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Gender, Sex and Sexuality AP Psychology Alice F. Short Hilliard Davidson High School Chapter Preview • • • • • • • Defining Sex and Gender Theories of Gender Development Gender Differences Sexual Orientation Sexual Behaviors and Practices Sexual Variations and Disorders Sexuality and Health and Wellness • sex - properties that determine male or female – 23rd pair of chromosomes: XY or XX • pair of genes Defining Sex – gonads = glands (part of endocrine system) • • • • ovaries (either side of abdomen) testes (in scrotum, the pouch of skin below the penis) gonadal hormones: estrogens or androgens gametes – the ova and sperm will be used in reproduction – internal reproductive structures – hormone levels • females: more progesterone and estrogen • males: more androgens (common = testosterone) – DOCUMENTARY: It’s a Girl Defining Sex • external genitalia – female: vulva • mons pubis – a fleshy area just above the vagina • labia – lips surrounding the vaginal opening • clitoris – a small sensory organ at the top where the labia meet – male • penis • scrotum • secondary sex characteristics (at puberty) – traits that differ between the two sexes but are not part of the reproductive system – breasts – facial hair • sex may not equal psychological experience (gender) Female and Male Internal Sex Organs and External Genitalia Fig 11.2, p. 347 Pubertal Growth Fig 11.3, p. 347 Defining Gender • gender - social and psychological aspects of being female or male – goes beyond biological sex – includes a person’s understanding of the meaning to his or her own life of being male or female • gender identity – an individual’s multifaceted sense of belonging to the male or female sex – – – – – masculinity (instrumentality) femininity (expressiveness) androgyny (both) undifferentiated (neither) COMFORT: pressure to conform Defining Gender: Masculine vs. Femine • gender identity – masculinity (instrumentality) • • • • assertive brave independent dominant – femininity (expressiveness) • • • • nurturing warm gentle sensitive to others – androgyny (both) – undifferentiated (neither) A SHORT Time to Ponder • How do you feel about the characteristics associated with being masculine or feminine? Sexual Development • embryonic development of gonads and genitalia – SRY gene testes androgens male physiology – female is “default” condition • gender differences in regards to the brain – – – – size of brain parts function of brain parts corresponding cognitive function which part of brain involved in particular behaviors INTERSECTION Gender and Neuroscience: Are There His and Hers Brains p. 349 Sexual Development • Disorders of Sexual Development – formerly called intersex conditions / hermaphroditism – congenitally atypical chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomical development – questions of relation of DSD to gender development – CASE STUDY: • Researcher: John Money… “success” story • John/Joan (p. 350) • Book: As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl, by John Polapinto • Conclusion: 2004 suicide Sexual Development: Transgender Experience • transgender – experiencing one’s psychological gender as different from one’s physical sex, as in the cases of biological males who identify as female, and biological females who identify as male • Gender Identity Disorder (GID) – strong, persistent cross-sex identification and a continuing discomfort with, or sense of inappropriateness of, one’s assigned sex – – – – not considered a disorder in France or Great Britain gender dysphoria – distress over one’s born sex sex reassignment surgery cannot have experienced disorder of sexual development (DSD) – distress must interfere with daily life Gender Development: Biological • Biological Accounts – genes, gonads, hormones (esp. prenatal hormones), brain structures and functions – behavioral difference in newborns and infants – 1-day-old girls: human face – 1-day-old boys: mobile made out of face Gender Development: Evolutionary • Evolutionary Accounts – sexual selection – according to Darwin’s theory of evolution, the differentiation between the male and female members of a species because of the differences between the two in competition and choice – selection pressures for gendered behaviors • • • • competition for mate (usually by male) preferences/choice for quality mate (usually by female) reproductive challenges: quality v. quantity human infants = helpless adaptive for men to invest in their offspring • is it mine? (younger ladies) Gender Development: Social Cognitive • Social Cognitive Accounts – experience influences sense of gender – socialization (rewards, punishments, modeling) – Albert Bandura – modeling is an especially potent mechanism for transmitting values – gender schema (mental framework) – gender-nonconforming behavior • peers = harsher than family after age 6 – DOCUMENTARY: Miss Representation • (You can’t be who you can’t see.) A SHORT Time to Ponder • In what ways in your life have you been encouraged to behave more like your sex? What do you see in society? Gender Development: Social Role Theory • Social Role Theory – Alice Eagly – division of labor • natural differences become expected/valued differences • gender roles – expectations for how females and males should think, act and feel • gender stereotypes – overly general beliefs and expectations about what women and men are like • institutional structures • patterns of opportunity that perpetuate gender differences – women have resources less likely to prefer men with resources – TED Talks: Sheryl Sandberg – Fig. 11.5: Summary of Gender and Gender Development Theories on p. 357 A SHORT Time to Ponder • Look at the table on p. 357. Which perspective do you think is MOST correct? Why? Gender Differences • Who are more ___________? • For each adjective on the next slide, answer as quickly as you can with either “men” or “women”. Gender Differences • Who are more . . . • • • • • assertive rational emotional aggressive strong • • • • • sexually adventurous creative reserved verbal active Gender Differences • Cognitive Differences – – – – math and science? verbal performance (female advantage) visuospatial ability (male advantage) general intelligence (no advantage) • Differences due to: – social expectations and support v. evolved roles – gender similarities hypothesis – Janet Shibley Hyde’s proposition that men and women (and boys and girls) are much more similar than they are different A SHORT Time to Ponder • Is the career you are interested in pursuing going to give you the life you want? • Do you have a role model that holds that career? Gender Differences • Differences in Aggression • overt aggression (physical/verbal harm) – males more than females • relational aggression (harm social standing w/ females) – females more than males – severely damaging psychologically • why the difference? – testosterone? – evolutionary pressures? – socialization? • conduct disorder – a pattern of offensive behavior that violates the basic rights of others (3x more like in boys) Gender Differences • Differences in Sexuality (p. 360-361- Inquiry) – females more selective in regards to casual sex • “bed” = none, “apartment” = very few, “going out” = 50% – males more often aroused, stronger sex drive, less fidelity • “bed” = 75%, “apartment” = 70%, “going out” = 50% – women more likely to engage in bisexuality or be aroused by bisexual stimuli; show changes in their sexual patterns/desires • Explanations: – – – – biological - genetic/hormonal differences evolutionary - sexual selection social cognitive - learned behavior social role - culturally constructed Sexual Orientation • sexual orientation - direction of erotic interests - refers to more than just sexual behavior • Orientations: (operational definition matters) – heterosexual (90% of population) – homosexual (1500 animal species) • 2-10% of population, greater in males • exists in every culture (no matter how intolerant) – bisexual • Lisa Diamond (2008) – stable bisexual identity • orientation does change behavior often does (stable relationships) A SHORT Time to Ponder • “In some cultures, engaging in same-sex sexual activity is not viewed as an indication of the person’s identity, but in Western societies, there is a strong belief that sexual orientation is a stable personal attribute.” • Why do you think this is the case? Sexual Orientation • Orientation is not influenced by… – being reared by a gay parent – parenting style – childhood sexual experimentation Origins of Sexual Orientation • Thinking critically about sexual orientation: – probably not a single cause – within-group variation – research challenges such as recruitment • gay pride events… what problem? – meaning of cross-sex similarities • gay men are men • lesbian women are women – consideration of more than just homosexuality Sexual Orientation • Orientation is influenced by – genetics • 35% in men • 19% in females – corpus callosum thickness and hemispheric symmetry (in general) • heterosexual men and lesbians have larger right hemispheres • heterosexual women and gay men have similar patterns of similarity • gay men have thicker corpus callosum – prenatal hormones • 2D:4D ratio – women have the same length – men / “butch” lesbian women have a ring finger longer than their pointer (male prenatal androgens) – ACTIVITY: Look at your hands!!! – cognitive factors – social factors (gender non-conforming behavior) • gender non-conforming more predictive in boys… why? Gay and Lesbian Functioning • similarities to heterosexual population – attitudes, psychological adjustment • difference from heterosexual population – hobbies, activities, occupations • coping with prejudice and discrimination – 1984: 24% knew someone gay; 2006: 70% knew someone gay – Generation Next (1981-1988): 58% homosexuality should be accepted, just under ½ thought same-sex marriage should be legal – coming out Gay and Lesbian Functioning • Relationships – report greater satisfaction than heterosexuals • kids reduce happiness / relationship satisfaction – more likely to end relationships than heterosexuals • legal tie of marriage associated with relationship stability • Families – less likely to have children – children of gay couples have not shown differences from other children American Psychological Association • “… the American Psychological Association issued a press release supporting ay marriage and opposing discrimination against gay men and lesbian women in matters such as parenting, adoption, and child custody.” (2004) Sexual Behavior • What constitutes sexual behavior? – – – – infidelity or loss of virginity activities involved in reproduction arousal and sexual response unusually intimate and personal activity as defined by the participants • What do you think constitutes sexual behaviors? Does that definition change when you think about cheating? A SHORT Time to Ponder • What do you think most people in your peer group would define as sexual behavior? Sexual Behavior: Kinsey Scale • Kinsey’s (1948) research (father of sexology) – 12% men, 7% women = bixsexual – are most people promiscuous or faithful? • 50% men = unfaithful • later research: 85% women, 75% men = faithful Sexual Behavior • does marriage decrease sexual activity? p. 370 • what percentage of the population are virgins? – aged 15-44: men 10%, women 8% – aged 25-44: 3% • how often do we have sex (on average)? who masturbates the most? – men (per month): • vaginal intercourse: 5 times • masturbation: 4.5 times • oral sex: 2 times – Women (per month) • vaginal intercourse: 5 times • masturbation: fewer than 2 times • oral sex: 2 times Sexual Response Pattern Human Sexual Response Pattern, William Masters and Virginia Johnson 1966 1. excitement – begins the process of erotic responsiveness – – 2. plateau – continuation and heightening – – 3. increased breathing, pulse rate, blood pressure penile erection / vaginal lubrication complete orgasm – – – 4. several minutes to several hours engorgement of blood vessels, increased blood flow to genital areas, partial penile erection 3-15 seconds explosive charge of neuromuscular tension release of neurotransmitter oxytocin resolution/male refractory period – blood vessels return to normal state • Helen Singer Kaplan (1974): initials stage of desire should be added – some patients lacked sexual desire Sexual Cognition • Cognitive factors in sexual behavior – sensation and perception – self-monitoring and self-regulation – fantasy and imagery – sexual scripts – patterns of expectancies for how people should behave sexually • males and females have different scripts • males – focuses on genitals and orgasm • females – expression of intimacy, orgasm an optional feature Influences on Sexuality • Influence of Culture – John Messenger (1971) – Inis Beag (island off Ireland) • knew nothing about tongue kissing or hand stimulation of penis • detested nudity • premarital sex = out of the question for both sexes • men avoided sex (bad for health) • sex occurred at night and as quickly as possible • female orgasm = incredibly rare Influences on Sexuality • Influence of Culture – Donald Marshall (1971) – Mangaia • young boys taught about masturbation (encouraged) • at 13, boys instructed on sexual strategies by elders • 2 weeks later, intercourse with experienced woman – help them hold back from ejaculation until she experienced orgasm • later: sex every day • women report high frequency of orgasm A SHORT Time to Ponder • Consider the two case studies, what do you notice about the long-term outcomes on sexual behavior as influenced by culture? • What might you expect based on this for American culture? Influences on Sexuality: Sex Education – abstinence-only v. comprehensive • goals: encourage the very young to delay sexual activity, reduce teen pregnancy, reduce STIs – abstinence-only – becoming increasingly common in United States (US has the highest rate of teen pregnancy of the developed world) • emphasize that any sexual behavior outside of marriage is harmful to individuals of any age • present contraceptives and condoms only in terms of failure rates • promotes the notion that abstinence is the only effective way to avoid pregnancy and STIs – comprehensive sex education – involves providing students with comprehensive knowledge about sexual behavior, birth control and the use of condoms in protecting against sexually transmitted infections • encourages students to delay sexual activity and practice abstinence A SHORT Time to Ponder • Which type of sex education program do you think would be the most effective? Why? • What kind of sex education did you have in school? Was it adequate? Explain. • In the critical controversy (p. 374), what was the importance of role-playing? Sexual Variations and Disorders • fetishes – an object or activity that arouses sexual interest and desire – erotic materials (pornographic images and film) – NOT A DISTORDER – clothing – physical objects – transvestic fetish – sexual pleasure from wearing clothing of the opposite sex – dressing up as an animal or a baby – sadomasochism – on person (the sadistic partner) gains sexual pleasure from dominating another person (the masochist), who in turn enjoys being dominated • 3 principles of a fetish (all must be present) – the individuals are consenting adults – they do not experience personal distress – they are not putting themselves in danger of physical harm or death as a result of their activities Sexual Variations and Disorders • paraphilias – sexual disorders that feature recurrent sexually arousing fantasies, urges, or behaviors involving nonhuman objects; the suffering or humiliation of oneself or one’s partner; or children or other nonconsenting persons – exhibitionism – exposing one’s genitals to another person to gain sexual pleasure – voyeurism – watching another person to experience sexual pleasure – frotteurism – touching and rubbing against a person who has not given consent (example: on a subway train) – sexual sadism (w/o the consent of the partner) – pedophilia • the etiology of paraphilias is unknown – etiology – the causes or significant preceding conditions – classical conditioning? associative learning? Sexual Variations and Disorders • pedophilia – a paraphilia in which an adult or an older adolescent sexually fantasizes about or engages in sexual behavior with individuals who have not reached puberty – more common in men – more likely than other sex offenders to have been abused as children – associated with low self-esteem, poor social skills, low IQ, and a history of head injuries (unconsciousness) – cognitive distortions • minimizing the harm of pedophilic activities • believing that sexual impulses are uncontrollable • thinking that sexual relationships with children are consensual A SHORT Time to Ponder • Each state chooses its own age of consent. At what age do you think it should be set? Why? Try to use psychological evidence to support your answer. Sexual Variations and Disorders • disorders of sexual desire/response – female dysfunction in arousal and orgasm • problems of autonomic nervous system disrupts engorgement of the labia and lubrication of the vagina • symptoms occur, but no arousal • causes / contributing factors: – sexual abuse – strict religious beliefs – negative sexual attitudes • treatment: androgens and psychotherapy – erectile dysfunction – failure of the penis to become erect • diabetes and age contribute • treatment: Viagra – premature ejaculation – the experience of orgasm before the person wishes it • most common sexual complaint in men under 40 Sexuality and Health and Wellness • Sexually Transmitted Infections – bacterial: gonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia – viruses: • genital herpes • human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) – destroys the body’s immune system – – – – drug cocktails (6-22 pills a day) 2006 – first pill a day 50% not in treatment 25% do not know Sexuality and Health and Wellness • Safe Sex – abstinence 100% effective – risk reduction with condom use • high success: HPV, gonorrhea, syphilis, Chlamydia and HIV • less success: herpes • “Research has shown that programs to promote safe sex are especially effective if they include the eroticization of condom use—that is, making condoms a part of the sensual experience of foreplay.” p. 379 Sexuality and Health and Wellness • Psychological Well-Being – motives for sex • connect intimately with someone (healthy) – related to having fewer sexual partners – linked with enhanced well-being • enhance their own self-esteem (unhealthy) • to gain a partner’s or peers’ approval (unhealthy) • avoid feeling distressed or lonely (unhealthy) – cope with negative feelings – reduces likelihood of stable relationships – increased likelihood of unsafe activities – linked to decreased well-being – sexual activity is predictor of satisfaction in relationships – sexual activity is a source of pleasure and intimacy throughout the lifespan Chapter Summary • Define the terms “sex” and “gender”. • Explain the biological, evolutionary, socialcognitive, and social role accounts of gender development. • Summarize the well-documented gender differences. • Describe the similarities and differences among gays, lesbians, and heterosexuals. • Discuss sexual variations and disorders. • Explain how sexuality affects health and wellness. Chapter Summary • Defining Sex and Gender • Theories of Gender Development – biological – evolutionary – social-cognitive – social roles • Gender Differences Chapter Summary • Sexual Orientation – influences on sexual orientation – gay and lesbian functioning and relationships • Sexual Behavior – sexual activity – human sexual response pattern • Sexual Disorders • Sexuality and Health and Wellness – sexually transmitted infections