Download Geography Handbook - Boone County Schools

The story of the world begins with geography—the study of the earth in all of its
variety. Geography describes the earth’s
land, water, and plant and animal life. It is
the study of places and the complex
relationships between people and their
environment.
The resources in this handbook will help
you get the most out of your textbook—and
provide you with skills you will use for the
rest of your life.
The Gui River,
Guilin, China
▼
▼
▼
Saharan sand
dunes, Morocco
The Amazon, Brazil
Geography Handbook
1
Places and Regions
o understand how our world is connected, some
geographers have broken down the study of
geography into five themes. The Five Themes of
Geography are (1) location, (2) place, (3) human/
environment interaction, (4) movement, and
(5) regions. You will see these themes highlighted
in the Section and Chapter Assessments in The
World and Its People.
T
Six Essential Elements
Recently, geographers have broken down the
study of geography into Six Essential Elements,
which are explained here. Being aware of these
elements will help you sort out what you are
learning about geography.
Place has a special meaning in geography. It is not
just a geographic location. It
also describes characteristics.
It might describe physical
characteristics such as landforms, climate, and plant or
animal life. Or it might
describe human characteristics, including language and
way of life.
To help organize their
study, geographers often
group places into regions.
Regions are united by
one or more common
characteristics.
The World in Spatial Terms
Geographers first take a look at
where a place is located. Location
serves as a starting point by asking
“Where is it?” Knowing the location of places helps you
develop an awareness of
the world around you.
2
Physical Systems
When studying places
and regions, geographers
analyze how physical
systems—such as hurricanes, volcanoes, and
glaciers—shape the
earth’s surface. They also
look at communities of
plants and animals that
depend upon one another
and their surroundings
for survival.
Geography Handbook
Geography Handbook
Human Systems
Geographers also examine
human systems, or how
people have shaped our
world. They look at how
boundary lines are determined and analyze why
people settle in certain
places and not in others. A
key theme in geography is
the continual movement of
people, ideas, and goods.
Environment and Society
How does the relationship between people and
their natural surroundings
influence the way people
live? Geographers study how
people use the environment
and how their actions affect
the environment.
The Uses of Geography
Knowledge of geography
helps us understand the
relationships among people,
places, and environments
over time. Applying geographic skills helps you
understand the past and
prepare for the future.
Geography Handbook
3
Hemispheres
To locate places on the earth, geographers use
a system of imaginary lines that crisscross the
globe. One of these lines, the Equator, circles
the middle of the earth like a belt. It divides
the earth into “half spheres,” or hemispheres.
Everything north of the Equator is in the
Northern Hemisphere. Everything south of the
Equator is in the Southern Hemisphere.
Another imaginary line runs from north to
south. It helps divide the earth into half
spheres in the other direction. Find this line—
called the Prime Meridian—on a globe.
Everything east of the Prime Meridian for
180 degrees is in the Eastern Hemisphere.
Everything west of the Prime Meridian for
180 degrees is in the Western Hemisphere.
Hemispheres
Northern Hemisphere
Southern Hemisphere
Indian
Ocean
Asia
Australia
Africa
North Pole
Africa
Europe
South Pole
Atlantic
Ocean
Pacific
Ocean
Antarctica
Atlantic
Ocean
North
America
Western Hemisphere
North
America
Pacific
Ocean
South
America
Eastern Hemisphere
Europe
Asia
Atlantic
Ocean
Africa
Pacific
Ocean
South
America
Indian
Ocean
Australia
4
Geography Handbook
ines on globes and maps provide information
that can help you easily locate places on the
earth. These lines—called latitude and longitude—cross one another, forming a pattern called
a grid system.
L
Latitude
Lines of latitude, or parallels, circle the
earth parallel to the Equator and measure
the distance north or south of the Equator
in degrees. The Equator is at 0° latitude,
while the North Pole lies at latitude 90°N
(north).
Longitude
Lines of longitude, or meridians, circle the earth
from Pole to Pole. These lines measure distances east
or west of the starting line, which is at 0° longitude
and is called the Prime Meridian. The Prime
Meridian runs through the Royal Observatory in
Greenwich, England.
Absolute Location
The grid system formed by lines of latitude
and longitude makes it possible to find the
absolute location of a place. Only one place can
be found at the point where a specific line of
latitude crosses a specific line of longitude. By
using degrees (°) and minutes (′) (points between
degrees), people can pinpoint the precise spot
where one line of latitude crosses one line of
longitude—an absolute location.
Geography Handbook
5
he most accurate way to depict the earth is as a
globe, a round scale model of the earth. A globe
gives a true picture of the continents’ relative sizes
and the shapes of landmasses and bodies of water.
Globes accurately represent distance and direction.
A map is a flat drawing of all or part of the
earth’s surface. Unlike globes, maps can show small
areas in great detail. Maps can also display political
boundaries, population densities, or even voting
returns.
T
Mapmaking with Technology
Technology has changed the way maps are
made. Most cartographers use software programs called geographic information systems
(GIS). This software layers map data from
satellite images, printed text, and statistics. A
Global Positioning System (GPS) helps mapmakers and consumers locate places based on
coordinates broadcast by satellites.
From Globes to Maps
Maps, however, do have their limitations. As
you can imagine, drawing a round object on a
flat surface is very difficult. Cartographers, or
mapmakers, use mathematical formulas to
transfer information from the round globe to
a flat map. However, when the curves of a
globe become straight lines on a map, the
size, shape, distance, or area can change or
be distorted.
Great Circle Route
Map A
120°E
N
180°
120°W
E
W
S
60°N
Great Circle Distance
5,450 mi. (8,769 km)
Tokyo
Los
Angeles
True Direction Distance
5,795 mi. (9,324 km)
30°N
Great Circle Routes
0°
PACI F IC
OCEAN
30°S
0 mi.
3,000
0 km
3,000
Mercator projection
0°
Map B
60°E
40
°N
°N
60°W
60
120°E
Great Circle Route
Tokyo
0 mi.
PACI F I C
True OCEAN ute
D ir e cti o n R o
3,000
S
E
N
North Pole
W
Mapmakers have solved some problems of
going from a globe to a map. A great circle is
an imaginary line that follows the curve of the
earth. A line drawn along the Equator is an
example of a great circle. Traveling along a
great circle is called following a great circle
route. Airplane pilots use great circle routes
because they represent the shortest distances
from one city to another.
The idea of a great circle shows one important difference between a globe and a map.
Because a globe is round, it accurately shows
great circles. On a flat map, however, the great
circle route between two points may not appear
to be the shortest distance. See the maps to the
right.
Los
Angeles
120°W
180°
0 km
3,000
Polar Gnomonic projection
6
Geography Handbook
0°
120°W 60°W
60°N
A R C T IC
TROPIC OF CANCER
EQUATOR
0°
N
TROPIC OF CAPRICOR
30°S
60°S ANTARCTIC CIR
ARCTIC CIRCLE
60°E
120°E
CIRCLE
30°N
▼
Goode’s Interrupted
Equal-Area Projection
Winkel Tripel Projection
MERIDIAN OF GREENWICH (LONDON)
magine taking the whole peel from an orange and
trying to flatten it on a table. You would either
have to cut it or stretch parts of it. Mapmakers face
a similar problem in showing the surface of the
round earth on a flat map. When the earth’s surface
is flattened, big gaps open up. To fill in the gaps,
mapmakers stretch parts of the earth. They choose
to show either the correct shapes of places or their
correct sizes. It is impossible to show both. As a
result, mapmakers have developed different projections, or ways of showing the earth on a flat piece
of paper.
I
C LE
The Winkel Tripel projection gives a good overall view of
the continents’ shapes and sizes. Land areas in a Winkel Tripel
projection are not as distorted near the Poles as they are in the
Robinson projection.
60°N
30°N
TROPIC OF CANCER
EQUATOR
0°
Mercator Projection
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
30°S
90°E
60°S
120°E
150°E
180°
150°W
120°W
Take a second look at your peeled, flattened orange. You might
have something that looks like a map based on Goode’s
Interrupted Equal-Area projection. A map with this projection
shows continents close to their true shapes and sizes. This projection is helpful to compare land areas among continents.
30°W
0°
30°E
60°E
ARCTIC CIRCLE
0°
TROPIC OF CANCER
EQUATOR
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
120°W
ARCTIC CIRCLE
60°W
0°
60°E
120°E
30°S
60°N
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
30°S
60°S
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
MERIDIAN OF GREENWICH (LONDON)
EQUATOR
A map using the Robinson projection has minor distortions. Land
on the western and eastern sides of the Robinson map appears
much as it does on a globe. The areas most distorted on this
projection are near the North and South Poles.
Geography Handbook
60°S
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
▼
TROPIC OF CANCER
MERIDIAN OF GREENWICH (LONDON)
▼
Robinson Projection
0°
60°W
60°N
30°N
30°N
90°W
ANTARCTIC
CIRCLE
The Mercator projection shows true direction and land shapes
fairly accurately, but not size or distance. Areas that are located
far from the Equator are quite distorted on this projection. Alaska,
for example, appears much larger on a Mercator map than it does
on a globe.
7
▼
Map Key An important first step in reading a map is to note the map
key. The map key explains the lines, symbols, and colors used on a
map. For example, the map on this page shows the various climate
regions of the United States and the different colors representing them.
Cities are usually symbolized by a solid circle (•) and capitals by a
star (). On this map, you can see the capital of Texas and the cities of
Los Angeles, Seattle, New Orleans, and Chicago.
Climate Regions of the United States
Desert
Highland
Humid continental
Humid subtropical
Marine
8
Mediterranean
Steppe
Subarctic
Tropical
Tundra
Scale Bar A measuring line, often called
Compass Rose A map has a symbol
a scale bar, helps you figure distance on
the map. The map scale tells you what
distance on the earth is represented by
the measurement on the scale bar.
that tells you where the cardinal directions—north, south, east, and west—are
positioned. This symbol is called a
compass rose.
Geography Handbook
General Purpose Maps
Spain: Political
Maps are amazingly useful tools. You
can use them to preserve information, to
display data, and to make connections
between seemingly unrelated things.
Geographers use many different types of
maps. Maps that show a wide range of
general information about an area are
called general purpose maps. Two of the
most common general purpose maps are
physical and political maps.
10°W
FRANCE
R.
Do u r o R .
PORTUGAL
Zaragoza
N
Barcelona
S
Tagus R.
S P A I N
Valencia
Balearic
Islands
uivir R.
dalq
ua
G
Seville
0 mi.
Point Pedro
Gulf of
Mannar
SRI LANKA
8°S
Matale
Pidurutalagala
8,281 ft.
(2,524 m)
Colombo
N
W
Bay
of
Bengal
Kattankudi
Chilaw
INDIAN
OCEAN
E
Matara
S
0 mi.
0 km
200
0 km
200
Lambert Azimuthal
Equal-Area projection
Jaffna
M´alaga
d
Me
ATLANTIC
O CE A N
Sri Lanka: Physical
Trincomalee
E
W
Madrid
40°N
Physical maps call out landforms and
water features. The physical map of Sri
Lanka below shows rivers and mountains. The colors used on physical maps
include brown or green for land, and blue
for water. These colors and shadings
Mountain peak
National capital
Major city
ANDORRA
Eb
ro
Physical Maps ▼
Elevations
Feet
Meters
3,280
1,000
1,640
500
650
200
380
100
0
0
0°
Bay o f Biscay
ite
rr
e
an
an
Se a
GIBRALTAR
U.K.
S t r a i t o f G ib r a l t a r
AFRICA
may show relief—or how flat or
rugged the land surface is. In addition,
physical maps may use colors to show
elevation—the height of an area above
sea level. A key explains what each
color and symbol stands for.
Political Maps ▲
Political maps show the names and
boundaries of countries, the location of
cities and other human-made features
of a place, and often identify major
physical features. The political map of
Spain above, for example, shows the
boundaries between Spain and other
countries. It also shows cities and rivers
within Spain and bodies of water surrounding Spain.
100
100
80°E
Geography Handbook
9
Types of Maps
Contour Maps ▼
Egypt:
Population Density
One kind of physical map, called a
contour map, also shows elevation. A
contour map has contour lines—one
line for each major level of elevation.
All the land at the same elevation is
connected by a line. These lines usually
form circles or ovals—one inside the
other. If contour lines come very close
together, the surface is steep. If the
lines are spread apart, the land is flat
or rises very gradually. Compare the
contour map of Sri Lanka below to its
physical map on page 9.
Suez
Cairo Canal
30°N
W
le
a
Persons
sq. mi.
Uninhabited
Under 2
2–60
60–125
125–250
Over 250
0
8°S
0
20
500
10
0
500
00
1,0
0
0
0
500
Boundary claimed
by Sudan
per
20°N
sq. km
Uninhabited
Under 1
1–25
25–50
50–100
Over 100
30°E
Cities
City with more than
5,000,000 people
City with 1,000,000 to
5,000,000 people
present climate, natural resources, or population density. They might also display historical information, such as battle sites or
territorial expansions. The map’s title tells
what kind of special information it shows.
Colors and symbols in the map key are
especially important on these types of maps.
One type of special purpose map uses
colors to show population density, or the
average number of people living in a square
mile or square kilometer. As with other
maps, it is important to first read the title
and the key. The population density map of
Egypt above shows that the Nile River valley and delta are very densely populated.
10
0
50
20
100
20
1,000
INDIAN
OCEAN
0
0 mi.
0 km
10
Se
TROPIC OF CANCER
10
80°E
d
0 km
300
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area
projection
Contour intervals in meters
Gulf of
Mannar
S
R.
300
Re
S
Bay
of
Bengal
E
Ni
100
W
EGYPT
E
0 mi.
Sri Lanka: Contour
20
El Giza
N
Some maps are made to present specific kinds of information. These are
called thematic or special purpose
maps. They usually show specific topics
in detail. Special purpose maps might
N
Se a
▲
Special Purpose Maps
Mediterranean
Alexandria
100
100
Transverse Mercator projection
Geography Handbook
Graphs
Comparing World Languages
A graph is a way of summarizing and presenting
information visually. Each
part of a graph gives useful
information. First read the
graph’s title to find out its
subject. Then read the labels
along the graph’s axes—the
vertical line along the left
side of the graph and the
horizontal line along the bottom. One axis will tell you
what is being measured. The
other axis tells what units of
measurement are being used.
Chinese (Mandarin) 874
Hindi 366
Languages
English 341
Spanish 322
Bengali 207
Portuguese 176
Russian 167
Japanese 125
German 100
Korean 78
Number of Native Speakers (in millions)
Source: The World Almanac, 2003.
Bar and Line Graphs
Graphs that use bars or wide
lines to compare data visually are called bar
graphs. Look carefully at the bar graph above,
which compares world languages. The vertical
axis lists the languages. The horizontal axis
measures the number of speakers of the lan-
Number of farms (in millions)
U.S. Farms,
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1940
1950
Source: The World Almanac, 2003.
Geography Handbook
1960
guage in millions. By comparing the lengths of
the bars, you can quickly tell which language is
spoken by the most people. Bar graphs are
especially useful for comparing quantities.
A line graph is a useful tool for showing
changes over a
period of time.
The amounts
1940–2000
being measured
are plotted on the
grid above each
year, and then are
connected by a
line. Line graphs
sometimes have
two or more lines
plotted on them.
The line graph to
your left shows
that the number
of farms in the
United States has
1970
1980
1990
2000
decreased since
Year
1940.
11
Using Graphs, Charts, and Diagrams
Circle Graphs ▼
Major AutomobileProducing Countries, 2001
Production figures for five
major auto-producing countries
You can use circle graphs
when you want to show
how the whole of something
is divided into its parts.
Because of their shape, circle graphs are often called
pie graphs. Each “slice”
represents a part or percentage of the whole “pie.”
On the circle graph below,
the whole circle (100 percent) represents the world’s
population in 2002. The
slices show how this population is divided among
the world’s five largest
continents.
Japan
Germany
United
States
France
South
Korea
= 1,000,000 passenger cars
Source: The World Almanac, 2003.
Charts
Charts present facts and numbers in an
organized way. They arrange data, especially
numbers, in rows and columns for easy
World Population*
Latin America 9%
North America 5%
reference. Look at the chart called “Population
Growth” on page 88. To interpret the chart,
first read the title. It tells you what information
the chart contains. Next, read the labels at
the top of each column and on the left
side of the chart. They explain what the
numbers or data on the chart are
measuring.
Pictographs ▲
Like bar and circle graphs, pictographs
are good for making comparisons.
Pictographs use rows of small pictures
or symbols, with each picture or symbol
representing an amount. Look at the
pictograph showing the number of automobiles produced in the world’s five
major automobile-producing countries
above. The key tells you that one car
symbol stands for 1 million automobiles.
The total number of car symbols in a row
adds up to the auto production in each
selected country.
Europe
12%
Africa 13%
Asia 61%
Source: World Population Data Sheet, 2003.
12
*Excluding Australia
Geography Handbook
Geography Handbook
▲
Climographs
Climograph: Moscow, Russia
Average monthly temperature
°F
°C
in. mm
100 37.8
20 508
90 32.2
18 457.2
80 26.7
16 406.4
70 21.1
14 355.6
60 15.6
12 304.8
50 10.0
10 254
4.4
8
203.2
30 –1.1
6
152.4
20 –6.7
4
101.6
10 –12.2
2
50.8
0 –17.8
0
0
40
Average monthly precipitation
A climograph, or climate
graph, combines a line graph
and a bar graph. It gives an
overall picture of the long-term
weather patterns in a specific
place. Climographs include
several kinds of information.
The green vertical bars on the
climograph of Moscow to your
right show average monthly
amounts of precipitation (rain,
snow, or sleet). These bars are
measured against the axis on
the right side of the graph. The
red line plotted above the bars
represents changes in the average monthly temperature. You
measure this line against the
axis on the left side.
Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Source: World Weather Guide.
Diagrams ▼
Diagrams are drawings that show steps in a
process, point out the parts of an object, or
explain how something works. An elevation
profile is a type of diagram that can be helpful
when comparing the elevations—or heights—
of an area. It shows an exaggerated side view
of the land as if it were sliced and you were
viewing it from the side. The elevation profile
of Africa below clearly shows sea level, low
areas, and mountains.
Africa: Elevation Profile
Mt. Kenya
17,058 ft.
(5,199 m)
16,404 ft.
0 mi.
0 km
13,123 ft.
300
300
Margherita Peak
16,763 ft.
(5,109 m)
5,000 m
4,000 m
Lake
Victoria
9,842 ft.
3,000 m
6,562 ft.
Indian
Ocean 2,000 m
Atlantic Ocean
3,281 ft.
Congo River
1,000 m
Sea level
0˚ latitude (Equator)
Geography Handbook
13
Volcano Mountain peak
Strait
Sound
Island
Valley
Cape
Ocean
Cliff
Isthmus
As you read about world cultures
and geography, you will encounter
the terms listed below. Many
of the terms are pictured in the
diagram.
Bay
Harbor
Gulf
Mouth of
river
Delta
Peninsula
st
Seacoa
absolute location exact location of a place on the earth
described by global coordinates
basin area of land drained by a given river and its branches;
area of land surrounded by lands of higher elevation
bay part of a large body of water that extends into a shoreline,
generally smaller than a gulf
canyon deep and narrow valley with steep walls
cape point of land that extends into a river, lake, or ocean
channel wide strait or waterway between two landmasses that
lie close to each other; deep part of a river or other waterway
cliff steep, high wall of rock, earth, or ice
continent one of the seven large landmasses on the earth
cultural feature characteristic that humans have created in a
place, such as language, religion, housing, and settlement
pattern
delta flat, low-lying land built up from soil carried downstream
by a river and deposited at its mouth
divide stretch of high land that separates river systems
downstream direction in which a river or stream flows from its
source to its mouth
elevation height of land above sea level
Equator imaginary line that runs around the earth halfway between the North and South Poles; used as the starting point
to measure degrees of north and south latitude
14
glacier large, thick body of slowly moving ice
gulf part of a large body of water that extends into a shoreline,
generally larger and more deeply indented than a bay
harbor a sheltered place along a shoreline where ships can
anchor safely
highland elevated land area such as a hill, mountain, or plateau
hill elevated land with sloping sides and rounded summit; generally smaller than a mountain
island land area, smaller than a continent, completely surrounded by water
isthmus narrow stretch of land connecting two larger land
areas
lake a sizable inland body of water
latitude distance north or south of the Equator, measured in
degrees
longitude distance east or west of the Prime Meridian, measured in degrees
lowland land, usually level, at a low elevation
map drawing of the earth shown on a flat surface
meridian one of many lines on the global grid running from
the North Pole to the South Pole; used to measure degrees
of longitude
mesa broad, flat-topped landform with steep sides; smaller than
a plateau
Geography Handbook
Geography Handbook
Mountain range
Glacier
Source of
river
Channel
Highland
Lake
Plateau
Hills
Canyon
River
Desert
Upstream
Downstream
Plain
Lowland
Basin
Tributary
mountain land with steep sides that rises sharply (1,000 feet
[305 m] or more) from surrounding land; generally larger
and more rugged than a hill
mountain peak pointed top of a mountain
mountain range a series of connected mountains
mouth (of a river) place where a stream or river flows into a
larger body of water
ocean one of the four major bodies of salt water that surround
the continents
ocean current stream of either cold or warm water that moves
in a definite direction through an ocean
parallel one of many lines on the global grid that circle the
earth north or south of the Equator; used to measure
degrees of latitude
peninsula body of land jutting into a lake or ocean, surrounded
on three sides by water
physical feature characteristic of a place occurring naturally,
such as a landform, body of water, climate pattern, or
resource
plain area of level land, usually at a low elevation and often
covered with grasses
plateau area of flat or rolling land at a high elevation, about
300–3,000 feet (91–914 m) high
Geography Handbook
Prime Meridian line of the global grid running from the North
Pole to the South Pole through Greenwich, England; starting
point for measuring degrees of east and west longitude
relief changes in elevation over a given area of land
river large natural stream of water that runs through the land
sea large body of water completely or partly surrounded
by land
seacoast land lying next to a sea or ocean
sea level position on land level with the surface of a nearby
ocean or sea
sound body of water between a coastline and one or more
islands off the coast
source (of a river) place where a river or stream begins, often
in highlands
strait narrow stretch of water joining two larger bodies of water
tributary small river or stream that flows into a larger river or
stream; a branch of the river
upstream direction opposite the flow of a river; toward the
source of a river or stream
valley area of low land between hills or mountains
volcano mountain created as liquid rock or ash erupts from
inside the earth
15