvaila, kad ji taip supyko dėl prisvilusių pietų. 11. Įmanoma
ir tai, kad jis išvyko vienas. 12. Gaila, kad tavo dukra visai nepanaši į tave.
13. Kartais gailiuosi, kad nusprendei parašyti šią knygą, Semai. 14. O kad tu
vėl pradėtum rašyti eilėraščius. 15. Ji apgailestavo, kad ji negalėjo girdėti,
apie ką buvo kalbama apačioje. 16. Jam seniai laikas mums paaiškinti, ką jis
sugalvojo. 17. Kaip manai, ar ne laikas mums prisijungti prie svečių?
Exercise 7. Translate into English using the proper Mood forms.
1. Gaila, kad tavęs ten nebuvo. 2. Tu nori, kad būčiau paėmusi iš jo 100
svarų? 3. O kad tu malonėtum būti ne tokia įžūli! 4. Aš tik noriu, mano
brangioji, kad tu būtum laimingesnė. 5. Gaila, kad ten buvai tu. 6. O kad ji
malonėtų/teiktųsi man parašyti bent žodelį! 7. Jei tik tu nebekalbėtum apie
jo pasiekimus! 8. Atrodo, lyg greitai pradėtų lyti. 9. Ji atrodė lyg verktų/būtų
verkusi. 10. Jeigu jis ateitų anksčiau, paprašyk palaukti. 11. Jeigu jis būtų
susidomėjęs muzika, lankytų muzikos mokyklą. 12. O kad jis mus dažniau
aplankytų! 13. Gaila, kad jis negali pernakvoti pas mus. 14. O kad jie nebūtų
pamiršę išsiųsti laiškų! 15. Gaila, kad jie negalėjo apsispręsti imtis naujos
veiklos. 16. Jam seniai laikas apsispręsti. 17. Grindys kambaryje buvo tokios purvinos, lyg jų nebūtų plovę keletą savaičių. 18. Jei mes neturėtume
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bagažo, galėtume pasiekti stotį pėstute. 19. Tavo vietoje to nedaryčiau.
20. Mergaitė tyliai sėdėjo, lyg žiūrėtų TV. 21. Buvo nuspręsta, kad vaikai eis
į zoologijos sodą iškart po pusryčių. 22. Jis pareikalavo, kad su juo iš karto
atsiskaitytų. 23. Aš nuėjau į savo kambarį tam, kad niekas manęs netrukdytų
valandą ar dvi. 24. Dabar jis nepadarytų tokios klaidos. 25. Aš manyčiau, jis
tai galėtų sugebėti. 26. Apie ją nuolat kalbėjo taip, 3-iuoju asmeniu, lyg jos
ten nebūtų. 27. Jei aš kada nors jį vėl sutikčiau, žinosiu, ką daryti. 28. Gaila,
aš negaliu tau apie tai papasakoti. 29. Man pasiūlė parašyti knygai recenziją.
30. Jei ne jo šypsena, aš nieko nebūčiau įtarus. 31. Būk atsargus su raktu. Jei
kartais jį pamestum, mes niekada neatrakinsime tų durų. 32. Mes bijojome,
kad tik jis nesusirgtų. 33. Laikas jį budinti. 34. Kaip gaila, kad aš nežinojau,
kad tau reikalinga ta knyga. Aš galėjau ją nupirkti Londone. 35. Svarbu,
kad nepadarytum nė vienos klaidos. 36. Jei kartais situacija nepasikeistų,
nežinosiu, ką daryti. 37. Jis bijojo, kad nebūtų dukterėčiai blogu pavyzdžiu.
38. Niekad nebūčiau pagalvojęs, kad tai galėjo atsitikti, jei nebūčiau visko
matęs savo akimis. 39. Tavim dėtas šito nedaryčiau. 40. Jie mums pasiūlė
praleisti savaitgalį prie jūros. Ką tu pasakysi apie tai? 41. Spektaklis man
būtų patikęs labiau, jei nebūtų buvęs toks ilgas. 42. Jei ne jo liga, šeima
būtų persikrausčiusi gyventi į miestą. 43. Jei jis būtų atėjęs laiku, nieko
nebūtų įvykę. 44. Kur tu eitum, jei nelytų? 45. Aš būsiu namuose, jei kartais nuspręstum užsukti puodeliui arbatos. 46. Jei nebūtum toks užsiėmęs,
galėtume nueiti kur nors papietauti. 47. Jei neturėtumėte šitiek lagaminų,
galėtume nueiti iki stoties pėsčiomis. 48. Būsiu savo biure, jei kartais kas
klaustų. 49. Jei situacija nepasikeis iki sekmadienio, pakliūsiu į bėdą. 50. Aš
tikrai pabandyčiau pelnyti tavo pasitikėjimą, jei suteiktum man antrą šansą.
51. Jei taip atsitiktų, mes turėtume išsiųsti tave namo. 52. Būčiau dėkingas,
jei niekam nepasakotum, kas nutiko. 53. Tavim dėta (tavo vietoj), Meg, aš
netikėčiau šiomis paskalomis. 54. Alice manė, kad būtų gražu, jei ir tu prisijungtum. 55. Jei atsisakytum jos dovanos, ji labai nuliūstų. 56. Jei ne brolio
artėjančios vestuvės, būčiau išvykęs į Paryžių. 57. Jeigu mama paklaustų,
kur aš, pasakyk, kad išėjau pasivaikščioti. 58. Po 10 minučių pirmininkas
pasiūlė baigti diskusijas ir pakeisti temą. 59. Mama primygtinai reikalavo,
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kad eičiau (pasiimčiau) atostogų. 60. Nustebau, kad toks mažas vaikas
skaitytų šią knygą. 61. Jie suplanavo, kad vaikai išvažiuotų pailsėti į Italiją.
62. Buvo svarbu, kad niekas neįspėtų jų apie netikėtą užpuolimą. 63. Man
atrodo būtina, kad niekas netrukdytų jiems užbaigti darbą. 64. Nepanašu, kad
jie susidraugautų ir pasikeistų adresais. 65. Susitarėme, kad Ana kalbėtų pirmoji. 66. Patartina ją labiau prižiūrėti. 67. Gaila, kad negalime susisiekti su savo
atstovu tuojau pat. 68. Jie pareikalavo, kad mes įteiktume programas kitą
savaitę. 69. Atrodė būtina, kad tyrimą pradėtų nedelsiant. 70. O kad viskas kuo
greičiau susitvarkytų! (got patched up) 71. Gaila, kad jie taip retai atvažiuoja
pas mus. 72. Gerai būtų, kad jis teiktųsi/malonėtų paskambinti tuojau pat, kai
tik atvyks. 73. Kaip norėčiau, kad jis parašytų daugiau. 74. Paskubėkime! Jau
pats laikas pietauti. 75. Ji bijojo, kad lėktuvas nevėluotų. 76. Jei turėčiau savo
namą, auginčiau katę ir šunį. 77. Būtum mačiusi, kaip ji atrodė po tos kelionės!
78. Tau reikėjo tik paklausyti, kaip ji kalbėjo apie tuos vaikus. 79. Jeigu tik
būčiau spėjusi į traukinį! 80. Gaila, kad jie nesuprato mūsų ketinimų. 81. Man
atrodo, kad jos tėvai turėtų būti labai nusiminę. Jos semestro rezultatai visai
prasti. 82. O kad būčiau žinojusi apie jos dabartinę padėtį! 83. Jau būtų laikas
eiti namo, bet čia taip malonu. 84. Jau laikas miegoti. Kur tavo pižama? 85. Ji
atrodė, lyg būtų nemiegojusi visą parą. 86. Gaila, kad ji neturi su kuo pasitarti.
Jai labai reikia gero patarimo iš žmogaus, kuriuo galėtų pasitikėti. 87. Siūlau
eiti pasivaikščioti, nes jau per ilgai čia sėdime.
Exercise 8. Complete the sentences giving your reasons for the choice
of the Mood form.
1. If I can, ......... 2. Should Ms Brown call, ......... 3. I would have done it ......... 4.
If they were on holiday, ......... 5. He suggested ......... 6. I wish he ......... 7. You
should ......... 8. If I had had more sense, ......... 9. But for the weather......... 10.
The order was ......... 11. He suggested that......... 12. Why should .........? 13. If
only they.........! 14. They wished......... 15. It was time......... 16. The suggestion
was ......... 17. I felt as if ......... 18. She promised ......... 19. If Luke paid more attention to his classes, ......... 20. She said she.........
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Exercise 9. Express the following meanings using suitable predicate
verb forms in the corresponding Mood. Give your reason for the chosen form.
1. Advice (should/ought to) (If you should need..., I’ll.....)
2. Offering your opinion (I should think/imagine...)
3. Surprise (you shouldn’t....)
4. A possible wish (I wish I went... / if only....!)
5. An unrealized desire (I wish he had done...)
6. Doubt (If you should...)
7. Willingness of the Subject
8. Order (S1)
9. Imaginary situations
10.Polite requests
11. Suggestion
12.Disbelief
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REFERENCES
1. Alexander, L.G. ((1998). Longman English Grammar. Longman Ltd.
2. Biber, D., Conrad, S., Leech, G. (2002) Student Grammar of Spoken and
Written English. Pearson Education Ltd.
3. Downing, A., Locke, P. (1995). A University Course in English Grammar.
Prentice Hall International.
4. Halliday, M A K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. Oxford
University Press.
5. Kobrina, N.A., Korneyeva, M.I., Osovskaya, K.A., Guzeyeva, K.A. (2006). An
English Grammar. Morphology. Syntax. St.Petersburgh.
6. Krylova, I.P., Gordon, E.M. (2007) A Grammar of Present-Day English. Moscow.
7. Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1975). A Communivative Grammar of English. Longman Group Limited.
8. Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2002). Macmillan
Publishers Ltd.
9. Matthews, P.H. (2005) The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford
University Press.
10.Norušaitienė, V., Trapnauskienė, J. (2008) The Basics of English Syntax: the
Simple Sentence. Vilnius: Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto leidykla.
11. Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English (2002). Oxford University Press.
12.Parrott, M. (2000) Grammar for English Language Teachers. Cambridge
University Press.
13.Swan, M. (1995) Practical English Usage. Oxford University Press.
111
SOURCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9. Alcott L.M. (1994). Little Women. Penguin Popular Classics.
Austen, J. (1994). Pride and Prejudice. Wordsworth Editions Limited.
Coelho P. (2004). The Pilgrimage. Harper Collins Publishers.
Dickens Ch. (1994). Great Expectations. Penguin Popular Classics.
Fitzgerald F. S. (1994). The Great Gatsby. Penguin Popular Classics.
Forster, E. M. (1984). The Longest Journey. Penguin Books Ltd.
Galsworthy J. The Apple Tree
(available at: http://www.readbookonline.net/readOnLine/13984/)
Lawrence D.H. (1995). Sons and Lovers. Penguin Popular Classics.
Birthday Stories (2006). Selected and Introduced by Haruki Murakami.
Vintage books. London.
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Gerda Mazlaveckienė, Valerija Norušaitienė, Jurgita Trapnauskienė
ENGLISH SYNTAX: THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE. THE MOOD: Teaching
Aid. Vilnius: Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto leidykla, 2010. 114 p.
ISBN 978-9955-20-574-6
Ši metodinė priemonė skiriama anglų filologijos bakalauro studijų
programos studentams, taip pat mokytojų perkvalifikavimo
programų dalyviams, studijuojantiems sudėtinio anglų kalbos
sakinio struktūrą, nuosaką, jų semantiką ir komunikacinės raiškos
aspektus.
UDK 802.0-56(075.8)
Ma724
Redagavo autorės
Maketavo Donaldas Petrauskas
Viršelio autorė Dalia Raicevičiūtė
SL 605. 7,25 sp. l. Tir. 150. Užsak. Nr. 010-135
Išleido ir spausdino Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto leidykla
T. Ševčenkos g. 31, LT-03111 Vilnius
Tel. +370 5 233 3593, el. p. [email protected]
www.leidykla.vpu.lt
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