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Chapter Ten
Human Development Across the
Lifespan
Human Development
• Human Development is the sequence of agerelated changes that occur as a person
progresses from conception to death.
• A Developmental psychologist studies
human development—the physiological,
cognitive and social development that takes
place throughout every stage of our lives. They
study both the biological influences (such as
genetics) and environmental aspects (such as
parenting techniques) that shape who we are.
Benefits in Learning about
Human Development
• Studying development helps you better
understand yourself.
• It also helps you learn more about your
children.
• You will better understand how to interact
with kids.
• You will gain a greater appreciation of
development throughout life.
• It allows us to understand what's normal, and
what's not.
Research Methods in Developmental
Psychology
• Cross-sectional research is a research method often
used in developmental psychology, but also utilized in
many other areas including social science and
education. This type of study utilizes different groups of
people who differ in the variable of interest, but share
other characteristics such as socioeconomic status,
educational background, and ethnicity. Researchers
studying developmental psychology might select groups
of people who are remarkably similar in most areas, but
differ only in age. By doing this, any differences
between groups can presumably be attributed to age
differences rather than to other variables.
Research Methods in Developmental
Psychology
• Longitudinal research is a type of research method used to
discover relationships between variables that are not related to
various background variables. This observational research
technique involves studying the same group of individuals over
an extended period of time.
• Data is first collected at the outset of the study, and may then be
gathered repeatedly throughout the length of the study. In some
cases, longitudinal studies can last several decades.
• The benefit of this type of research is that it allows researchers
to look at changes over time. Because of this, longitudinal
methods are particularly useful when studying development
and lifespan issues.
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal
Research Studies
• Cross-Sectional research differs from
Longitudinal research in that cross-sectional
studies are designed to look at a variable at a
particular point in time. Longitudinal studies
involve taking multiple measures over an
extended period of time, while cross-sectional
research is focused on looking at variables at a
specific point in time.
The Three Stages of Prenatal
Development
• Stage One- Germinal Period
The first two weeks of human development in
which the zygote becomes implanted on the
uterine wall and duplication and division
occurs. In the process of becoming a baby they
one celled zygote multiplies into about 10
trillion cells. During the implantation process,
the placenta begins to form. The placenta is a
structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to
pass into the fetus from the mother’s
bloodstream and body.
The Three Stages of Prenatal
Development
• Stage Two- Embryonic Period
From week three to week eight the
developing organism surrounded by the
placenta becomes an embryo and the first
signs of a body shape emerge. The brain
and spine form, the head begins to take
shape and the eyes, ears and mouth form.
Soon the heart and other body systems
begin to form. By the end of this stage, the
entire reproductive system is formed.
The Three Stages of Prenatal
Development
• Stage Three- Fetal Period
From nine weeks until birth (38 weeks) the
fetal stage occurs. During this stage the
structures and overall complete systems of the
body continue growing until birth. The brain
cells multiply and the respiratory and digestive
systems mature. A layer of fat is deposited
under the skin to provide insulation. During
this time is the “age of viability” (week 22) a
time in which a preterm baby can live outside
the mothers body.
Teratogens
• Teratogens are harmful substances that can be
hazardous to the fetus. They are time sensitive during
certain periods of prenatal development. They can cause
birth defects or even death of the fetus.
• One teratogen is Alcohol. It can cause Fetal Alcohol
Syndrome.
• Fetal Alcohol Syndrome is a collection of problems
associated with excessive alcohol use during pregnancy.
Typical problems of fetal alcohol syndrome include; a
small head, heart defects, irritability, hyperactivity, and
delayed motor development.
Attachment
• Attachment refers to a close emotional bonds of
affection that develop between infants and their
caregivers.
• Children eventually form attachments to many people,
including their fathers, siblings, grandparents, and
others. However, a child’s first important attachment
usually occurs with his or her mother.
• About 6-8 months of age, infants begin to show a
preference for their mother’s company and often protest
when she is not around. This is the called Separation
Anxiety. It is the emotional distress seen in many infants
when they are separated from people with whom they
have formed an attachment.
Harry Harlow and John Bowlby
Theories of Attachment
• Harry Harlow (1905-1981) conducted a series of
experiments in 1958 with infant rhesus monkeys
and a set of “surrogate mothers.” Two main types of
“mothers” were used a wire model containing a
bottle to feed the monkey and a terry-cloth model.
Despite the fact that the baby monkeys only received
food from the wire mother, all of the monkeys spent
more time clinging to and cuddling with the cloth
mother- especially when they were frightened.
Because of the baby rhesus monkeys’ attachment to
the cloth mothers, this led researchers to conclude
that attachment and the need for affection was
deeper than the need for food.
Theories of Attachment
• John Bowlby (1907-1990) closely examined the
generational impact of attachment and how it
affected behavior. He believed that attachment
behaviors were inherent survival mechanisms
designed to protect an infant or child from
predators. He worked closely with Mary
Ainsworth (1913-1999), his student and eventual
colleague, to expand and test his theories.
Together, Ainsworth and Bowlby believed that
there were several different types of attachment
styles.
Mary Ainsworth’s
Attachment Theory (1978)
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
• Erik Erikson was born June 15, 1902 in Frankfurt, Germany. "The
common story was that his mother and father had separated before his
birth, but the closely guarded fact was that he was his mother's child
from an extramarital union. He never saw his birth father or his
mother's first husband," reported Erikson's obituary that appeared in
The New York Times in 1994.
• His young Jewish mother raised Erik by herself for a time before
marrying a physician, Dr. Theodor Homberger. The fact that Homberger
was not in fact his biological father was concealed from him for many
years. When he finally did learn the truth, he was left with a feeling of
confusion about who he really was. This early experience helped spark
his interest in the formation of identity.
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
• At the suggestion of a friend, Erikson studied psychoanalysis and
earned a certificate from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society.
• He also took a teaching position at a school created by Dorothy
Burlingham, a friend of Anna Freud's. He continued to work with
Burlingham and Freud at the school for several years, met Sigmund
Freud at a party, and even became Anna Freud's patient.
"Psychoanalysis was not so formal then," he recalled. "I paid Miss Freud
$7 a month, and we met almost every day. My analysis, which gave me
self-awareness, led me not to fear being myself. We didn't use all those
pseudoscientific terms then -- defense mechanism and the like -- so the
process of self-awareness, painful at times, emerged in a liberating
atmosphere.“
• He met a Canadian dance instructor named Joan Serson who was also
teaching at the school where he worked. The couple married in 1930 and
went on to have three children.
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
•
•
•
Erikson moved to the United States in 1933 and was offered a teaching
position at Harvard Medical School. He also changed his name from Erik
Homberger to Erik H. Erikson, perhaps as a way to forge is own identity. In
addition to his position at Harvard, he also had a private practice in child
psychoanalysis. Later, he held teaching positions at the University of
California at Berkeley, Yale, the San Francisco Psychoanalytic Institute,
Austen Riggs Center, and the Center for Advanced Studies of the Behavioral
Sciences.
Erik Erikson spent time studying the cultural life of the Sioux of South
Dakota and the Yurok of northern California. He utilized the knowledge he
gained of cultural, environmental, and social influences to further develop
his psychoanalytic theory.
While Freud’s theory had focused on the psychosexual aspects of
development, Erikson’s addition of other influences helped to broaden and
expand psychoanalytic theory. He also contributed to our understanding of
personality as it is developed and shaped over the course of the lifespan.
Erik Erikson’s Eight Psychosocial
Stages of Development
• Stage One: Trust Versus Mistrust (birth - 1 year)
• Erikson claimed that in this stage the child will develop a sense of basic
trust in the world and in his ability to affect events around him. The
development of this depends on the consistency of the child’s major
caregiver. If the care the child receives is consistent, predictable and
reliable then the child will develop a sense of trust which he will carry
with him to other relationships, and is able to feel secure even when
threatened.
• However, if the care has been harsh or inconsistent, unpredictable and
unreliable then the child will develop a sense of mistrust and will not
have confidence in the world around them or in their abilities to
influence events. This child will carry the basic sense of mistrust with
him to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened
insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope.
Erik Erikson’s Eight Psychosocial
Stages of Development
• Stage Two: “Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt”
(Ages 1-3)
•
•
Erikson says that this is the point at which the child can develop a certain
amount of independence/autonomy. It is at this stage that the child needs
support from parents so that repeated failures and ridicule are not the only
experiences encountered. So, the parents need to encourage the child to
becoming more independent whilst at the same time protecting the child
so that constant failure is avoided.
If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased
independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability
to survive in the world. If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not
given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in
their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon
others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own
abilities. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will.
Erik Erikson’s Eight Psychosocial
Stages of Development
• Stage Three: “ Initiative vs. Guilt (Ages 3-6)
• Around age three and continuing to age six, children assert themselves
more frequently. They begin to plan activities, make up games, and
initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children
develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead
others and make decisions. Conversely, if this tendency is squelched,
either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt.
They may feel like a nuisance to others and will therefore remain
followers, lacking in self-initiative.
• Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may
inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary otherwise
the child would not know how to exercise self control or have a
conscience. A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is
important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose.
Erik Erikson’s Eight Psychosocial
Stages of Development
• Stage Four: “Industry vs. Inferiority”
(Ages 7-12)
•
•
Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to
do sums, to make things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important
role in the child’s life as they teach the child specific skills. It is at this stage
that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a
major source of the child’s self esteem. The child now feels the need to win
approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by
society, and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.
If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding
then they may develop a sense of inferiority. Some failure may be
necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Yet again, a balance
between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will
lead to the virtue of competence.
Erik Erikson’s Eight Psychosocial
Stages of Development
• Stage Five: “Identity vs. Role Confusion” (Ages 13-18)
• This is a major stage in development where the child has
to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during
this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his
identity and try to find out exactly who he is. At the end
of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of what one
wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”.
During this stage the body image of the adolescent
changes.
• Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel
uncomfortable about their body for a while until they
can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this
stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.
Erik Erikson’s Eight Psychosocial
Stages of Development
• Stage Six: “Intimacy vs. Isolation” (young adulthood)
• Occurring in young adulthood (ages 18-40), we begin to
share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore
relationships leading toward longer term commitments
with someone other than a family member. Successful
completion can lead to comfortable relationships and a
sense of commitment, safety, and care within a
relationship.
• Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and
relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and
sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to
the virtue of love.
Erik Erikson’s Eight Psychosocial
Stages of Development
• Stage Seven: “Generativity vs. Stagnation”
(middle adulthood)
• During middle adulthood (ages 40-65), we establish
our careers, settle down within a relationship, begin
our own families and develop a sense of being a part
of the bigger picture. We give back to society
through raising our children, being productive at
work, and becoming involved in community
activities and organizations.
• By failing to achieve these objectives, we become
stagnant and feel unproductive. Success in this stage
will lead to the virtue of care.
Erik Erikson’s Eight Psychosocial
Stages of Development
• Stage Eight: “Ego Integrity vs. Despair” (old age)
• As we grow older (65 years and over) and become
senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity,
and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time
that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able
to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a
successful life.
• Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive,
feel guilt about our pasts, or feel that we did not
accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with
life and develop despair, often leading to depression and
hopelessness. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of wisdom.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
• Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland in 1896 and
began showing an interest in the natural sciences at
a very early age. By age 11, he had already started
his career as a researcher by writing a short paper
on an albino sparrow. He continued to study the
natural sciences and received his Ph.D. in Zoology
from University of Neuchâtel in 1918.
• His early work with Binet's intelligence tests had led
him to conclude that children think differently than
adults. It was this observation that inspired his
interest in understand how knowledge grows
throughout childhood.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
• He suggested that children sort the knowledge they
acquire through their experiences and interactions
into groupings known as schemas. When new
information is acquired, it can either be assimilated
into existing schemas or accommodated through
revising and existing schema or creating an entirely
new category of information.
• Today, he is best known for his research on
children's cognitive development. Piaget studied the
intellectual development of his own three children
and created a theory that described the stages that
children pass through in the development of
intelligence and formal thought processes.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
• Piaget provided support for the idea that children think
differently than adults and his research identified
several important milestones in the mental development
of children. His work also generated interest in cognitive
and developmental psychology. Piaget's theories are
widely studied today by students of both psychology and
education.
• Piaget's theories continue to be studied in the areas of
psychology, sociology, education, and genetics. His work
contributed to our understanding of the cognitive
development of children. While earlier researchers had
often viewed children simply as smaller version of
adults, Piaget helped demonstrate that childhood is a
unique and important period of human development.
Jean Piaget’s Stage Theory of
Cognitive Development
• Stage One: Sensorimotor Intelligence
• Ages: Birth- 2yrs.
• The infant knows the world through their motor skills and
senses.
• Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they
cannot be seen. Piaget called this Object Permanence.
• They are separate beings from the people and objects around
them.
• They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the
world around them.
• Learning occurs through assimilation and accommodation.
Jean Piaget’s Stage Theory of
Cognitive Development
• Assimilation are when new experience are
incorporated into old experiences, concepts
and perceptions.
• Accommodation requires changing one’s
perception and assumptions to adjust to new
experiences.
• The Process of Assimilation and
Accommodation result in Adaptation.
• Schemas are integrated networks of knowledge of
people, things and situations that are developed as a
result of Adaptation.
Jean Piaget’s Stage Theory of
Cognitive Development
• Stage Two: Preoperational Intelligence
• Ages: 2-6 yrs.
• Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use
words and pictures to represent objects. They also
tend to be very egocentric, and see things only from
their point of view.
• Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and
struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
• While they are getting better with language and
thinking, they still tend to think about things in very
concrete terms.
Jean Piaget’s Stage Theory of
Cognitive Development
• Characteristics of Preoperational Intelligence
*Egocentrism
*Lack of Conservation
*Centration
*Static Reasoning
*Irreversibility
*Animism
Jean Piaget’s Stage Theory of
Cognitive Development
• Stage Three: Concrete Operational Intelligence
• Ages: 7-12 yrs.
• During this stage, children begin to thinking logically
about concrete events. They begin to understand the
concept of conservation, the amount of liquid in a
short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass.
• Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but
still very concrete. They are able to think logically
about tangible things.
• Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from
specific information to a general principle.
Jean Piaget’s Stage Theory of
Cognitive Development
• Stage Four: Formal Operational Intelligence
• Ages: 12-18
• At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to
think abstractly and reason about hypothetical
problems. Abstract thought emerges.
• Teens begin to think more about moral,
philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that
require theoretical and abstract reasoning.
• Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a
general principle to specific information. Where
before they could only engage in inductive logic.
Which is reasoning from the specific to the general.
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927- 1987)
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927- 1987)
• Lawrence Kohlberg was born in New York on October 25, 1927.
Kohlberg attended the prestigious Phillips Academy in
Massachusetts before enlisting in the Merchant Marines during
World War II. When he left the military, Kohlberg enrolled in the
University of Chicago and received his Bachelor’s after only one
year. A few years later, he received his PhD in psychology from
the University of Chicago. Shortly after graduation, Kohlberg
joined the staff of Yale University as an assistant professor. He
spent several years at Yale before returning to the University of
Chicago to accept a position on staff. In 1967, Kohlberg left
Chicago to go to Harvard University, to join the staff of their
Education and Social Psychology department.
• Kohlberg’s Moral Reasoning Theory was based on the work of
Piaget’ Cognitive Development Theory.
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927- 1987)
• It was his dissertation on moral development in
1958 that was the catalyst for the course Kohlberg’s
career would take. His research was based on the
moral choices of adolescent boys and led to a life
devoted to exploration of moral and ethical
development in young people. Kohlberg’s theory
was based on the work of Jean Piaget’s Cognitive
Development Theory, except his theory was based
on morally reason.
• Kohlberg died in 1987 by suicide after a long battle
with depression. Kohlberg's legacy lives on in his
many published articles and books.
Kohlberg’s Stage Theory of Moral
Reasoning
• "The Heinz Dilemma"
• Kohlberg based his theory upon research
and interviews with groups of young
children. A series of moral dilemmas were
presented to these participants and they
were also interviewed to determine the
reasoning behind their judgments of each
scenario.
Kohlberg’s Stage Theory of Moral
Reasoning
Heinz Steals the Drug
"In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer.
There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a
form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently
discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was
charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for
the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug.
The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to
borrow the money, but he could only get together about $ 1,000 which
is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and
asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said:
"No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So
Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for
his wife. Should the husband have done that?" (Kohlberg, 1963).
Kohlberg’s Stage Theory of Moral
Reasoning
LEVEL I- Preconventional (Ages Birth- 9 yrs.)
1) Avoid punishment
2) Gain Reward
LEVEL II- Conventional (Ages 9-20yrs.)
3) Gain Approval & Avoid Disapproval
4) Duty & Guilt
LEVEL III- Postconventional (Age 20 to maybe
never)
5) Agreed upon rights
6) Personal moral standards
Kohlberg’s Stage Theory of Moral
Reasoning
• Level I- Preconventional Morality
• Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment
The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in
young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this
type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and
absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to
avoid punishment.
• Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange
At this stage of moral development, children account for
individual points of view and judge actions based on how they
serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued
that the best course of action was the choice that best-served
Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral
development, but only if it serves one's own interests.
Kohlberg’s Stage Theory of Moral
Reasoning
• Level II- Conventional Morality
• Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships
Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation,
this stage of moral development is focused on living up
to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on
conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how
choices influence relationships.
• Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order
At this stage of moral development, people begin to
consider society as a whole when making judgments.
The focus is on maintaining law and order by following
the rules, doing one’s duty and respecting authority.
Kohlberg’s Stage Theory of Moral
Reasoning
• Level III- Postconventional Morality
• Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights
At this stage, people begin to account for the differing
values, opinions and beliefs of other people. Rules of law
are important for maintaining a society, but members of
the society should agree upon these standards.
• Stage 6 - Universal Principles
Kohlberg's final level of moral reasoning is based upon
universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At
this stage, people follow these internalized principles of
justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.
Diana Baumrind’s Parenting Styles
Diana Baumrind’s Parenting Styles
• The Authoritarian Parenting Style:
• Authoritarian parents are characterized by needing to keep their
children in a short leash and enforce many rules that are to be obeyed
without question.
• Misbehavior is not tolerated and authoritarian parents may typically
resort to punishment as a way to control their kids' behavior.
• The authoritarian parents have very high expectations of their kids'
maturity and expect their kids to live up to high standards of 'proper'
behavior.
Diana Baumrind's view on the authoritarian parenting style:
Too strict: Authoritarian parents have high demandingness / control
(a good thing according to Baumrind) but low responsiveness (not so
good in her view).
Diana Baumrind’s Parenting Styles
• The Permissive Parenting Style:
• Permissive parents form a direct contrast to the
authoritarian parents. They strongly believe in the
autonomy of the individual and that kids' should be treated
as equals. Permissive parents impose very few rules on
their kids and the kids are typically included in decision
making processes.
• Diana Baumrind's view on the permissive parenting style:
Too soft: Permissive parents have low demandingness /
control (not a good thing according to Baumrind) but high
responsiveness (good in her view).
Diana Baumrind’s Parenting Styles
• The Permissive Parenting Style:
• Permissive parents form a direct contrast to the
authoritarian parents. They strongly believe in the
autonomy of the individual and that kids' should be treated
as equals. Permissive parents impose very few rules on
their kids and the kids are typically included in decision
making processes.
Diana Baumrind's view on the permissive parenting style:
Too soft: Permissive parents have low demandingness /
control (not a good thing according to Baumrind) but high
responsiveness (good in her view).
Diana Baumrind’s Parenting Styles
• The Neglectful Parenting Style:
The neglectful parenting style or uninvolved
parenting style was formulated later by Maccoby
and Martin.
• The uninvolved parents fulfill their children's
physical needs but are otherwise distant, detached,
and disengaged. They are not participating
emotionally in their children's lives.
• Neglectful parents have low demandingness /
control and low responsiveness / warmth.
Aging and Neurological Changes
• During late adulthood the brain’s weight declines and the number of
neurons in some areas of the brain decrease. This is a normal part of
the aging process. It does not appear to be the reason for Dementia.
• Dementia is an abnormal condition marked by cognitive deficits that
include memory impairment.
• Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause of dementia among
older people. Dementia is the loss of cognitive functioning—thinking,
remembering, and reasoning—and behavioral abilities, to such an
extent that it interferes with a person’s daily life and activities.
Dementia ranges in severity from the mildest stage, when it is just
beginning to affect a person’s functioning, to the most severe stage,
when the person must depend completely on others for basic activities
of daily living.
Understanding Gender
Differences
• Sex refers to the biologically based categories of
female and male.
• Gender refers to culturally constructed distinctions
between femininity and masculinity.
• Gender Stereotypes are widely held beliefs about
females’ abilities, personality traits, and social
behavior.
• Gender Differences are actual disparities between
the sexes typically behavior and activity.
• Gender Roles are expectations about what is
appropriate behavior for each sex.
Understanding Gender
Differences
Gender Stereotypes
Active
Likes children
Gentle
Outspoken
Self-confident Kind
Creative
Independent
Dominant Competitive
Neat
Musical
Considerate
Gender Differences
Women have better verbal
skills.
Men are more physically
aggressive.
Males tend to show more
cerebral specialization
than females.
Social-Learning Theory of
Gender Roles
• Children watch and imitate the behavior of others.
• Children imitate the same-sex parent.
• Socialization of children is one of the major causes
of gender differences between boys and girls.
• Children learn their gender roles and they receive
rewards or punishments for specific gender role
behaviors.
Cognitive-Development Theory of
Gender Roles
• Children’s own cognitions are primarily
responsible for gender role development.
• Children label themselves as male or female, the
development of gender related interests and
behavior quickly follow
• The appropriate female or male activities are
identified and imitated, once gender consistency
established.
• The external world rewards or punishes them for
their choices.
Chapter Eleven
Personality: Theory, Research,
and Assessment
Personality
• Personality refers to an individual’s unique
collection of consistent behavioral traits.
• A Personality trait is a durable disposition
to behave in a particular way in a variety of
situations.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
“ The Father of Psychoanalysis”
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
• Sigmund Freud was born in Freiberg, which
is now known as the Czech Republic, on May
6, 1856. Freud developed psychoanalysis, a
method through which an analyst unpacks
unconscious conflicts based on the free
associations, dreams and fantasies of the
patient. His theories on child sexuality,
libido and the ego, among other topics, were
some of the most influential academic
concepts of the 20th century.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
• Sigmund Freud was born in the Austrian town of
Freiberg on May 6, 1856. When he was four years old his
family moved to Vienna, the town where he would live
and work for most of the remainder of his life. He
received his medical degree in 1881 and became
engaged to marry the following year. His marriage
produced six children—the youngest of whom, Anna,
was to herself become a distinguished psychoanalyst.
After graduation, Freud promptly set up a private
practice and began treating various psychological
disorders. Considering himself first and foremost a
scientist, rather than a doctor, he endeavored to
understand the journey of human knowledge and
experience.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
In his private practice he soon devoted his efforts to the
treatment of hysterical patients with the help of hypnosis.
Joseph Breuer (1857–1939), an older colleague , told Freud
about a hysterical patient whom he had treated successfully by
hypnotizing her and then tracing her symptoms back to
traumatic (emotionally stressful) events she had experienced at
her father's deathbed. Breuer called his treatment "catharsis"
and traced its effectiveness to the release of "pent-up emotions."
Freud's experiments with Breuer's technique were successful.
Together with Breuer he published Studies on Hysteria (1895).
At the age of thirty-nine, Freud first used the term
“psychoanalysis,”-a way to treat certain mental illnesses by
exposing and discussing a patient's unconscious thoughts and
feelings) and his major lifework was well under way.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
“ The Father of Psychoanalysis”
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
At about this time Freud began a unique
project, his own self-analysis, which he
pursued primarily by analyzing his dreams. A
major scientific result was The Interpretation of
Dreams (1901). By the turn of the century
Freud had developed his therapeutic
technique, dropping the use of hypnosis and
shifting to the more effective and more widely
applicable method of "free association."
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
• In 1930, Freud received the Goethe Prize in appreciation of his
contribution to psychology and to German literary culture.
Three years later the Nazis took control of Germany and Freud's
books featured prominently among those burned by the Nazis.
In March 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria . This led to
violent outbursts of anti-Semitism in Vienna, and Freud and his
family received visits from the Gestapo. Freud decided to go into
exile "to die in freedom." He and his family left Vienna in June
1938 and traveled to London.
• A heavy cigar smoker, Freud endured more than 30 operations
during his life due to mouth cancer. In September 1939, he
prevailed on his doctor and friend Max Schur to assist him in
suicide. Schur administered three doses of morphine over many
hours that resulted in Freud's death on September 23, 1939.
Three days after his death, Freud's body was cremated in
England during a service.
Psychoanalysis
• Psychoanalysis is an approach to psychology
that emphasizes the influence of the
unconscious mind on behavior. Sigmund
Freud believed the human mind was
composed of three elements-- The ID, EGO,
and SUPEREGO.
Three Levels of Awareness
• The Unconscious contains thoughts, memories,
and desires that are well below the surface of
conscious awareness, however it exerts great
influence over behavior.
• The Conscious consists of whatever one is
aware of at a particular time.
• The Preconscious contains material just
beneath the surface of awareness that can be
easily retrieved.
The Structure of Personality
according to Freud
• The ID is the primitive, instinctive part of the
personality that operates according to the pleasure
principle. The pleasure principle demands
immediate gratification or urges and desires.
• The EGO is the decision-making component of
personality that operates according to the reality
principle. The reality principle, which seeks to delay
gratification of the id’s urges until appropriate
outlets and situations can be found.
• The SUPEREGO is the moral component of
personality that incorporates social standards about
what represents right and wrong.
The Structure of Personality
according to Freud
• The ID functions as the Unconscious.
• The EGO functions as the Conscious.
• The SUPEREGO functions as the Preconscious.
Freud’s “Structure of Personality’
Theory
Defense Mechanisms
• Defense Mechanisms are unconscious
reactions that protect a person from
unpleasant emotions, such as anxiety
or guilt.
Defense Mechanisms
• Denial is to protect oneself from unpleasant aspects of
life by refusing to perceive, acknowledge, or face them.
• Rationalization is trying to prove one’s actions “made
sense” or were justified by making excuses.
• Intellectualization is hiding one's feelings about
something painful behind thoughts an keeping opposing
attitudes apart by using logic-tight comparisons.
• Displacement is misdirecting pent-up feelings towards
something or someone that is less threatening than that
which actually triggered the response.
Defense Mechanisms
• Projection is placing unacceptable impulses in
yourself onto someone else.
• Reaction formation is taking the opposite
belief because the true belief causes anxiety.
• Undoing is trying to superficially repair or
make up for an action without dealing with the
complex effects of that deed, “magical
thinking.”
• Withdrawal is becoming emotionally
uninvolved by pulling back and being passive.
Defense Mechanisms
• Repression is unconsciously blocking out
painful thoughts.
• Suppression is pushing painful into the
unconscious or not dealing with them
conscious level.
• Identification is trying to feel more important
by associating oneself with someone or
something that is highly valued.
• Regression is when under stress, re-adopting
actions done at a less mature stage of
development.
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of
Development
• Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year).
• During the oral stage, the child if focused on oral
pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little gratification
can result in an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which
is evidenced by a preoccupation with oral activities.
• This type of personality may have a stronger tendency to
smoke, drink alcohol, over eat, or bite his or her nails.
Personality wise, these individuals may become overly
dependent upon others, gullible, and perpetual
followers. On the other hand, they may also fight these
urges and develop pessimism and aggression toward
others.
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of
Development
• Anal Stage (1 to three years old).
• The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on
eliminating and retaining feces. Through
society’s pressure, mainly via parents, the child
has to learn to control anal stimulation.
• In terms of personality, after effects of an anal
fixation during this stage can result in an
obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and
control -anal retentive. On the opposite end of
the spectrum, they may become messy and
disorganized-anal expulsive.
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of
Development
• Phallic Stage (ages three to six).
• The pleasure zone switches to the genitals. Freud believed that
during this stage boy develop unconscious sexual desires for
their mother. Because of this, he becomes rivals with his father
and sees him as competition for the mother’s affection this is
known as the “Oedipus Complex” girls go through a similar
situation, developing unconscious sexual attraction to their
father which is termed the “Electra Complex”.
• By identifying with his father, the boy develops masculine
characteristics and identifies himself as a male, and represses
his sexual feelings toward his mother. A fixation at this stage
could result in sexual deviancies (both overindulging and
avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identity according to
psychoanalysts.
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of
Development
• Latency Stage (age six to puberty).
• It’s during this stage that sexual urges
remain repressed and children interact and
play mostly with same sex peers.
• Children assimilate to cultural values in this
stage.
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of
Development
• Genital Stage (puberty on).
• The final stage of psychosexual development begins
at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once
again awakened. Through the lessons learned during
the previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual
urges onto opposite sex peers, with the primary
focus of pleasure is the genitals.
• If an individual is fixated on any stages it will effect
their ability to develop healthy relationships and be
psychologically healthy.
• Freud believed the goal of life was to “love and
work”.
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of
Development
Carl Jung (1875- 1961)
Carl Jung (1875- 1961)
• Carl Gustav Jung was born in Kesswil, Switzerland to father Paul
Achilles Jung, a pastor, and mother Emilie Preiswerk. He was their
fourth, but only surviving child. His mother was frequently depressed
and absent from the household, but her mood eventually lifted once the
Jung's moved closer to her family. Jung later described himself was an
introverted and solitary child, saying that he was most happy when he
was left alone to his thoughts.
• Jung decided to study medicine, but also developed an interest in
spiritual phenomena while in school. It was this fascination with
medicine and spirituality that led him into the field of psychiatry, which
he viewed as a combination of his two interests. In 1902, he completed
his doctoral dissertation, titled "On the Psychology and Pathology of
So-Called Occult Phenomena" and graduated from University of Basel
with a medical degree.
Carl Jung (1875- 1961)
• Early in his career, Jung worked with psychiatric patients at the
University of Zürich asylum. In 1906, he wrote Studies in Word
Association and sent a copy to Sigmund Freud. The event served
as the beginning of a friendship between the two men. When the
two finally met in person in 1907, they reportedly spent more
than 12 hours talking non-stop.
• His time spent working with Sigmund Freud had a major impact
on Jung’s later theories and helped him develop a fascination for
the unconscious mind. Jung wanted to further understanding of
the human mind through dreams, myth, art and philosophy.
Initially, Freud viewed Jung as his protégé, but the friendship
began to dissolve as Jung started to develop his own ideas that
diverged from Freud's views.
Carl Jung (1875- 1961)
• Jung also believed that the process of individuation was essential in
order for a person to become whole and fully developed as a human
being. Individuation is a process in which the various parts of a person,
including the conscious and unconscious, become completely
integrated so that the individual becomes his or her "true self." "In
general, it is the process by which individual beings are formed and
differentiated [from other human beings]," Jung explained in
Psychological Types. "In particular, it is the development of the
psychological individual as a being distinct from the general, collective
psychology.“
• He founded analytic psychology, advancing the idea of introvert and
extrovert personalities and the power of the unconscious. He wrote
several books before his death.
• After suffering from a brief illness, Jung died in his home on June 6,
1961 in Zurich.
Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
• Alfred Adler was born in Vienna, Austria. He suffered rickets as a young
child which prevented him from walking until the age of four. Due to his
health problems as a child, Adler decided he would become a physician
and, after graduating from the University of Vienna in 1895 with a
medical degree, began his career as an ophthalmologist and later
switched to general practice.
• Alder soon turned his interests toward the field of psychiatry, and in
1902 Sigmund Freud invited him to join a psychoanalytic discussion
group. This group met each Wednesday in Freud's home and would
eventually grow to become the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. After
serving as President of the group for a time, Adler eventually departed
due in part to his disagreements with some of Freud's theories.
• While Adler had played a key role in the development of
psychoanalysis, he was also one of the first major figures to break away
to form his own school of thought. He was quick to point out that while
he had been a colleague of Freud's, he was in no way a disciple of the
famous Austrian psychiatrist.
Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
•
•
•
In 1912, Alfred Adler founded the Society of Individual Psychology. Adler's theory
suggested that every person has a sense of inferiority. From childhood, people work
toward overcoming this inferiority and asserting their superiority over others.
Adler referred to this as 'striving for superiority' and believed that this drive was the
motivating force behind human behaviors, emotions, and thoughts.
While Adler had converted to Christianity, his Jewish heritage led to the Nazi's
closing down his clinics during the 1930s. As a result, Adler emigrated to the United
States to take a professor position at the Long Island College of Medicine. In 1937,
Adler went on a lecture tour and suffered a fatal heart attack in Aberdeen, Scotland.
His family lost track of his cremated remains shortly after his death and the ashes
were presumed lost before being discovered in 2007 at a crematorium in
Edinburgh, Scotland. In 2011, 74 years after his death, Adler's ashes were returned
to Vienna, Austria. In an interview with The Guardian, his granddaughter explained,
"Vienna was essentially Adler's home, his birth home and there was the triangle,
you know, Adler, Jung and Freud, and all had that sense of coming out of that place,
so there's something rather fitting about him going back there."
Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
• In Alfred Adler’s “Individual Psychology”
humans were motivated to strive for
superiority.
• Adler believed that everyone has to work to
overcome some feelings of inferiority. A
process he called compensation. Compensation
involves efforts to overcome imagined or real
inferiorities by developing one’s abilities.
• The “Inferiority Complex” is exaggerated
feelings of weakness and inadequacy.
Superiority is moving towards completeness.
Psychodynamic Perspectives in
Psychoanalysis
• Unconscious forces can influence behavior.
• Internal conflicts often play a key role in
generating psychological disorders.
• Early childhood experiences can influence
adult personality.
• People use defense mechanisms to reduce
their experience of unpleasant emotions.
Behavioral Perspectives in
Psychology
• Behaviorism is a theoretical perspective
that psychology should only study
observable behavior.
• B.F. Skinner thought it was useless to
speculate about private, unobservable,
cognitive processes. He believed
“determinism” is behavior determined by
environmental stimuli and “situations” are
determined by response tendencies.
Gordon Allport (1897-1967)
“The Father of Personality Psychology”
Gordon Allport (1897-1967)
• Born in Indiana in 1897, Gordon Allport was one of four children. His
family moved to Cleveland, Ohio. He was raised in the same home out
of which his father practiced medicine. Allport’s mother was an
educator, and she instilled in all of her children the importance of
education and strong work ethics.
• He graduated from High School and secured a full scholarship to
Harvard, following in his brother’s footsteps. Allport diverged from his
brother’s pursuit of psychology, earning a bachelor's degree in
economics and philosophy instead. While at Harvard, Allport exhibited
his social interests by volunteering in various capacities, including as a
probation officer, assisting foreign students, helping war veterans, and
participating in a Boston boy’s club. As Allport continued his education
at Harvard, he eventually turned to psychology and went on to earn his
PhD.
Gordon Allport (1897-1967)
• After his graduation from college, he spent some time in Europe
and had the opportunity to meet Sigmund Freud while in
Vienna. In an autobiographical piece, Pattern and Growth in
Personality, he relays the story of the meeting, explaining that he
told Freud of a boy he met on the train. The boy appeared afraid
of dirt, even when his mother tried to reassure him. Allport
speculated that perhaps the boy had learned this phobia from
his mother, who seemed to be highly domineering. According to
Allport, Freud responded to the story by stating, “And was that
little boy you?” Allport felt that Freud’s response was highly
dismissive of his current feelings and motivations. He also
believed that the tendency of psychodynamic psychology to
examine people’s unconscious motives and their past could lead
to overlooking present issues.
Gordon Allport (1897-1967)
• Unlike many other psychologists of his time,
Allport placed a strong emphasis on conscious
motivations and thoughts, and this led to a
strong interest in the development of
personality. Although Allport is noted as being
influential in many areas of psychology, he is
particularly well known for his trait theory.
Allport determined that every human being
possesses hundreds of traits that exist on
different levels.
Gordon Allport (1897-1967)
• Allport is perhaps best-known for his trait theory of personality.
He began developing this theory by going through a dictionary
and noting every term he found that described a personality
trait. After compiling a list of 4,500 different traits, he organized
them into three different trait categories:
• Cardinal traits: A trait that dominates an individual's entire
personality. Cardinal traits are thought to be quite rare.
• Central traits: Common traits that make up our personalities.
Traits such as kindness, honesty, and friendliness are all
examples of central traits.
• Secondary traits: These are traits that are only present under
certain conditions and circumstances. An example of a
secondary trait would be getting nervous before delivering a
speech to a large group of people.
Gordon Allport (1897-1967)
• Allport began working at Harvard in 1924, and later left
to accept a position at Dartmouth. By 1930, he returned
to Harvard where he would remain for the rest of his
academic career. During his first year at Harvard, he
taught what was most likely the first personality
psychology class offered in the United States.
• In addition to his trait theory of personality, Gordon
Allport left an indelible mark on psychology. He is often
described as one of the founding figures of personality
psychology, and his lasting influence is still felt today.
Rather than focusing on the psychoanalytic and
behavioral approaches that were popular during his
time, Allport instead chose to utilize an eclectic
approach.
Raymond Cattell (1905-1998)
Raymond Cattell (1905-1998)
• Raymond Cattell was born in a small town in England and he developed
an interest in science early on in life. He earned his BS in chemistry
from the Kings College when he was just 19. After witnessing the
devastation of World War I, Cattell developed an interest in using
science to solve human problems. He earned his Ph.D. in Psychology
from University College, London in 1929.
• In 1945, Cattell took a position at the University of Illinois where he
established a research department. At the time, the school was
developing a pioneering computer that allowed Cattell to conduct
factor analysis on a much larger scale than was previously possible.
• Cattell is also well-known for his 16 Personality Factors, in which he
and numerous colleagues utilized factor analysis to identify 16
different fundamental components of personality. He subsequently
developed the 16PF Personality Questionnaire, which is still widely
used today.
Cattell’s 16-trait Personality
Theory
• According to Cattell, there is a continuum of personality
traits. In other words, each person contains all of these 16
traits to a certain degree, but they might be high in some
traits and low in others. The following personality trait list
describes some of the descriptive terms used for each of
the 16 personality dimensions described by Cattell.
Cattell’s 16-trait Personality Theory
Abstractedness: Imaginative versus practical
Apprehension: Worried versus confident
Dominance: Forceful versus submissive
Emotional Stability: Calm versus high strung
Liveliness: Spontaneous versus restrained
Openness to Change: Flexible versus attached to the familiar
Perfectionism: Controlled versus undisciplined
Privateness: Discreet versus open
Cattell’s 16-trait Personality Theory
• Reasoning: Abstract versus concrete
•
Rule Consciousness: Conforming versus non-conforming
•
Self-Reliance: Self-sufficient versus dependent
•
Sensitivity: Tender-hearted versus tough-minded.
•
Social Boldness: Uninhibited versus shy
•
Tension: Impatient versus relaxed
•
Vigilance: Suspicious versus trusting
•
Warmth: Outgoing versus reserved
Hans Eysenck (1916-1997)
Hans Eysenck (1916-1997)
• Hans Eysenck was born on March 4, 1916 in Berlin, to parents heavily
involved in the entertainment industry. After Germany was overrun by
the Nazi’s, Eysenck moved to England and attended University College
in London. He received his Ph.D. in 1940 and began working at the
college in the psychology department.
• In 1955, Eysenck took a position at the Institute of Psychiatry at King’s
College as the Professor of Psychology. He held that position until 1983
and published much of his work during that time. He focused his
attention on intelligence and personality and helped launch the
psychological journal Personality and Individual Differences. Eysenck
was a prolific writer and he wrote thousands of articles and nearly 100
books.
Hans Eysenck’s Three Dimensions
of Personality Theory
•
•
•
Introversion/Extraversion:
Introversion involves directing attention on inner experiences, while
extraversion relates to focusing attention outward on other people and the
environment. So, a person high in introversion might be quiet and reserved,
while an individual high in extraversion might be sociable and outgoing.
Neuroticism/Emotional Stability:
This dimension of Eysenck’s trait theory is related to moodiness versus eventemperedness. Neuroticism refers to an individual’s tendency to become upset
or emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally
constant.
Psychoticism:
Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental illness, Eysenck added a
personality dimension he called psychoticism to his trait theory. Individuals
who are high on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and may
be antisocial, hostile, non-empathetic and manipulative.4
“The Big Five” Personality Theory
• Today, many contemporary personality
psychologists believe that there are five
basic dimensions of personality, often
referred to as the "Big 5" personality traits.
Previous trait theorist had suggested a
various number of possible traits, including
Gordon Allport's list of 4,000 personality
traits, Raymond Cattell's 16 personality
factors and Hans Eysenck's three-factor
theory.
Robert McCrae
•
Dr. Robert McCrae received a B.A. in
Philosophy from Michigan State
University, and a Ph.D. in
Personality Psychology from Boston
University. After three years at the
Normative Aging Study in Boston,
he joined the NIA to become
Research Psychologist and Senior
Investigator in the Personality,
Stress, and Coping Section,
Laboratory of Personality and
Cognition. His work has been
centered on studies of personality
structure “The Five-Factor Model”
and assessment ,the Revised NEO
Personality Inventory and
applications in health and aging.
Paul Costa (1941-)
•
•
Paul Costa, Jr. is an American psychologist
associated with the Five Factor Model.
Author of over 300 academic articles,
several books, he is perhaps best known
for the Revised NEO Personality Inventory,
or NEO PI-R, a psychological personality
inventory; a 240-item measure of the Five
Factor Model: Extraversion, Agreeableness,
Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and
Openness to Experience. Additionally, the
test measures six subordinate dimensions
(known as 'facets') of each of the "FFM"
personality factors, developed together
with Robert McCrae. Work on this model
has made Costa one of the most cited living
psychologists,[2]
Robert McCrae and Paul Costa’s
“The Big Five” Personality Theory (1990)
• Openness: This trait features characteristics
such as imagination and insight, and those high
in this trait also tend to have a broad range of
interests.
• Conscientiousness: Common features of this
dimension include high levels of
thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and
goal-directed behaviors. Those high in
conscientiousness tend to be organized and
mindful of details.
Robert McCrae and Paul Costa’s
“The Big Five” Personality Theory (1990)
• Extraversion: This trait includes
characteristics such as excitability, sociability,
talkativeness, assertiveness and high amounts
of emotional expressiveness.
• Agreeableness: This personality dimension
includes attributes such as; trust, altruism,
kindness, affection, and other prosocial
behaviors.
• Neuroticism: Individuals high in this trait tend
to experience emotional instability, anxiety,
moodiness, irritability, and sadness.
Behavioral Perspectives in
Psychology
• Behaviorism is a theoretical perspective
that psychology should only study
observable behavior.
• B.F. Skinner thought it was useless to
speculate about private, unobservable,
cognitive processes. He believed
“determinism” is behavior determined by
environmental stimuli and “situations” are
determined by response tendencies.
Albert Bandura ’s Social Cognitive
Theory
• Social learning theory explains human behavior in
terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between
cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.
• Social learning theory has sometimes been called a
bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning
theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and
motivation.
• According to Albert Bandura, self-efficacy is “the belief
in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses
of action required to manage prospective situations”. In
other words, self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or her
ability to succeed in a particular situation. Bandura
described these beliefs as determinants of how people
think, behave, and feel.
Albert Bandura ’s Social Cognitive
Theory
Walter Mischel (1930-)
Walter Mischel (1930-)
• Walter Mischel was born on February 22, 1930 in Vienna,
Austria, fleeing with his family to the United States after the
Nazi occupation in 1938. He grew up in Brooklyn, New York
and studied under at Ohio State University, where he received
his Ph.D. in clinical psychology in 1956.
• Mischel taught at the University of Colorado from 1956 to 1958,
then at Harvard University from 1958 to 1962, and also at
Stanford University from 1962 to 1983. Since 1983, Mischel has
been in the Department of Psychology at Columbia University,
where he is currently the Robert Johnston Niven Professor of
Humane Letters.
Walter Mischel (1930-)
• Walter Mischel made the case that the field of personality
psychology was searching for consistency in the wrong
places. Instead of treating situations as the noise or “error of
measurement” in personality psychology, Mischel's work
proposed that by including the situation as it is perceived by
the person and by analyzing behavior in its situational
context, the consistencies that characterize the individual
would be found. He argued that these individual differences
would not be expressed in consistent cross-situational
behavior, but instead, he suggested that consistency would
be found in distinctive but stable patterns of if-then,
situation-behavior relations that form contextualized,
psychologically meaningful “personality signatures” (e.g.,
“she does A when X, but B when Y”).
Humanistic Theory
• During the 1950s, humanistic psychology began as a reaction to
psychoanalysis and behaviorism, which dominated psychology at the
time. Psychoanalysis was focused on understanding the unconscious
motivations that drive behavior while behaviorism studied the
conditioning processes that produce behavior. Humanist thinkers felt
that both psychoanalysis and behaviorism were too pessimistic,
either focusing on the most tragic of emotions or failing to take into
account the role of personal choice.
• Humanistic psychology was instead focused on each individual's
potential and stressed the importance of growth and selfactualization. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology is
that people are innately good and that mental and social problems
result from deviations from this natural tendency.
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
• Abraham Maslow grew up in Brooklyn, New York, the first of seven
children born to his Jewish parents who emigrated from Russia. Maslow
later described his early childhood as unhappy and lonely, and he spent
much of his time in the library immersed in books.
• Eventually, Maslow went on to study law at City College of New York
(CCNY) and married his first-cousin Bertha Goodman. He later switched to
the University of Wisconsin where he developed an interest in psychology
and found a mentor in psychologist Harry Harlow who served as his
doctoral advisor. Maslow earned all three of his degrees in psychology from
the University of Wisconsin; a bachelor's degree in 1930, a master's degree
in 1931 and a doctorate in 1934.
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
• During the 1950s, Maslow became one of the founders and driving forces
behind the school of thought known as humanistic psychology. His theories
including the hierarchy of needs, self-actualization and peak experiences
became fundamental subjects in the humanist movement.
• At a time when most psychologists focused aspects of human nature that
were considered abnormal, Abraham Maslow shifted to focus to look at the
positive sides of mental health. His interest in human potential, seeking peak
experiences and improving mental health by seeking personal growth had a
lasting influence on psychology. While Maslow’s work fell out of favor
with many academic psychologists, his theories are enjoying a resurgence
due to the rising interesting in positive psychology.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
•
•
•
•
•
•
Maslow wanted to understand what motivates people. He believed that individuals
possess a set of motivation systems unrelated to rewards or unconscious desires.
Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one
need is fulfilled a person seeks to fulfill the next one, and so on.
The earliest and most widespread version of Maslow's (1943, 1954) hierarchy of
needs includes five motivational needs, often depicted as hierachical levels within a
pyramid.
This five stage model can be divided into basic (or deficiency) needs (e.g.
physiological, safety, love, and esteem) and growth needs (self-actualization).
One must satisfy lower level basic needs before progressing on to meet higher level
growth needs. Once these needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to
reach the highest level called self-actualization.
Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level
of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by failure to meet
lower level needs. Life experiences including divorce and loss of job may cause an
individual to fluctuate between levels of he hierarchy.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the
hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization. Unfortunately,
progress is often disrupted by failure to meet lower level needs.
Life experiences including divorce and loss of job may cause
an individual to fluctuate between levels of he hierarchy.
• Maslow noted only one in a hundred people become fully selfactualized because our society rewards motivation primarily
based on esteem, love and other social needs.
Characteristics of self-actualizers
•
They perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty
•
Accept themselves and others for what they are
•
Spontaneous in thought and action
•
Problem-centered (not self-centered)
•
Unusual sense of humor
•
Able to look at life objectively
•
Highly creative
Characteristics of self-actualizers
• Concerned for the welfare of humanity
• Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience
•
Establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few people
•
Peak experiences
•
Need for privacy
•
Democratic attitudes
•
Resistant to enculturation, but not purposely unconventional
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
•
Carl R. Rogers was born in Oak Park, Illinois, in 1902.
He received his B.A. from the University of Wisconsin
in 1924, a M.A. from Columbia University in 1928, and
his Ph.D. in psychotherapy from Columbia University
in 1931. In 1940 Rogers became professor of psychology
at Ohio State University where he stayed until 1945. He
then transferred to the University of Chicago in 1945
where he served as the professor of psychology and the
executive secretary at the Counseling Center. In 1957 he
took a position in the departments of psychology and
psychiatry at the University of Wisconsin. After this
Rogers traveled to a variety of colleges.
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
• Carl Rogers is known as the father of client-centered therapy.
Throughout his career he dedicated himself to humanistic
psychology and is well known for his theory of personality
development. He began developing his humanistic concept while
working with abused children. Rogers attempted to change the world
of psychotherapy when he boldly claimed that psychoanalytic,
experimental, and behavioral therapists were preventing their clients
from ever reaching self-realization and self-growth due to their
authoritive analysis. He argued that therapists should allow patients
to discover the solution for themselves. Rogers received wide
acclaim for his theory and was awarded various high honors .
Through Rogers extensive efforts in expressing his theory of
personality through the publishing of books and lectures he gained a
lot of attention and followers as well as those who strongly disagree
with his theory of personality development.
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
• Carl Rogers agreed with the main assumptions of Abraham Maslow, but
added that for a person to "grow", they need an environment that provides
them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being
seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and
understood).
• Without these, relationships and healthy personalities will not develop as
they should, much like a tree will not grow without sunlight and water.
• Rogers believed that every person can achieve their goals, wishes and
desires in life. This was one of Carl Rogers most important contributions to
psychology and for a person to reach their potential , a number of factors
must be satisfied.
Self Worth and Positive Regard
• Carl Rogers (1951) viewed the child as having two basic
needs: positive regard from other people and self-worth.
• How we think about ourselves, our feelings of self-worth are
of fundamental importance both to psychological health and
to the likelihood that we can achieve goals and ambitions in
life and achieve self-actualization.
• Self-worth may be seen as a continuum from very high to
very low. For Carl Rogers (1959) a person who has high selfworth, that is, has confidence and positive feelings about
him or her self, faces challenges in life, accepts failure and
unhappiness at times, and is open with people.
Self Worth and Positive Regard
• A person with low self-worth may avoid challenges in life, not accept
that life can be painful and unhappy at times, and will be defensive
and guarded with other people.
• Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood
and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother
and father. As a child grows older, interactions with significant
others will affect feelings of self-worth.
• Rogers believed that we need to be regarded positively by others; we
need to feel valued, respected, treated with affection and loved.
Positive regard is to do with how other people evaluate and judge us
in social interaction. Rogers made a distinction between
unconditional positive regard and conditional positive regard.
Self Worth and Positive Regard
• Unconditional positive regard is where parents, significant others (and the
humanist therapist) accepts and loves the person for what he or she
is. Positive regard is not withdrawn if the person does something wrong or
makes a mistake. The consequences of unconditional positive regard are
that the person feels free to try things out and make mistakes, even though
this may lead to getting it worse at times. People who are able to selfactualize are more likely to have received unconditional positive regard
from others, especially their parents in childhood.
• Conditional positive regard is where positive regard, praise and approval,
depend upon the child, for example, behaving in ways that the parents think
correct. Hence the child is not loved for the person he or she is, but on
condition that he or she behaves only in ways approved by the parent(s). At
the extreme, a person who constantly seeks approval from other people is
likely only to have experienced conditional positive regard as a child.
• Congruence and Incongruence of positive regard define our SELFCONCEPT.
Carl Rogers View of Personality
Congruent
Incongruent
f- Self- Self-
Ideal
Self
SelfConcept
Ideal
Self
SelfConcept
Carl Rogers View of Personality
• Self-Concept is the collection of beliefs
about one’s own nature, unique qualities,
and typical behavior .
• Congruence is a self-concept that meshes
well with actual experience. Congruence is
due to unconditional love.
• Incongruence is when self-concept does
note mesh well with actual experience.
Incongruence is due to conditional love.
Is Personality Inherited?
The genetic makeup of a child is a stronger influence on personality
than child rearing, according to the first study to examine identical
twins reared in different families. The findings shatter a widespread
belief among experts and laymen alike in the primacy of family
influence and are sure to engender fierce debate.
For most of the traits measured, more than half the variation was
found to be due to heredity, leaving less than half determined by the
influence of parents, home environment and other experiences in life.
Personality Assessments
• Self-Report Inventories are personality tests
than ask individuals to answer questions about
their characteristics of behavior.
• Projective Tests ask participants to respond to
vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that may
reveal the subjects’ needs, feelings, and
personality tests.
Self-Report Inventories
• MMPI
• 16PF
• NEO (OCEAN)
Projective Inventories
• The Rorschach Inkblot Test
• The Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT
The Rorschach Inkblot Test
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The Rorschach Inkblot Test is a projective
psychological test consisting of 10 inkblots
printed on cards (five in black and white, five
in color) created in 1921 with the publication
of by Hermann Rorschach. During the 1940s
and 1950s, the test was synonymous with
clinical psychology. Throughout much of the
20th century, the Rorschach inkblot test was a
commonly used and interpreted psychological
test. In surveys in 1947 (Louttit and Browne)
and 1961 (Sundberg), for instance, it was the
fourth and first, respectively, most frequently
used psychological test.
Despite its widespread use, it has also been
the center of much controversy. It has often
proven to be difficult for researchers to study
the test and its results in any systematic
manner, and the use of multiple kinds of
scoring systems for the responses given to
each inkblot has led to some confusion.
The Thematic Apperception Test
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The Thematic Apperception Test, or
TAT, is a projective measure intended
to evaluate a person's patterns of
thought, attitudes, observational
capacity, and emotional responses to
ambiguous test materials. In the case
of the TAT, the ambiguous materials
consist of a set of cards that portray
human figures in a variety of settings
and situations. The subject is asked to
tell the examiner a story about each
card that includes the following
elements: the event shown in the
picture; what has led up to it; what the
characters in the picture are feeling
and thinking; and the outcome of the
event.
The Thematic Apperception Test
The Thematic Apperception Test
The Rorschach Inkblot Test