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Chapter 20: National Security (pp 616-655) I. Foreign Policy AND the National Defense A. Involves making choices, but the choices involved are about relations with the rest of the world. The President is the chief initiator of foreign policy in the United States. 1. Before the cold war, a primary goal of the United States was to contain communism and maintain a strong nuclear deterrence. 2. Post cold war, President George H.W. Bush announced that the United States was pursuing a “new world order,” causing critics to raise the question whether that meant the United States would become the policeman of the world. B. Instruments to formulating foreign policy constitutes a continuum of strategies: FOREIGN POLICY CONTINUUM ISOLATIONISM FOREIGN AID NEUTRALITY 1. 2. 3. C. ECONOMIC SANCTIONS DIPLOMACY BLOCKADE POLITICAL PRESSURE (collective security) DECLARED WAR MILITARY INTERVENTION (covert action, police action, etc.) Military - war and the threat of war. Economic - trade regulations, tariff policies, and monetary policies. It is important to note the connection between a country’s economic vitality to its long-term national security. Diplomacy - The process by which nations carry on relationships with each other. The Players – Constitutionally Speaking 1. The President – Article 2 a) Negotiates Treaties (with 2/3 Senate approval) or Executive Agreements (no approval required). (Article 2, Section 2, Clause 2) b) Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. (Article 2, Section 2, Clause 1) c) Appoints Ambassadors (with 2/3 Senate approval). (Article 2, Section 2, Clause 2) d) Chief Diplomat with the sole power to officially recognize other countries and receive (or refuse to receive) their representatives. (Article 2, Section 3) 2. Congress – Article 1 Ch. 20 National Security Page 2 of 8 a) b) c) d) II. Sole authority to declare war (Article 1, Section 8, Clause 11) Senate determines whether treaties are ratified, ambassadorial confirmations, and cabinet confirmations (Article 2, Section 2, Clause 2) Sole authority to raise and organize the armed forces. (Article 1, Section 8, Clause 12) Sole authority to appropriate funds for national security activities. (Article 1, Section 8, Clause 12) Foreign Policy Players and Participants Beyond the Constitution A. Actors within the United States 1. The State Department is the diplomacy / foreign policy arm of the US Government. a) Secretary of State (Thomas Jefferson was the first) is the key advisor on foreign policy matters. b) Staffs Embassies and Consulates. 2. Department of Defense (DOD) a) Secretary of Defense (formerly called the Secretary of War) manages a budget larger than the entire budget of most nations and is the president’s main civilian adviser on national defense matters. b) Unites the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines - the commanding officers along with a chairperson and vice chairperson constitutes the Joint Chiefs of Staff. 3. Department of Homeland Security - Created in 2002 (Homeland Security Act) to prevent terrorist attacks within the US; reduce the vulnerability of the US to terrorism; and minimize the danger, and assist in the recover, from terrorist attacks that do occur within the United States. 4. National Security Council (NSC) a) Formed in 1947 by The National Security Act to coordinate foreign and military policies. b) Composed of the President, Vice President, Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of State, Secretary of Homeland Security, and the national security adviser. 5. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) a) An agency created after WWII (specifically 1947) that works under the direction of the National Security Council to coordinate American intelligence activities abroad. b) Provides information and analysis necessary for effective development and implementation of national security policy. 6. Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) – created in 1908 to protect and Ch. 20 National Security Page 3 of 8 7. 8. 9. 10. B. defend the United States against terrorist and foreign intelligence threats, to uphold and enforce the criminal laws of the United States, and to provide leadership and criminal justice services to federal, state, municipal, and international agencies and partners. Immigration and Naturalization Service a) Deals with those people seeking residence in the United States from other countries. b) It is the agency charged with enforcing immigration policy; at times, it becomes embroiled in controversial issues such as when Vietnam, Haiti, and Cuba allowed their residents to set out to the US on boats. United States Information Agency – acts as the propaganda arm of the United States using Voice of America shortwave radio station to inform foreign countries of United States policy abroad. United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency a) Maintains responsibility for negotiations, participation, and implementation of treaties dealing with disarmament. b) It has focused its attention on monitoring the Nuclear Test Ban treaties, Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), and the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), which resulted in the Intermediate Range Nuclear Force (INF) Treaty in 1988. c) It also has oversight function regarding the Chemical Weapons Treaty ratified by the Senate in 1997. Selective Service System a) Maintains responsibility for coordinating and raising an army. b) During the Vietnam War it was a source of controversy with critics maintaining that the draft policy favored those who could gain deferment (middle and upper class). c) Since President Nixon established an all-volunteer army, the Selective Service has existed on a standby basis, administering a registration requirement that takes place when the young men reach the age of 18. Actors on the World State 1. United Nations was created in 1945 and is located in NY City. a) Members agree to renounce war and to respect certain human (health, education, welfare) and economic freedoms. b) The General Assembly (made of 191 member nations) allows each nation to have one vote toward resolutions. c) The Security Council has 15 members, 5 of which are permanent (US, Great Britain, China, France, and Russia) with the remainder chosen from the General Assembly. Each permanent member has a veto over Security Council decisions, including any decisions Ch. 20 National Security Page 4 of 8 2. 3. 4. 5. III. that would commit the UN to a military peacekeeping operation. International Monetary Fund (IMF) - regulates international finance as a clearinghouse for member nations to discuss monetary issues and develop international plans and policies. World Bank – provides monetary assistance to nations that develop industries and aims to stimulate economic growth of third-world nations. World Trade Organization - attempts to regulate international trade. Universal Postal Union - helps get mail from one country to another. C. Regional Organizations 1. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) a) Created in 1949 with members US, Canada, and most Western European nations, and Turkey. b) Agreed to combine military forces and to treat a war against one as a war against all. c) Now includes Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic and many Eastern European nations. 2. European Union (EU) a) An economic alliance of the major Western European nations. b) Coordinates monetary, trade, immigration, and labor policies so that its members have become one economic unit. D. Multinational Corporations (MNCs) 1. Account for more than one-fifth of the global economy. 2. Sometimes are more powerful (and more wealthier) than the governments under which they operate and have voiced strong opinions about governments, taxes, and business regulations. 3. Have been linked to agencies like the CIA to overturn governments they disliked. E. Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) have long had international interests and activities. 1. Churches 2. Environmental groups (Greenpeace) 3. Human rights groups (Amnesty International) and 4. Labor unions Defense Policy - Policy is caught between the past practice of developing a powerful nuclear deterrence and an uncertain future of budgetary reductions. A. The military-industrial complex has argued that a strong defense will ensure the future security of the United States. Ch. 20 National Security Page 5 of 8 B. IV. On the other-hand, the pressure to adjust to a non-cold-war world has resulted in a serious effort to reduce the scope of the defense budget. US Foreign Policy Highlights A. 1800-1868 Prevailing foreign policy of Neutrality; however, also adopted a policy of Manifest Destiny – the quest to expand the nation’s border from coast to coast, as a driving force. 1. 1803 – The Louisiana Purchase, masterminded by Thomas Jefferson, doubles the size of the country. 2. 1812 – The US engages Great Britain in the War of 1812 over boundary disputes and naval engagements. Washington attacked. No clear-cut victor. 3. 1823 – James Monroe announces his doctrine, which aims to keep Europe from colonizing the Western Hemisphere. 4. 1848 – The Mexican War is fought, resulting in America acquiring Texas. Through the Mexican Cession, we also get Arizona, New Mexico, and California. 5. 1861 – During the Civil War the United States succeeds in preventing foreign countries from intervening on the side of the Confederacy. B. 1870-1917 Policy reflects interests driven by imperialism and a greater global involvement. 1. 1872 – America acquires Samoan Islands. 2. 1875 – America signs treaty with Hawaii, which opens up a new market for trade. 3. 1898 – Spanish-American War results in the United States getting Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. Cuba receives its independence. 4. 1899 – The Open Door Policy is jointly announced by China and the United States. 5. 1901 – United States gets rights to build Panama Canal. 6. 1904 – Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine announced allowing greater intervention in Latin American affairs by the United States. 7. 1907 – President Roosevelt calls for second Hague Conference aimed at establishing the International Court of Justice to settle world disputes. 8. 1812 – The US engages Great Britain in the War of 1812 over boundary disputes and naval engagements. Washington attacked. No clear-cut victor. C. 1917-1945 – Neutrality failed when Europe became embroiled in two world wars. 1. 1917 – The United States enters World War I attempting to “make the world safe for democracy.” Wilson announces 14 points, which include Ch. 20 National Security Page 6 of 8 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. D. the formation of a League of Nations and an appeal for nations to be able to achieve political self-determination. 1919-1933 – Harding’s election and the failure of the Senate to approve the Versailles Treaty signal a return to an isolationist policy. The start of the Great Depression pulls the country back even further. 1927 – Kellogg-Briand Treaty aims at outlawing war. 1933 – Franklin Roosevelt announces the Good Neighbor Policy with Latin America. 1939-1941 – After signing a series of Neutrality Acts, the United States also agrees to a lend-lease policy with the Allies. Unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany intensifies the debate. 1941 – After announcing a trade embargo against Japan, Pearl Harbor is attacked, and we enter the war against Germany, Japan, and Italy. 1945 – The birth of the Atomic Age is ushered in by the dramatic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which ends World War II. The Cold War: 1945 (Truman) - 1972 (Johnson) – Containment of communism was the primary goal with the threat of a nuclear nightmare taking the world to the edge of destruction. 1. 1947 – Truman Doctrine, which supported the people of Greece and Turkey in resisting communism, announced. 2. 1947 – The Marshall Plan for economic recovery of Europe implemented. 3. 1948 – Russian blockade of Berlin thwarted by United States airlift. 4. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a collective security agreement, signed. The Soviet Union counters with the Warsaw Pact, a mutual security treaty of communist countries. 5. 1949 – The Soviet Union explodes its first atomic bomb. 6. 1950 – China becomes communist and the Korean War begins. 7. 1954 – Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) signed after North Vietnam establishes communist government. 8. 1956 – Soviet Union crushed Hungarian uprising. 9. 1957 – Eisenhower Doctrine, which states readiness to use armed forces to aid Middle Eastern countries threatened by communist aggression, announced. 10. 1960 – Castro takes over Cuba and establishes communist government. 11. 1961 – Bay of Pigs invasion fails in Cuba. Berlin Wall built. 12. 1962 – Cuban missile crisis brings world to the brink of nuclear war. 13. 1962 – American troops are sent to Vietnam as advisors. 14. 1963 – Nuclear Test Ban Treaty outlawing atmospheric testing signed. 15. 1964 – gulf of Tonkin Resolution passes. 16. 1968 – Antiwar demonstrations reach a peak after the Tet offensive. 17. 1968 – Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty stopped and monitored the sread Ch. 20 National Security Page 7 of 8 18. 19. 20. of nuclear weapons to countries that did not have the bomb. 1969 – Nixon announces Vietnamization (turning over the fighting to Vietnam’s armed forces while withdrawing American troops) policy. 1970 – Secret bombing of Cambodia revealed; students shot at Kent State. 1971 – United States sends troops to Laos in order to cut off Viet Cong supply lines. E. Era of Détente (the easing of tensions or strained relations): 1972 (Nixon) 1980 (Carter) 1. 1972 – Antiballistic Missile Treaty limited antiballistic missile sites and interceptor missiles between the United States and the Soviet Union. 2. 1972 – Nixon visits China, and a period of détente emerges between the Soviet Union and the United States resulting in the negotiation of an arms control treaty (SALT). 3. 1973 – The United States signs peace treaty with North Vietnam. 4. 1973 – War Powers Act (establishing greater authority by both houses if the president decides to commit American troops in a prolonged armed action abroad) is passed by Congress. 5. 1976 – Nuclear Test Pact limiting underground tests is signed. 6. 1978 – Camp David Accords bring peace between Egypt and Israel. 7. 1979 – American embassy personnel held hostage by Iranians. F. Reagan Rearmament: 1981 (Reagan) - 1989 (Bush) – The Reagan Doctrine signals a return to cold war rhetoric and policies. However, moves on the part of USSR Premier Gorbachev aimed at perestroika, a move toward domestic reform in the Soviet Union, and glasnost, the move toward easing the cold war, led to the beginning of the end of communism. 1. 1983 – United States invades Grenada. 2. 1983 – Terrorist attack on United States Marines in Beirut. 3. 1985 – Summit meeting held between Reagan and Gorbachev. 4. 1986 – Iran-Contra affair uncovered; Congress holds hearings. 5. 1987 – Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty provided for the dismantling of all Soviet and American medium and short-range missiles and established a site inspection procedure. Cold War Thaw / “New World Order”: 1989 (George H.W. Bush) – 2001 (George W. Bush) – world peace centered around the United States taking the lead to ensure that aggression be dealt with by a mutual agreement of the United Nations (NATO), and other countries acting in concert. 1. 1989 – The Berlin Wall falls and communism ends in Germany, Poland, and Hungary. 2. 1990 – Communism ends in the Soviet Union; East and West Germany G. Ch. 20 National Security Page 8 of 8 H. united. 3. 1991 – United States easily defeats Iraq in Persian Gulf War. 4. 1991 – Unsuccessful coup fails to oust Gorbachev; Yeltsin emerges as new leader of Russia as Soviet Republics gain independence. 5. 1991 – Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty provided for major reductions in United States and Russian nuclear arsenals (the reductions were expanded further in 1992 after Boris Yeltsin became Russia’s president). 6. 1992 – Events in Somalia and Serbia challenge principles of new world order. 7. 1994 – United States ends trade embargo with North Vietnam. 8. 1994 – United States troops occupy Haiti in order to restore democratic government. 9. 1995 – Peace accord between Bosnia, Serbia, and Croatia results in deployment of 40,000 NATO and 20,000 United States troops to Bosnia. 10. 1997 – Expansion of NATO approved, results in admittance of Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia. 11. 1997 – Chemical Weapons Ban Treaty banned the possession, production, or transfer of chemical weapons for those nations participating. 12. 1998 – Showdown with Iraq over the issue of UN inspection of chemical weapons sites. The United States and Great Britain launch air strikes. 13. 1998 – Two American embassies destroyed by terrorist bombs, The United States retaliates with air strikes against terrorist sites in Afghanistan and Sudan. 14. 1999 – NATO declares war against Kosovo using air strikes to attain victory. 15. 1999 – Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty defeated in the Senate. 16. 2000 – Fragile peace in the Middle East broken between Israel and Palestine. 17. 2001 – Serbian leader Milosevic brought to trial in The Hague for war crimes. War on Terrorism: 2001 till present 1. 2001 – United States attacked by terrorists. 2. 2001 – United States invades Afghanistan in response to the terrorist attacks and removes the Taliban from power. 3. 2003 – United States invades Iraq and removes Sadaam Hussein from power. 4. 2004 – United States gives sovereignty to Iraq but keeps a large peacekeeping force in place.