Download Infant and Toddler Development Part I

INFANT AND TODDLER DEVELOPMENT
PART I: THEORIES & PRINCIPLES
OKLAHOMA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE
CORE IN-SERVICE
NOVEMBER 3, 2008
10:00-11:30 A.M.
Debbie Richardson, M.S.
Parenting Assistant Extension Specialist
Human Development & Family Science
Oklahoma State University
INTRODUCTION

Centra Instructions

Overview of In-service

Resource Materials
Infant-Toddler Dev 1, D. Richardson
Welcome
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IN-SERVICE OBJECTIVE
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Extension Educators will be able to
identify major developmental theories,
key principles, and domains as
applied to infants and toddlers
birth to age 3.
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DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
Physical
Emotional
Cognitive
Social

All areas are developing at the same time.

They are related and influence each other.

Development may not be even in all domains.

Important to respect each child as individual.
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PHYSICAL DOMAIN
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 Changes
in body size
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 Proportions
 Appearance
 Functioning
 Brain
of body systems
development
 Perceptual
 Physical
& motor capacities
health
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COGNITIVE DOMAIN
Infant-Toddler Dev 1, D. Richardson
processes
 Intellectual abilities
 Attention
 Memory
 Academic and everyday knowledge
 Problem solving
 Imagination
 Creativity
 Language
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 Thought
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EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL
DOMAINS
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 Emotional
communication
 Ability
to manage one’s own feelings
 Knowledge
about other people
 Interpersonal
 Friendships
 Moral
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 Self-understanding
skills
and intimate relationships
reasoning
 Behavior
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THEORIES AND FRAMEWORKS
OF DEVELOPMENT
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A
Infant-Toddler Dev 1, D. Richardson
theory of child development is a belief
system about how and why children grow,
learn, and behave as they do.
 Theories
or frameworks grow out of efforts to
make sense of scientific observations and
research is used to test and support
hypotheses.
 Schools
of thought, paradigms, perspectives
 Different
theoretical frameworks are useful
for understanding different areas of
behavior.
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PREDOMINANT DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
BIRTH TO 3
Freud
1900-30’s

Behaviorist
Watson, Skinner
1910-80’s

Maturationist
Gesell
1940-50’s

Psychosocial
Erikson
1950-80’s

Cognitive
Piaget
1950-70’s

Attachment
Bowlby, Ainsworth 1960-80’s

Social Learning
Bandura
1960-90’s

SocioCultural
Vygotsky
1930,60-90’s

Ecological Systems
Bronfenbrenner
1980-90’s
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Psychodynamic
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PSYCHODYNAMIC
FREUD
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mainly with personality formation
 3 aspects: Id, ego, superego
 Unconscious forces act to determine personality
and behavior - infantile wishes, desires,
demands and needs that are hidden from
awareness.
 Psychological growth is a process of resolving
emotional conflicts between instinctual desires
and demands of the real world.
 Early childhood experiences affect later
development. An individual’s personality is
“set” in childhood.
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 Concerned
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FREUD’S STAGES OF
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
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stages - a particular body region is the
focus of sensual satisfactions.

Oral – birth to age 1: mouth, tongue,
gums; emotional attachment to person
providing satisfactions (i.e. feeding)

Anal – 1 to 3 years: control and selfcontrol (i.e. elimination, tolieting)
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PSYCHOSOCIAL
 Focus
on emotional development.
change occurs in 8 stages
over the lifespan. Stages emerge in a fixed
pattern, similarly for all people.
 Each
stage presents a crisis or conflict of
emotional states that the individual must
resolve to feel competent and self-fulfilled.
 Although
no crisis is ever fully resolved,
each stage must be sufficiently addressed to
deal with demands of the next stage.
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 Developmental
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ERIKSON
 Basic
 Autonomy
Vs. Shame/Doubt (Will)
About 18 mo./2 yrs. to 3½ yrs
To develop a sense of self-sufficiency in
satisfying one’s needs.
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Trust Vs. Mistrust (Hope)
Infancy through 1 to 2 years
To learn that others can be trusted to
satisfy basic needs.
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ERIKSON’S STAGES OF
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
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BEHAVIORIST
WATSON, SKINNER
notion that individuals pass through
series of stages
is a blank slate at birth and is simply
filled in over time by experiences in
environment.
 Based
on stimulus-response relationships; if we
know the stimuli, we can predict behavior
 Classical
& operant conditioning
child’s development and control their
behavior in a desired direction with rewards,
praise, modeling, reinforcement, etc.
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 Child
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 Reject
 Shape
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MATURATIONIST
GESELL
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Most of what children become is inherited at birth.

Behaviors simply unfold as children mature with age.




Some characteristics of children are genetically
determined at birth (i.e. interpersonal styles,
temperament).
Environment plays a minor role.
Typical growth and development patterns –
developmental milestones when certain
characteristics could be expected to emerge.
Universal sequential steps.
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COGNITIVE
PIAGET

Children learn because they are motivated to make
sense of the world. They actively construct their own
knowledge.
Growth can be explained by:
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
Focuses on processes of knowing, understanding, and
thinking about the world. Intellectual development.
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
Assimilation: process of understanding an
experience in terms of current state of cognitive
development.

Accommodation: changes in existing ways of
thinking in response to encounters with new
stimuli or events (relating new information to prior 17
knowledge).
PIAGET’S GENERAL PRINCIPLES
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 Social
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interaction is essential for cognitive
development.
 Children often think in qualitatively different ways
at different age levels.
 Children’s knowledge and cognitive processes
become increasingly better organized, integrated.
 A child’s readiness affects the extent to which a
specific task can promote cognitive development.
 Cognition and language are closely intertwined.
 Children pass in a fixed sequence through a series
of universal stages; master the ability to use
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symbols and to reason.

Egocentrism
in language
and perceptions.
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 Preoperational Stage
Sensorimotor Stage
Birth to 18 mos/2 years
2-7 years
Relies on movement and Use symbols and internal
thought to solve problems.
senses to “know” things.
Represent objects beyond
Can’t represent objects
immediate view.
beyond immediate view
Thinking still tied to concrete
Nonverbal
objects and “here & now”.
Fooled by appearance of
Milestones: object
things.
permanence and mental
Irreversibility
representation
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PIAGET’S STAGES
OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
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ATTACHMENT
BOWLBY, AINSWORTH
 Gradually
develops during early months and
years of child’s life; usually formed by 7 mos.
 Develops
in context of an infant’s signals for
attention and comfort.
 Biological predisposition to use caregiver as a
haven of safety or a secure base for exploring.
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bond that develops between an
infant and a caregiver; mutual, reciprocal
relationship (child and parent are partners).
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 Emotional
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ATTACHMENT PRINCIPLES
are formed to only a few persons.
“selective attachments” appear to derive
from social interactions with the attachment
figures.
 They
lead to organizational changes in
infant’s behavior and brain function.
 Explains
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 These
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 Attachments
connection between relationships
that occur early in life and those that happen
later.
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HOW ATTACHMENT DEVELOPS
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experiences influence sense of control,
security, self-worth.
 Repeated daily transactions between the
infant and the parent lead the infant to
develop expectations about caregiving. Sense
whether caregiver is predictable, responsive,
and available to meet needs.
 Gradually organized into a “road map” of the
relationship-an internal working model
 Internal working models are not immutable.
Such factors as traumas, losses and new
attachments may alter internal models.
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 Early
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ATTACHMENT PRINCIPLES
attachment leads to positive developmental
outcomes.
 Most
 Problems
may result if you miss the window of
opportunity.
 Quality
of attachment may be influenced by:
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infants develop attachments but quality
differs.
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 Secure

Characteristics and history of child and/or parent

Environmental influences that get in the way of
sensitive and responsive parenting - AODA,
psychopathology, anxiety, depression, chaotic lives,
lack of social support, family conflict and violence 23
ATTACHMENT CLASSIFICATIONS
AINSWORTH

Insecure
Anxious-resistant or ambivalent
Anxious-avoidant
Disorganized/Disoriented
(Main & Solomon, 1990)
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Secure –
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Child
Caregiver
Secure
Protests caregiver's departure;
comforted on return, returning to
exploration.
Responds appropriately, promptly
and consistently to needs.
AnxiousAvoidant
Little or no distress on
departure; little or no visible
response to return. Quality of
play often low.
Little or no response to distressed
child. Discourages crying and
encourages independence.
Anxiousresistant or
Ambivalent
Sadness on departure but warms Inconsistent between appropriate
to stranger. On return,
and neglectful responses.
ambivalence, anger, reluctance to
warm to caregiver and return to
play. Preoccupied with
caregiver's availability.
Disorganized
On return such as freezing or
rocking. Lack of coherent coping
strategy (such as approaching
but with the back turned).
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Attachment
pattern
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Frightened/frightening behavior,
intrusiveness, withdrawal,
negativity, role confusion,
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affective communication errors
and maltreatment
SOCIAL-COGNITIVE LEARNING
BANDURA
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Behavior is learned through observation & imitation.
 Behavioral change is largely a social process.
 Likely to imitate the behavior of a model seen as
being rewarded.
 Importance of cognition, thinking – children’s ability
to listen, remember, and abstract general rules from
complex sets of observed behavior affects their
imitation and learning.
 Also strong emphasis on how children think about
themselves and other people.
 Children gradually become more selective in what
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they imitate.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
(BANDURA 1986)
Person/Internal
Forces
Behavior
Environment
SOCIOCULTURAL
VYGOTSKY



Must take into account cultural influences.
Learning is a social process in which teachers,
adults, and other children form supportive
“scaffolding” on which a child can gradually master
new skills (e.g. asking questions, prompting).
Children’s understanding of world is acquired
through problem-solving, interactions, play.
Zone of proximal development – when a solution to a
problem is just beyond the child’s ability level.
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
Learning leads to development; active, internal
construction of knowledge through action.
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LANGUAGE
AND
THINKING
VYGOTSKY



Nonverbal thought – observe objects or events, perform
actions without using language

Nonconceptual speech – utters words or phrases without
thinking about what they mean.
At first, language & thinking are separate processes.
A toddler gradually associates them and starts
thinking in more complex ways.
Language is not merely a mode of expression, but a
fundamental tool for constructing knowledge.
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
Children engage in 2 distinct and independent mental
activities in the early infancy:
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ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
BRONFENBRENNER
 Individuals
are significantly affected by
interactions among a number of overlapping
systems in which they live.
 Family,
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processes do not occur in a
vacuum but are influenced by factors in the
immediate environment, society and culture
as a whole.
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 Developmental
community, and societal factors must
be optimal for children to learn and be
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healthy.
SOCIAL CONTEXT OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
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BRONFENBRENNER
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IMPORTANT USES OF THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES
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 Make
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program objectives, educational activities,
parenting recommendations, service providers
more powerful and effective.
 Check assumptions and theories used within
various child development & parenting programs .
 Identify concepts and actions that may indicate
your own, parents’ or other caregivers’ orientation
and personal frameworks.
 Find practices consistent with values and
philosophies.
 Understand how different frameworks may be
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used to address different issues.
CORE CONCEPTS
CHILD DEVELOPMENT
2. Culture influences every aspect and is reflected
in childrearing beliefs and practices.
3. Growth of self-regulation is a cornerstone of
early development and cuts across all domains
of behavior.
4. Children are active participants in their own
development; intrinsic human drive to explore
and master one’s environment.
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1. Shaped by dynamic and continuous interaction
of biology and experience (nature & nurture).
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From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood
Development. National Research Council, Institute of Medicine (2000).
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CORE CONCEPTS
CHILD DEVELOPMENT (CONT’D)
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6. Large differences among young children often
makes it difficult to distinguish normal
variations and maturational delays from
transient disorders and persistent
impairments.
7. Unfolds along individual pathways whose
trajectories are characterized by continuities
and discontinuities, as well as by a series of
significant transitions.
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5. Relationships are the building blocks of
healthy development.
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CORE CONCEPTS
CHILD DEVELOPMENT (CONT’D)
10.Development can be altered in early
childhood by effective interventions that
change the balance between risk and
protection in favor of more adaptive
outcomes.
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9. Timing of early experiences matter, but
child remains vulnerable to risks and open
to protective influences into adulthood.
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8. Shaped by the ongoing interplay among
sources of vulnerability and sources of
resilience.
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WRAP-UP

Discussion

In-service evaluation

Follow-up

Next Session: Tomorrow, November 4
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Questions
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REFERENCES
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Infant-Toddler Dev 1, D. Richardson
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Appleyard, K., & Berlin, L. (2007). Supporting healthy relationships between
young children and their parents: Lessons from attachment theory and
research. www.childandfamilypolicy.duke.edu/eca/Attachment/index.htm
Debord, K., Goddard, H. W., & Myers-Walls, J. A., Bower, D., Mulroy, M.,
Kirby, J., Ozretich, R. A., & Kobbe, A. M. (2002). National Extension Parenting
Educators’ Framework. Cooperative Extension System.
www.umext.maine.edu/parentcenter/parenteducators/frame.htm
National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2000). From neurons to
neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development (p. 19-32). J. P.
Shonkoff and D. A. Phillips (Eds). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=9824#toc
Child Development
http://encarta.msn.com/text_761557692_1/Development_Child.html
Stages of Intellectual Development
http://childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/piaget.shtml
Stages of Social-Emotional Development
http://childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/erickson.shtml
Bronfenbrenner Ecological Theory
http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/302/302bron.PDF
Various textbooks and other reference materials used for this presentation are
available upon request.
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