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The Significance of Figural Representation in Islam By Sara Najum Indus Valley School of Art and Architecture Najum 2 The Significance of Figural Representation in Islam By Sara Najum This Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of BACHELOR OF FINE ART, from Indus Valley School of Art and Architecture. Internal Advisor : Fatima Qureshi Arshad Farooqui DEPARTMENT OF FINE ART INDUS VALLEY SCHOOL OF ART AND ARCHITECTURE KARACHI PAKISTAN 2011 Najum 3 Table of Contents Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations List of Figures Abstract………………………………………………………………………… 6 Chapter 1 - Introduction …………………………………………………….…7 Chapter 2- Literature Review…………………………………………………..9 Chapter 3- Research Methodology…………………………………………....25 Chapter 4- Findings and Analysis…………………………………………….27 Chapter 5- Conclusion………………………………………………………...34 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………..36 Appendices……………………………………………………………………37 Najum 4 Acknowledgements I would like to thank God for giving me the patience and persistence I needed to put together this dissertation. I would like to thank Miss Fatima Qureshi for her immense support and guidance throughout the course of this research paper. Miss Ayesha Dar for all her presentations and discussions on how to conduct and carry out our research. Arshad Farooqui for giving us constructive and helpful feedback. I would also like to thank Wahab Suri, Saqlain Zaidi, Khurram Khan and all my interviewees who guided and advised me in formulating this dissertation. Najum 5 List of Abbreviations Pbuh : Peace be upon him Etc: etctera i.e: that is. List of Figures Figure 1-Princely feast, from the Kihamnsa of Nizami, Iran, 1574-75, with later iconoclastic alterations. London, India Office Library ms 1129, fol. 29 (photo: By permission of The British Library. Figure 2- Maqamat of al-Hariri, Iraq, ca. 1240, with later iconoclastic alterations, fol. 32v. St. Petersburg, the Russian Academy of Sciences. Figure 3- Muhammad Receives the Revelation through the Angel Gabriel, from Rashid al-Din's Compendium of Chronicles, Tabriz (Iran), 1314-15. Edinburgh, University Library Arab. ms 20 Figure 4- Kamal al-Din Bihzad, The Seduction of Hazrat Yusuf from a manuscript of Saadi's Bustan, Herat (Afghanistan), 1488. Cairo, National Library (photo: Los Angeles County Museum of Art). Figure 6- Firdausi in the Bathhouse, painting added to the Spencer Shahnama in the 19th or 20th century. New York Public Library Pers. ms 2, fol. 5. Najum 6 Chapter 1: Abstract Every individual in this day and age has his or her own manifestation of religion. Despite having sectarian differences in Islam, there are also further differences in the beliefs and practices of each individual from one another. Regarding the issue of figural representation in any form, most individuals have their own perceptions, opinions and beliefs as to whether or not, or to what extent they are acceptable for them. Most people have a certain tolerance or intolerance towards this aspect based on their knowledge, how religious they are, and how much they practice what they believe. The objective of this paper is not to prove whether or not figural representation is lawful or unlawful in Islam, but it is merely to form a basic understanding depending upon the written material present and by carefully examining events in the past and present: of how and why there is uncertainty amongst Muslims regarding this aspect and what the reasons may or may not have been. The purpose is by no means to pass a judgment or a final verdict regarding my findings but to delve in to the question of the prohibition of figural imagery since despite such strong viewpoints regarding this facet by some orthodox sects in Islam, there is a continuation in the use of images and the production and promotion of art in various Islamic nations. Najum 7 Chapter 2: Introduction Say: "O People of the Book! come to common terms as between us and you: that we worship none but Allah; that we associate no partners with Him; that we erect not, from among ourselves, Lords and patrons other than Allah." If then they turn back, say ye: "Bear witness that we (at least) are Muslims (bowing to Allah's Will) (Quran 3:64) Allah mentions in the Quran, "So shun the abomination of idols, and shun the word that is false."[Quran 22: 30].1 By all means Islam clearly condemns idol worship2. Reverence of figural representation in the form of 2D images or 3D sculptures are both forbidden in Islam. But the question of making images for a reason other than idolatry is one that has been a source of confusion and controversies. The most authentic book of guidance for all Muslims, the Quran, does not directly forbid the use of images. Neither does it encourage the destruction of already existing representations unless of course they are used for the purpose of idolatry3. Then why is it that some Muslims strictly believe that Islam forbids any kind of figural representation and any such imagery should be destroyed? This dissertation will focus on the dilemma of using figural representation in Islam. My aim is to draw attention to the difficulties in understanding the idea of the lawfulness of figural representation in Islam, bearing in mind the existing highly polarized ideologies; one that considers figural representation to be allowed and the other which not just condemn imagery but also encourages the destruction of it. There are various incidents in the history of Islam that highlight the practice of destroying images and though “iconoclasm” may be carried out by people of different religions towards the 1 Web. 2 Mar. 2011. <http://www.hoor-al-ayn.com/articles/Knowledge/Destruction%20of%20Idols.pdf>. "Islamic Voice - Islam and Comparative Religion." Islamic Voice - Magazine. Web. 05 May 2011. <http://www.islamic-voice.com/islam-and-comparative-religion.php>. 3 Oleg Grabar. "Islam and iconoclasm chapter II." Early Islamic Art. Vol. 1. Birmingham,: A. Bryer and J. Herrin, 1977. 43-52. 2005. Ashgate. 10 Jan. 2011 <http://archnet.org/library/documents/onedocument.jsp?document_id=10127>. 2 Najum 8 images and icons of the other, it is often the result of disputes and differences of belief between groups or sects of the same religion4. With examples of incidents of image destruction in the beginning of Islam and in the 21st century my aim is to imply that the destruction of images in Islam could merely be due to differences of beliefs in not just the different sects with in Islam, but also from one individual to another. I will also be shedding light upon why -with the continuation of iconoclastic beliefs and practices, there is a rich figurative culture in Islamic Art and how figurative art and the use of images continues to flourish in Muslim cultures. I will be mentioning some Muslim artists that have and continue to incorporate figural representations in their art work.Works with the incorporation of figures that are either nude or insulting and derogatory in some manner often experience criticism and vandalism by some Muslims.5 I will also be referring to incidents like the destruction of the Bamiyan Budhas by the Talibans in 2001 and some art vandalizing events that have occurred and that bring to light the degree of differences in the way Muslims respond to this single aspect. 4 Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>. 5 Zaidi, Saima. "Be Pakistani, Buy Pakistani." Mazaar, Bazaar: Design and Visual Culture in Pakistan. Oxford [u.a.: Oxford UP, 2009. 136-38. Print. Najum 9 Chapter 3: Literature Review The permissibility of depictions of living beings has long been a concern in Islam's history6. It is generally believed that Islam condemns figural imagery, and figurative art is unacceptable in Islam. This issue, although not such an imperative one has created many controversies in the Muslim community as a whole, and in the various sects within Islam. Some sects in Islam strictly tend to believe that there are passages in the Quran that prove proscription of figural imagery and that there is no room for figural depiction in Islam7. The key concern more often is that the use of images can lead to idolatry-where the image becomes more important than what it represents and if an act can lead to a sin as big as idol worshipping, it might as well be refrained from8. To form a base for the understanding of the argument I will first be stating verses from the Quran that mention idols or statues or any kind of figural depiction. Then I will move on to stating some of the Traditions/Hadiths of the Holy Prophet (pbuh) that will make the understanding of this predicament a bit clearer. I will also be mentioning incidents and events in the past regarding the attitude of early Muslims on the subject of images and the visual culture in the pre and post Islamic Arabia. Books and manuscripts in the history of Islamic Art and culture that have had figures of not just rulers and common people but also that of the Holy Prophet (pbuh) will also be mentioned. In contrast to the prevalence of figures in Islamic history the controversy of the depiction of the Holy Prophet in the form of Danish cartoons will also be touched upon. 6 Creswell, K. A. C. "The Lawfulness of Painting in Early Islam." Ars Islamica 11/12 (1946): 159-66. Jstor. Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution. Web. 10 Dec. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4515631>. 7 Ibid. 8 Check appendices Najum 10 Before I quote any passage of the Quran it is important to ascertain that the Quran itself is a document that is written in such a manner that could make it hard for even a speaker of Arabic to easily comprehend. Since the advent of Islam, Muslims all over the world believe the Quran is the most authentic word of God that has not changed or varied in the slightest possible way since its revelation9. This is one thread that unites all Muslims, whatever sect they may be followers of. The content is the same and has been since the time it was revealed and later compiled, but to be able to deduce a thorough understanding of any particular passage sometimes it is significant to look in to the background ie. When it was revealed and what was happening at that particular point in time so that one can be able to translate it in that context. Also since the Arabic language is such a comprehensive one sometimes the interpretation needs to be more elaborate, considering each of the words and what they precisely mean10. In the verse 6.74 from the Quran Abraham chides his father for making idols as divinities: “I see thee and thy people in manifest error.” The words for idols used in these passages are al-ansab and al-asnam , both of which imply representations, statues or paintings, used for idolatory. Here the Quranic meaning is clearly that of opposing the adoration of physical idols and may not be also for rejecting art or representations as such. 11 Another verse in the Quran (Qur.v.92) says- „O believers, wine and games of chance and statues and (divining) arrows are an abomination of Satan‟s handiwork ; then avoid it!‟- Which theologians of a later generation could quote in support of their condemnation of this art makes it clear that the real objective of prohibition was the avoidance of idolatry.12 9 Note: The Holy Qur'an, Chapter 15,Verse 9 No falsehood can approach it from before or behind it: It is sent down by One Full of Wisdom, Worthy of all Praise.The Holy Qur'an, Chapter 41,Verse 42 "Who Wrote the Quran?" Gain Peace. OMR Solutions. Web. 5 Mar. 2011. <http://www.gainpeace.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=59:who-wrote-thequran&catid=40:holy-quran&Itemid=106>. 10 Ibid. 11 Oleg Grabar. "Islamic Attitudes towards the Arts." The Formation of Islamic Art. London: New Haven and London, Yale UP, 1973. 75-103. Print. 12 Ibid. Najum 11 These are usually the passages that could be quoted when the question of whether or not figural representation is allowed in Islam arises. Here, the understanding can get clearer once a precise description of the words is considered. Moving on to the tradition of the Holy Prophet (pbuh) it is important to note that even though the Quran states no direct prohibition of art or images for any sake other than worship and is silent in this affair, the Hadiths ( traditions of the Prophet) are almost uniformly filled with such denunciations. As Oleg Grabar says: Much has been written about Islamic attitudes toward the arts. Encyclopedias or general works on the history of art simply assert that, for a variety of reasons which are rarely explored, Islam was theologically opposed to representation of living beings. While it is fairly known that the Quran contains no prohibition of such representations, the undeniable denunciation of artists and of representations found in many traditions about the life of the prophet are taken as genuine expressions of an original Muslim attitude.13 However there are also some instances in the life of the Prophet where he has not condemned figural imagery and has permitted it in certain ways that will be mentioned later. This has become a source of confusion and dilemma that has led to differences, as to why there is such a strong disregard for imagery in some Hadiths despite the Quran remaining silent14. Some of the Hadiths that condemn figural imagery are: The Prophet (PBUH) said : “Verily , Al-Musawwiroon (picture makers) will receive the severest torment from Allah among the people on the Day of Resurrection” (Muslim)15 13 Oleg Grabar. "Islamic Attitudes towards the Arts." The Formation of Islamic Art. London: New Haven and London, Yale UP, 1973. 75-103. Print. 14 Sadria, Modj-ta-ba. "Figural Representation in Islamic Art." Middle Eastern Studies 20.4 (1984): 99104. Jstor. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283032>. 15 "TAKING PICTURES | The Revival." The Revival | Voice of the Muslim Youth! Web. 25 June 2011. <http://www.therevival.co.uk/forum/general/347?page=1>. Najum 12 He also said “ Verily those who make these pictures will be punished on the Day of Resurrection. It will be said to them: „Bring life to what you have created.‟‟‟ (AlBukhaari and Muslim)16 He also said: “ Every Musawwir (picture maker) in the Fire will be punished in Jahannam ( Hell) by a soul created for every picture he made.” (Muslim)17 The Messenger of Allah also said: “The angels do not enter a house where there are dogs and pictures.” (Muslim)18 Overlooking the fact that there are doubts in the authenticity of numerous Hadiths (since this is another issue altogether) there are several other sayings of the Holy Prophet that denounce figural imagery and the creator of such images and although for a Muslim a single authentic prohibition should be enough, there are also certain incidents in the life of the Prophet (pbuh) as well as the Caliphs and companions of the Prophet that are not as stringent regarding this aspect. For example according to Modj-ta-ba: It has been recorded that, while the Prophet Mohammad lay ill, his wives came in to divert him with conversation and that they discussed with great enthusiasm the pictures two of them had seen during a visit to a church in Abyssinia. It seems that the enthusiasm of the wives was not deemed inappropriate by the Prophet. He had also allowed his youngest wife, Aisha, to bring dolls into his house.19 Azraki (d. 858 A.D.), author of the earliest extant history of Mecca, tells that Muham- mad, after his triumphal entry into that city in Ramadan 8 (December, 629-January, 630) went inside the Kaaba and ordered the pictures in it to be obliterated, but put his hand over a pic- ture of Mary with Jesus seated on her lap, and said: "Rub out all the pictures except these under my hands"; and Azra1ki goes on to say that this picture remained until the Kaaba was destroyed in 63 H.2 Sa'd ibn Abi Wakkas who was one of the companions of the prophet and his Arabs at the capture of al-Mada'in, or 16 "TAKING PICTURES | The Revival." The Revival | Voice of the Muslim Youth! Web. 25 June 2011. <http://www.therevival.co.uk/forum/general/347?page=1>. 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid. 19 Sadria, Modj-ta-ba. "Figural Representation in Islamic Art." Middle Eastern Studies 20.4 (1984): 99104. Jstor. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283032>. Najum 13 Ctesiphon, used the great lwan for the Friday prayer and were not disturbed by the paintings decorating it, one of which represented the siege of Antioch by Khusrau Anfishirwan (538 A.D.).' Zak! Hasan tries to explain away this fact partly by the lack of time, the troops being so anxious to give thanks for their great victory that they did not stop to obliterate them, and partly by saying that "victorious armies do not always act according to religious principles." But he has to admit that these paintings were allowed to remain for two and a half centuries at least, for they were seen by al-Buhturi, who died in 897 A.D.20 The Caliph Umar (r.634-44) ( the second caliph and one of the closest companions of the Prophet) is also said to possess a silver censer, with figures on it, which he got from Syria in order to perfume the mosque of Medina21. According to Finbarr Barry Flood it was only in 785 that the figures (tamathil) on a silver Syrian censer donated by the caliph Umar were rendered innocuous (probably by decapitation) by the governor of the city. He also points out that this remedial action falls within the period in which the earliest traditions regarding images were codified, according to a recent reevaluation, hinting at further shifts in attitudes to figuration between the late seventh and late eighth centuries.22 On another incident the Holy Prophet is supposed to have objected to a woven curtain Aisha, his youngest wife, hung in a doorway, for the cloth was patterned with figures. She was required to cut up the fabric and make cushions of it since such designs were only acceptable to the Prophet as furnishings to be leaned or trodden on.' 23 Considering this incident it could be derived that perhaps after tearing the cloth the figures didn‟t remain figures, lost their form and became unrecognizable and that perhaps may be the reason why they were acceptable. Or the figures remained even after 20 Creswell, K. A. C. "The Lawfulness of Painting in Early Islam." Ars Islamica 11/12 (1946): 159-66. Jstor. Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution. Web. 10 Dec. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4515631>. 21 Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>. 22 Ibid. 23 Sadria, Modj-ta-ba. "Figural Representation in Islamic Art." Middle Eastern Studies 20.4 (1984): 99104. Jstor. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283032>. Najum 14 tearing up the cloth but they were only tolerable if they were used as something to lean and trod on instead of something that is put up like a curtain. Considering the latter it could also be deduced that figural imagery is not acceptable in any art form like painting etc since an art form is put up in a space or hung on a wall (somewhat like a curtain) , is respected and not leaned or trampled on. It is only a matter of which scholar u Tradition u would prefer to follow. Some scholars declare images to be highly intolerable while other scholars are less stringent regarding this matter. As Finbarr Barry Flood says : Two basic alternatives emerge from the various Traditions dealing with figuration: recontextualization in a manner that made clear that the images were in no way venerated (by reusing figural textiles as floor cushions, for example), or decapitation, so that they became inanimate, that is, devoid of a soul (ruh).24 Also if the Caliph Umar used a censor with figures on it, that could indicate that if figural imagery in that form was acceptable to the Caliph Umar who was one of the closest companions of the Prophet , it might not be as big of an issue as it rather became for the Muslims at a later period. According to Finbarr Barry Flood: There is a general consensus in the hadith forbidding all representations that have shadows (whose defacement is obligatory), and some schools go so far as to liken the artists as polytheists. Such proscriptions were undoubtedly a factor in both promoting aniconism (the eschewal of figural imagery) and motivating acts of iconoclasm (the destruction or mutilation of already existing imagery), but their impact on arts varied greatly according to time and place.25 24 Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>. 24 Sadria, Modj-ta-ba. "Figural Representation in Islamic Art." Middle Eastern Studies 20.4 (1984): 99104. Jstor. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283032>. 25 Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>. Najum 15 It is believed that most of the Hadiths that strictly prohibit figural depiction are the ones that were coded at a much later period.26 Regarding the attitudes of the pre-Islamic Arabia concerning the Arts Oleg Grabar says that the living architecture of central Arabia was not an impressive one. He points out that “There exists no Islamic writing of an aesthetic reaction to the Kaabah (the holiest and most important architectural building) of an interpretation of its holiness in terms of visual beauty.” According to him: It is difficult to imagine that the wealthy merchants of Mecca did not build for themselves fairly elaborate dwellings. But there is no evidence for it, and the developments of later centuries would tend to confirm the simplicity of the setting of aristocratic life in pre-Islamic Arabia. For instance, almost none of the visible features of Umayyad palace art seem to have been derived from preIslamic Arabia, and it is perhaps correct to conclude that architecture ostentatiousness was not a typical feature of traditional Arabian society.27 He also points out that “traditional Muslim culture perhaps did not possess a doctrine about the arts, neither formal thought-out rejections of certain kinds of creative activities nor positive notions about the possible instructional or beautifying values of the various existing techniques of art.”28 Art perhaps was not one of the key concerns of the early Islamic period and the Arabs were not inclined towards the making of art in anyway. This might perhaps be the reason as to why the Quran doesn‟t directly state anything regarding this aspect. 26 Sadria, Modj-ta-ba. "Figural Representation in Islamic Art." Middle Eastern Studies 20.4 (1984): 99104. Jstor. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283032>. 27 Oleg Grabar. "Islamic Attitudes towards the Arts." The Formation of Islamic Art. London: New Haven and London, Yale UP, 1973. 75-103. Print. 28 Ibid. Najum 16 Grabar says: “that very little sculpture, painting, or manufacture of other than purely utilitarian objects took place in Arabia itself. The idols that have assembled in Mekkah were most primitive, and the painitng of a virgin and child found in the kaabah was probably the work of a non arab or folk art. What accounts of aesthetically significant paintings and sculptures do exist refer generally to work found outside of Arabia, mostly in the Christian worlds of Syria , Egypt, and occasionally ethopia. Most expensive objects came from elsewhere and the celebrated textiles and pillows with figures which were owned by aisha , the prophets youngest wife and about which much has written later on , were probably Syrian or Egyptian.”29 He believes that: Since the Islamic world had no form of art they could call their own 'when religions and political factions fought with each other through images.'Thus the later ruling against representation provided a means to 'avoid being confused with the alien world of Christians and by later extensions of Buddhists or of pagans. It was therefore essentially the ideological and political circumstance of the late 7th century Christian world that led Islam to this particular point of view' .This scheme of development is used to explain a means of establishing an identity distinct from Christian Art which had used figural depiction in various forms in order to spread the religious messages.30 Arnold, a latest scholar to discuss this question, believed that this hostility towards representation dates almost from the time of Muhammad, and held that the paintings of Kusair 'Amra were executed in defiance of it 31 to which K.A.C . Creswell says : Now although later caliphs and sultans certainly did defy the prohibition on many occasions, there appears to be good reason for believing that this prohibition had not yet been formulated at the time when the frescoes of JKusair 'Amra were executed. 32 G.R.D King states that the only evidence of iconoclasm until the fall of Ummayd Caliphate is confined to the well known attack on images and statues carried out by the 29 Oleg Grabar. "Islamic Attitudes towards the Arts." The Formation of Islamic Art. London: New Haven and London, Yale UP, 1973. 75-103. Print. 30 Ibid. 31 Creswell, K. A. C. "The Lawfulness of Painting in Early Islam." Ars Islamica 11/12 (1946): 159-66. Jstor. Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution. Web. 10 Dec. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4515631>. 32 Ibid. Najum 17 orders of Yazid II. b. 'Abd al-Malik (101-105/720-724).33 He points out that the absence of references to image-breaking under Caliphs before Yazid implies that his action was a rarity worthy of comment: under normal circumstances, it would seem the Muslims left the Christians to use icons and representations or not, as they wished. 34 As Dr. Abraham P. Sakili mentions the mutilation of a number of paintings in illustrated manuscripts some of which were totally burnt or destroyed and pages with figures were detached and thrown away: or the head of the figures were scratched out of the pages. 35 The manuscripts contained beautiful miniature paintings illustrating the life and achievements of the several Muslim sultans. He states that on a larger scale there is a written account of a peasant in 1897 who threw into the river--as unholy things--five cartloads of Manichaean manuscripts with pictures decorated in gold and colors. (Arnold, 1965:40).36 He also points out how despite prohibition of pictures by the Muslim ulama, many Muslim monarchs continued to patronize pictures in the confines of their palace away from public eye. The frescoes discovered in royal baths in Kusair 'Amra and in the ruins of Mutawakkil Palace in Samarra yielded pictures not only of "fierce lions, barking dogs and butting rams" but also of nude female figures and dancing girls--to the horror of the faithful 37. Scandalous erotic images, were reported to have been painted in the palace of a son of famous ruler Mahmud of Ghazni (998-1030). (Arnold, 1965:86).38 33 G. R. D King. "Islam, Iconoclasm, and the Declaration of Doctrine." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 42.4 (1985): 267-77. Jstor. Cambridge University Press on Behalf of School of Oriental and African Studies. Web. 25 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/617544>. 34 Ibid. 35 Sakili, Dr. Abraham P. "Muslim Culture & Arts." Muslim Mindanao Website. Asian Institute of Journalism and Communication, 2 Jan. 2006. Web. 11 Mar. 2011. <http://www.muslimmindanao.ph/muslim_arts_figurative.html>. 36 ibid 37 Ibid. 38 Ibid. Najum 18 It therefore could be concluded that with the existence of a strong prohibition of figural imagery in Islam there also existed a rich culture of the making of Art(with figures or without them) by some art appreciators which was at numerous times vandalized not by the people of other religions but by the people with in Islam. The evidence of which exists in several early manuscripts where some faces of the figures were rubbed out or a line was drawn across the throats of the figures.39 Dr.Sakili believes that the prohibition of figurative art was a matter of attitude of orthodox theologians not of Islamic doctrine40. And goes on to saying : The condemnation of figurative arts was, therefore, a theological opinion common to the whole Muslim world, and the practical acceptance of it largely depended on the theologians' influence upon the habits and tastes of society at any particular time.41 K.A.C Creswell concludes in his article “The Lawfulness of Painting in Early Islam” “The prohibition against painting did not exist in early Islam, but that it grew up gradually, partly as a result of the inherent temperamental dis- like of Semitic races for representational art, partly because of the influence of important Jewish converts, and partly because of the fear of magic.” 42 The phrase "Islamic art" tends to conjure up images of ornate metalwork, geometric patterns, intricately woven textiles and rugs, ceramics with calligraphic 39 Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>. 40 Sakili, Dr. Abraham P. "Muslim Culture & Arts." Muslim Mindanao Website. Asian Institute of Journalism and Communication, 2 Jan. 2006. Web. 11 Mar. 2011. <http://www.muslimmindanao.ph/muslim_arts_figurative.html>. 41 Ibid. 42 Creswell, K. A. C. "The Lawfulness of Painting in Early Islam." Ars Islamica 11/12 (1946): 159-66. Jstor. Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution. Web. 10 Dec. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4515631> Najum 19 decoration and stylized floral designs and delicately trimmed glassware.43 What it doesn‟t highlight in general is the prevalence of several colorful illustrated miniatures testifying the lifestyle and achievements of many sultans. Within Islamic Art the difference in these styles lies in what is considered to be religious art that is aniconic in nature and secular art that contains figural representation.44 Although the manuscripts do not directly fall under Islamic Art. They are referred to as Book illustrations but since they were made in Islamic cultures under Islamic rule I am mentioning them as examples indicating the diversity within Islamic belief and practice. Attitudes towards figurative art varied somewhat throughout the course of Islamic history and across different Islamic cultures and depiction of animals and humans appear sporadically throughout the centuries.45 Many of the beautiful figurative art from the Islamic world depicting the life of Muhammad (pbuh), the prophets, scenes from paradise and everyday life subject come from the medieval period in Iran.46 Some examples of miniature paintings containing figural depiction include: 1. Princely feast, from the Kihamnsa of Nizami, Iran, 1574-75, with later iconoclastic alterations. London, India Office Libraly ms 1129, fol. 29 (photo: By permission of The British Library.47 43 Sadria, Modj-ta-ba. "Figural Representation in Islamic Art." Middle Eastern Studies 20.4 (1984): 99104. Jstor. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283032>. 44 Persian, Comparison With. "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art, by Terry Allen." (Sonic.net). Web. 25 June 2011. <http://sonic.net/~tallen/palmtree/fe2.htm>. 45 Depictions of Muhammad in Islamic Art - ReligionFacts." Religion, World Religions, Comparative Religion - Just the Facts on the World's Religions. Reliigion Facts. Web. 25 June 2011. <http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/things/depictions-of-muhammad-in-islamic-art.htm>. 46 Ibid. 47 Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>. Najum 20 Figure 1 2. Maqamat of al-Hariri, Iraq, ca. 1240, with later iconoclastic alterations, fol. 32v. St. Petersburg, the Russian Academy of Sciences. Figure 2. Najum 21 3. Muhammad Receives the Revelation through the Angel Gabriel, from Rashid al-Din's Compendium of Chronicles, Tabriz (Iran), 1314-15. Edinburgh, University Library Arab. ms 2048 Figure 3. 4. Kamal al-Din Bihzad, The Seduction of Hazrat Yusuf from a manuscript of Saadi's Bustan, Herat (Afghanistan), 1488. Cairo, National Library (photo: Los Angeles County Museum of Art)49 Figure 4. 48 Blair, Sheila S. "The Mirage of Islamic Art: Reflections on the Study of the Unwieldy Field."The Art Bulletin 85.1 (March 2003): 152-84. College Art Associations, Mar. 2003. Web. 16 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177331>. 49 Ibid. Najum 22 5. Firdausi in the Bathhouse, painting added to the Spencer Shahnama in the 19th or 20th century. New York Public Library Pers. ms 2, fol. 5. 50 Figure 5. There are several examples of miniature paintings made under Islamic rule in which the Holy Prophet and other prophets too are depicted. There were some images that were destroyed by some Muslims who believed images to be unlawful and their 50 Blair, Sheila S., and Jonathan M. Bloom. "The Mirage of Islamic Art: Reflections on the Study of the Unwieldy Field." The Art Bulletin 85.1 (March 2003): 152-84. Print Najum 23 destruction to be obligatory. For some Muslims figural depiction was permissible if a line was drawn on the throats of the figures as shown in the Figure 1. Some scholars believe that if the face of the figure is unrecognizable or unclear it could be acceptable. Some believe that figures that are small or that are stylized (not realistic) like in miniature paintings they could be acceptable.51 Within Islam there are variations amongst religious schools ( Madh‟abs) and the practices and beliefs between these branches . Aniconism is the practice or belief in avoiding or shunning the graphic representation of divine beings or religious figures, or in different manifestations, any human beings or living creatures52. It is common among orthodox sunni sects like the Wahabis and Salafis which are also aften iconoclastic (the talibans too are the followers of the Wahabi tradition)53. Shia sects however are more liberal and have lesser stringent views on aniconism.54 On an individual level whether a person believes in avoiding figural depiction depends on how much importance and credibility they give to the Hadiths and how strict or liberal they are in the way they practice religion. It is evident that in the history of Islam if there are incidents in the life of the Prophet (pbuh) that condemn figural depiction there are also incidents which could leave some room for figure representation to be permissible. Throughout history there have existed Muslims who believed in the making of beautiful art that included human and animal depiction alongside people whose beliefs were contradictory in this aspect. Islamic Art too is not completely devoid of figures. In the earliest days of Islam, a specifically "Islamic art" had not yet begun to 51 Check appendices AskDefine | Define Aniconic. Web. 26 June 2011. <http://aniconic.askdefine.com/>. 53 Check appendices 54 Check appendices 52 Najum 24 develop and art in general was not a prominent issue and According to the Encyclopedia Britannica: "Earliest Islam as seen in the Qur'an or in the more verifiable accounts of the Prophet's life simply do not deal with the arts, either on the practical level of requiring or suggesting forms as expressions of the culture or on the ideological level of defining a Muslim attitude toward images....” 55 But as the Islamic community grew and conquered a great deal of new territory, it came into contact with the religious art and architecture of other cultures and began to develop its own. By the mid-8th century there was a clear Muslim doctrine against the creation of images.It is interesting that Islam came into contact with Byzantine culture at the height of the iconoclastic controversy and It is possible that those intensely negative associations of religious art influenced or strengthened Islamic views on the matter.56 It is however a debate that has existed and although this aspect may not be the most fundamental and imperative of all issues, it has created many controversies where people have presumed Islam to be highly intolerable towards imagery. If there are certain sects who disregard images and believe that they need to be destroyed there are also various people following the same religion who believe in making imagery and appreciating it.. 55 "Depictions of Muhammad in Islamic Art - ReligionFacts." Religion, World Religions, Comparative Religion - Just the Facts on the World's Religions. Web. 26 June 2011. <http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/things/depictions-of-muhammad-in-islamic-art.htm>. 56 "Depictions of Muhammad in Islamic Art - ReligionFacts." Religion, World Religions, Comparative Religion - Just the Facts on the World's Religions. Web. 26 June 2011. <http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/things/depictions-of-muhammad-in-islamic-art.htm>. Najum 25 Chapter 3- Research Methodology The methods used for conducting my research related to this dissertation are elaborated in this section. In order to answer the particular question this dissertation is on the subject of, my first step was to inquire and restate what the Islamic scriptures say about the topic to form a basic ground for how this question was formulated. However my lack of knowledge in the understanding of the Quran and Sunnah/Hadith, led me to gain information only through scholarly written material that was about the topic and that also contained related passages or verses from the scriptures and rely on them for the support of my discussion. In the first part of my research I was mostly looking at the existing scholarly literature regarding this matter and even though my aim was not to get in to the authenticity of the written literature or the existing Hadith (traditions of the Holy Prophet), it was a question that I feel I perhaps should have also delved in to first before moving on. My reason of skipping ahead however was because the question of how authentic a particular hadith/tradition is, is another convoluted discourse altogether, concluding which would be a task impossible for me to accomplish or carry out considering the limitation of time and lack of the required knowledge. Hence I stated the traditions I felt were imperative to the discussion without considering their origin and authenticity. Being aware of the prevalent figural culture in our society, being a Muslim living in an Islamic state and studying in an Art Institution, having this dilemma of a preconceived contradiction regarding Art in Islam and experiencing how significant figural imagery is in this day and age - led me to question what the early attitudes of Najum 26 Muslims on this subject might have been. In order to understand whether this issue was a cause of concern in the early Islamic culture or whether it is a recent issue. I then moved on to looking at Muslim artists work and discovering their views about the depiction of figural imagery and how they respond to the idea of it being prohibited by religion. I have attempted to carry out a research that is qualitative in nature. I have spoken to several practicing artists and art teachers and found out their take on this matter. In my opinion the literature I read up and what I derived from the views of Muslims of today aided me into concluding my research. The review of the artists work and their opinions lead me to identify what the present Muslim artistic trend and attitude regarding figural depiction is. I have mostly looked and spoken to practicing artists who may or may not necessarily include the figure in their art work and getting their view point on the subject. I believe more resourceful results could have been attained had this research been more precise studying each area in depth. A more holistic approach, stating more examples and incidents too would have increased the possible profundity and depth of the findings leading up to new areas of discussion and study. Najum 27 Chapter 4- Findings and analysis: Works of several Muslim artists in Pakistan and in other states identify that the art world is not a least bit concerned with the prohibition of figural representations by religion since this is not one of the concerns for artists. A general survey of speaking to various artists and looking at their work that also include Ather Jamal and Sumera Tazeen led me to believe that artists do not seem to have any trouble as such in depicting figures in their work. Sumera Tazeen believes that there is no issue for her if the idea with which an artist is working with requires him or her to use the figure in their work be it in any form or way.57 She has included figural imagery in some of her work but doesn‟t necessarily work with the human body unless her concept requires for her too. Ather Jamal, who mostly does paintings of Thar females, however only objects to nude work for religious and social reasons and also objects to 3D figural sculptures but has no issues regarding depiction of figural imagery otherwise. For him the work should be such that it does not degrade or demean women in any way. He says that before making any piece of work he questions himself if the work will offend any woman and if his family members wouldn‟t find it disrespectful. He goes ahead with it if he feels that the work is not demeaning or disrespectful especially to women in any manner.58 According to Irfan Gul , a miniaturist form Lahore ,an art work is always about the human body and human experiences whether the figure is depicted or not. He too has the human figure in several of his works and does not seem to be hesitant in the depiction of 57 58 Check appendices Check appendices Najum 28 any living being for religious reasons.59 An unstructured open ended interview held with Rizwanullah Khan, Head of the Islamic Art department in Karachi University lead me to understand that in the society the way people perceive religion or any aspect of it varies from individual to individual in such a degree that it seems as though every other person follows his or her own version of the particular religion or sect they follow. We all reject some beliefs and practices either verbally or just in practice. There have always existed different groups of people with in Islam that have had contradictory ideologies and with the society becoming more secular and modern this gap between orthodox believers and people with a more liberal approach towards religion, widens. I am considering makers promoters or appreciators of art as a single group /sect who although are Muslims, but have their own materialization in the aspect of the lawfulness of figural depiction in Islam. Naiza Khan who also incorporates nude figures in her work experienced some form of vandalism of her work in 2002. The series “Henna Hands” which consisted of life-size female figures stenciled on to walls with henna pigment. In some areas like in the Dhobi ghat the images were scratched out soon after they were made. In another location, the work remained for some time, children enjoyed it, and women angered by the blatant use of the women‟s body, argued to see it replaced by that of a man. Conversations and reactions from residents, visible alterations and additions to the work, censorship of body parts, have been indicators of how people have „viewed‟ this work.60 59 Check appendices Zaidi, Saima. "Be Pakistani, Buy Pakistani." Mazaar, Bazaar: Design and Visual Culture in Pakistan. Oxford [u.a.: Oxford UP, 2009. 136-38. Print. 60 Najum 29 Muslim artists living in non Muslim states too experience not just the threat but actual vandalism of their artwork for the reason that depicting certain imagery is unacceptable to certain people. Sarah Maple, a 23 year old Muslim artist who had exhibited photographs and paintings of a provocative and controversial nature at London gallery received death threats, angry emails phone calls and the gallery hosting the show was vandalized.61 Maple says her work is based on personal experiences, feelings and reflection on them and says her goal is to give her audience food for thought.62 Some of her photographic self-portraits feature her in a headscarf in provocative and suggestive poses and one painting shows the artist in a headscarf with a bare breast. Another painting features a woman in a headscarf holding a pig.63 The issue perhaps for the people who objected to her work was not “the representation of figures” as some might assume but was for what she was depicting which easily could have offended any Muslim. But not everyone, or even all Muslims for that matter, objected to her work. For one, Maple told the Iran Times, "My family is extremely proud of me and doesn't think I should stop what I'm doing."64 Maple told the Iran Times, "I hope that people will see the humor and the intelligence in the work. It is about the combination or clash of cultures and struggling to be faithful to both. It is asking if you can find a balance and still be faithful to your religion and culture. I am not saying all western Muslims feel this way, but it is how I, and many others, feel. This is heightened because of my mixed parcentage.I also believe people should not confuse culture and how they have been brought up with the essence of the religion itself. It is also about perception and what is stereotypically seen to be a good Muslim on appearances. I believe it is what you believe and feel inside which makes you a good Muslim and I think people should have confidence in their beliefs and see my art with an open mind and consider what I am saying,” 61 Nasri, Grace. "Young Muslim Artist Stirs Controversy." Payvand, Iran News, Directory and Bazar. Web. 23 June 2011. <http://www.payvand.com/news/08/dec/1006.html>. 62 Ibid. 63 Ibid. 64 Ibid. Najum 30 Her intention as she claims was not to offend anyone for that matter and it could be argued since there is a saying by the Holy Prophet that “ Actions are judged by intention” which many Muslims take as a core principal for what they do in life. That if their intention is pure and not to offend religion or anyone then their actions are justified. Case study – Danish Cartoons: The controversy of the Danish cartoons that were first published in 2005 depicting the Holy Prophet stirred a very angry response from Muslims all over the world.65 The most common explanation for the violence in the English and European language press was that the production of images of Mohammad is prohibited by Islamic law.66 The controversy has pitted two newspapers championing what they say is the cause of free speech against Islam's prohibition of any artistic depiction of the prophet Muhammad, which is considered blasphemous, no matter how benign.67 Islamic critics charged that the cartoons were a deliberate provocation and insult to their religion designed to incite hatred and polarize people of different faiths68. Defenders of the newspapers and artists said the 12 published cartoons simply were intended to highlight Islam's intolerance. 69 The concern here too was not just that the Holy Prophet was depicted but more that the cartoons were insulting and derogatory and seemed to serve no purpose other 65 Sullivan, Winnifred Fallers. "What the Danish Cartoon Controversy Tells Us About Religion, the Secular, and the Limits of the Law." Religion Dispatches. 23 June 2011. Web. 23 June 2011. <http://www.religiondispatches.org/books/2151/what_the_danish_cartoon_controversy_tells_us_about_re ligion,_the_secular,_and_the_limits_of_the_law>. 66 Ibid. 67 Anderson, John Ward. "Cartoons of Prophet Met With Outrage - Washingtonpost.com." The Washington Post: National, World & D.C. Area News and Headlines - The Washington Post. Katharine Weymouth. Web. 23 June 2011. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2006/01/30/AR2006013001316.html>. 68 Ibid. 69 Ibid. Najum 31 than to provoke a reaction. According to Imam Talal Eid, director of the Islamic Institute of Boston: "He [the Prophet] instructed his companions not to draw a picture of him, and this has been taken as a general prohibition.”70 Even if the Prophet was depicted in some manuscripts in the past, today many Muslims consider any public depictions of the Prophet Muhammad offensive and objectionable, no matter how respectful. Case study -Bamiyam Buddhas in Afghanistan: The Taliban regime dynamited the magnificent Budhaas of the Bamiyan Valley in March 2001, to comply with their strict ban on human or animal representations. 71 Buddhist monastic institutions in the Bamiyan Valley suffered iconoclastic damage even before the advent of Islam: in the fifth or early sixth century.72 Despite such setbacks, Buddhism continued to flourish here after the advent of Islam, for there were practicing Buddhists in the valley as late as the ninth or tenth century, and even in the eleventh century it was not fully Islamicized. 73 According to Flood : Between the tenth and thirteenth centuries, the Bamiyan Buddhas were often referred to in Arabic and Per- sian literature, where (along with remains of Buddhist stupas and frescoes) they were depicted as marvels and wonders. Several writers emphasize that nowhere in the world can one find anything to equal the Bamiyan Buddhas, popularly known as Surkh-but (red idol) and Khink-but (gray idol).74 70 "Depictions of Muhammad in Islamic Art - ReligionFacts." Religion, World Religions, Comparative Religion - Just the Facts on the World's Religions. Web. 26 June 2011. <http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/things/depictions-of-muhammad-in-islamic-art.htm>. 71 "Islamic Voice - Islam and Comparative Religion." Islamic Voice - Magazine. Web. 05 May 2011. <http://www.islamic-voice.com/islam-and-comparative-religion.php>. 72 Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>. 73 Ibid. 74 Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>. Najum 32 If the Bamiyan Budhaas have existed for so many centuries suffering iconoclastic moments, they have also been considered important enough for some Arabs and Persian ( Muslims) to consider them as marvels and wonders. This is an unofficial translation of the edict concerning the destruction of religious images, prepared by the United Nations staff in Kabul, which was compiled by the Afghanistan Research Group (ARG) and circulated in an electronic news- letter as "News from Afghanistan" on March 2, 2001. The edict was published in Pushtu by the state-run Bakhtar News Agency and broadcast on Radio ShariCa on February 27, 2001 : On the basis of consultations between the religious leaders of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, religious judgments of the ulema and rulings of the Supreme Court of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, all statues and nonIslamic shrines located in different parts of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan must be destroyed. These statues have been and remain shrines of unbelievers and these unbelievers continue to worship and respect them. God Almighty is the only real shrine [taghit] and all fake idols should be destroyed.155 Therefore, the supreme leader of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan has ordered all the representatives of the Minis- try of Promotion of Virtue and Suppression of Vice and the Ministries of Information to destroy all the statues. As or- dered by the ulema and the Supreme Court of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan all the statues must be destroyed so that no one can worship or respect them in the future.75 The justification presented for what most of us would see as an act of religious intolerance and pure vandalism is that these 'graven images' offend the religious sentiments of Taliban. Their supreme leader Mullah Mohammad Omar says that Afghan Muslims should be proud of smashing the statues. "It is a shame for those Afghans who criticise this decree." He was quoted as saying, "I ask Afghans and the world's Muslims to use their sound wisdom...Do you prefer to be a breaker of idols or a seller of idols? Is it appropriate to be influenced by the propaganda of the infidels?"76 75 Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>. 76 Rohini Hensman. "Religious Sentiment and National Sovereignty: Resisting Talibanisation."Economic and Political Weekly. Economic and Political Weekly, 9 June 2001. Web. 3 Dec. 2011. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4410713>. Najum 33 This event of the Taliban destroying the massive rock cut Budhaas highlights the degree of abomination for idols or representative imagery by this group of Muslims. Where there exist people who consider it to be one of the wonders there is also this sect that believes in the destruction of idols as an act of peity and take pride in such an action. The Bamiyan Budhaas are idols and there are traditions by the Holy Prophet regarding the destructions of idols. If people, Muslims or non Muslims, believe the destruction of these idols as vandalism, the strict followers of Islam take pride in destroying them. For them there is no argument of whether the action of destroying them was right or wrong since Islam very clearly condemns idol worshipping. Their destruction does not signify Islam to be intolerant of any kind of imagery but it does signify the unacceptability towards idol worshipping. My usage of the term sect refers to: Following a particular leader or authority, or attached to a certain opinion; a company or set having a common belief or allegiance distinct from others; in religion, the believers in a particular creed, or upholders of a particular practice. 77 77 "Definition of Sect - BrainyQuote." Famous Quotes at BrainyQuote. Web. 22 June 2011. <http://www.brainyquote.com/words/se/sect217231.html>. Najum 34 Chapter 5 : Conclusion The permissibility of figural depiction in any form has been a debate in Islam that has varied from time to time and from each individual to another. Even though Islamic Art is generally known to be aniconic (devoid of figures) and calligraphy and vegetal ornamentation seem to be dominant features of it, there is also a prevalence of beautiful figural imagery including that of the Holy Prophet (pbuh). The examples of works that fall under Islamic Art and that include human and animal depiction sometimes do not seem to be highlighted when the subject of Islamic art is generally discussed. It is clear however that figurative art has and continues to make frequent appearances in the Islamic world. As explained on the website of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art: “Contrary to a popular misconception, however, figural imagery is an important aspect of Islamic art. Such images occur primarily in secular and especially courtly arts and appear in a wide variety of media and in most periods and places in which Islam flourished. It is important to note, nevertheless, that representational imagery is almost invariably restricted to a private context. Figurative art is excluded from the decoration of religious monuments. This absence may be attributed to an Islamic antipathy toward anything that might be mistaken for idols or idolatry, which are explicitly forbidden by the Qur'an. “78 In this day and age Muslims are divided not just in terms of sectarian division but also in terms of how each individual perceives religion. Even with the presence of sects that believe in the destruction and obliteration of any kind of imagery there also exist a sect (of artists) that believe in the making and growth of art that may or may not include figural depiction. Despite such strong prohibition of figural depiction in Islam artists do not seem to hold back or have any problem doing the work they do. Also with our culture 78 "Depictions of Muhammad in Islamic Art - ReligionFacts." Religion, World Religions, Comparative Religion - Just the Facts on the World's Religions. Reliigion Facts. Web. 25 June 2011. <http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/things/depictions-of-muhammad-in-islamic-art.htm>. Najum 35 being flooded with images in the form billboards, in the form of truck art, photographs etc, it seems as though there is hardly even an issue regarding this aspect anymore for a common man. This subject however seems to come in the spot light when events occur on a grand scale like the destruction of the Bamiyan Budhas or the controversy of the Danish cartoons where people start assuming that Islam is a religion that is highly intolerable towards any figural depiction. Based on my research I conclude that the question of the prohibition of figural representation even for a reason other than idolatry is a doubtful one since the most authentic book for the Muslims worldwide that is the Quran does not say so. Having a strong disregard for figural imagery and physically obliterating it too are a practice that roots from sectarian differences and any such beliefs that derive from the various traditions of the prophet some of which could be questionable. It is due to these differences within the Muslim community that there are some sects who have a strict belief in one thing while there are others who have a completely different belief regarding the same aspect. Perhaps this is why even with the growth of religious fundamentalism there is also a growth of a Muslim sect that believes in the making and promotion of art and not the destruction of it. Najum 36 Bibliography: Anderson, John Ward. "Cartoons of Prophet Met With Outrage Washingtonpost.com." The Washington Post: National, World & D.C. Area News and Headlines - The Washington Post. Katharine Weymouth. Web. 23 June 2011. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2006/01/30/AR2006013001316.html>. Blair, Sheila S. "The Mirage of Islamic Art: Reflections on the Study of the Unwieldy Field."The Art Bulletin 85.1 (March 2003): 152-84. College Art Associations, Mar. 2003. Web. 16 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177331>. Creswell, K. A. C. "The Lawfulness of Painting in Early Islam." Ars Islamica 11/12 (1946): 159-66. Jstor. Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution. Web. 10 Dec. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4515631>. "Definition of Sect - BrainyQuote." Famous Quotes at BrainyQuote. Web. 22 June 2011. <http://www.brainyquote.com/words/se/sect217231.html>. Depictions of Muhammad in Islamic Art - ReligionFacts." Religion, World Religions, Comparative Religion - Just the Facts on the World's Religions. Reliigion Facts. Web. 25 June 2011. <http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/things/depictions-of-muhammad-inislamic-art.htm>. Eva Baer. THE HUMAN FIGURE IN EARLY ISLAMIC ART: SOME PRELIMINARY REMARK. Web. 6 Mar. 2011. <http://http://www.kunstpedia.com/PDFArticles/The%20Human%20Figure%20in%20Ea rly%20Islamic%20Art.pdf>. Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>. G. R. D King. "Islam, Iconoclasm, and the Declaration of Doctrine." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 42.4 (1985): 267-77. Jstor. Cambridge University Press on Behalf of School of Oriental and African Studies. Web. 25 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/617544>. Nasri, Grace. "Young Muslim Artist Stirs Controversy." Payvand, Iran News, Directory and Bazar. Web. 23 June 2011. <http://www.payvand.com/news/08/dec/1006.html>. Oleg Grabar. "Islam and iconoclasm chapter II." Early Islamic Art. Vol. 1. Birmingham,: A. Bryer and J. Herrin, 1977. 43-52. 2005. Ashgate. 10 Jan. 2011 <http://archnet.org/library/documents/one-document.jsp?document_id=10127>. Persian, Comparison With. "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art, by Terry Allen." (Sonic.net). Web. 25 June 2011. <http://sonic.net/~tallen/palmtree/fe2.htm>. Najum 37 Rohini Hensman. "Religious Sentiment and National Sovereignty: Resisting Talibanisation."Economic and Political Weekly. Economic and Political Weekly, 9 June 2001. Web. 3 Dec. 2011. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4410713>. Sakili, Dr. Abraham P. "Muslim Culture & Arts." Muslim Mindanao Website. Asian Institute of Journalism and Communication, 2 Jan. 2006. Web. 11 Mar. 2011. <http://www.muslimmindanao.ph/muslim_arts_figurative.html>. Sadria, Modj-ta-ba. "Figural Representation in Islamic Art." Middle Eastern Studies 20.4 (1984): 99-104. Jstor. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283032>. Sullivan, Winnifred Fallers. "What the Danish Cartoon Controversy Tells Us About Religion, the Secular, and the Limits of the Law." Religion Dispatches. 23 June 2011. Web. 23 June 2011. <http://www.religiondispatches.org/books/2151/what_the_danish_cartoon_controversy_t ells_us_about_religion,_the_secular,_and_the_limits_of_the_law>. "TAKING PICTURES | The Revival." The Revival | Voice of the Muslim Youth! Web. 25 June 2011. <http://www.therevival.co.uk/forum/general/347?page=1>. "Who Wrote the Quran?" Gain Peace. OMR Solutions. Web. 5 Mar. 2011. <http://www.gainpeace.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=59:whowrote-the-quran&catid=40:holy-quran&Itemid=106>. sWeb. 2 Mar. 2011. <http://www.hoorayn.com/articles/Knowledge/Destruction%20of%20Idols.pdf>. Zaidi, Saima. "Be Pakistani, Buy Pakistani." Mazaar, Bazaar: Design and Visual Culture in Pakistan. Oxford [u.a.: Oxford UP, 2009. 136-38. Print. "Islamic Voice - Islam and Comparative Religion." Islamic Voice - Magazine. Web. 05 May 2011. <http://www.islamic-voice.com/islam-and-comparative-religion.php>. Interviews conducted : Rizawanullah Khan. Personal Interview. April 2010 Sumera Tazeen. Personal Interview. March 2010 Ather Jamal. Personal Interview.March 2010 Najum 38 Appendices : Interviews Interviewee : Sara Najum Interviewer: Rizawanullah Khan Head of the Islamic Art department at Karachi University Unstructured open ended interview held at the Indus Valley school of Art and Architecture on April 17th, 2010. S.N: what in your opinion is the significance of figural representation in Islam. Since the Quran does not condemn figural depiction unless it is for idolatory. R.K: the Quran does talk about images (not for idolatory) that were used to decorate the palace of Hazrat Suleiman in Surah Namaul. Tamathil is the word used in the Quran .it is one of the words that mean Pictures.(tusweer) literally it means representation. Here the use of images was not for the sake of idolatory but the Jins used images to decorate the Palace. S.N: does this mean that pictures or representations could be allowed? R.K: well there are different interpretations. One group of scholars go with the idea that something which is allowed for one Prophet might not necessarily be allowed in another Prophets time. Because Hazrat Yousufs brothers did “Sajdah” (bow)on him but later the followers were not asked to do “sajdah” on the prophets . Some people take this position that the use of pictures at that time might not have been the same as it is today. Some scholars give fatwas in the favor of pictures while some don‟t. I can only give a different opinion. Najum 39 S.N: how much of the figure is used in Islamic art? It is generally believed that Islamic art has no figural representations. What is your opinion? R.K: well for Islamic art the number one component is calligraphy, number two is geometry and floral patterns are number 3. S,N: so what about all the miniature manuscripts that are filled with figural depiction of emperors? R.K: we make a mistake when we approach it this way. That art is pictures. We are going through a particular paradigm right? That this is art and art is pictures. We do have pictures in manuscripts but a better way to look at it is that this is book illustrations. S.N: but these manuscripts do fall under an Islamic culture or have been made by Muslims. R.K: but it is not a major art or religious art. It is secular art. It has to do with illustrations, scientific books, stories, poetry but its not the major art form. The three I told you before that is number 1. Khattatee , number2. Geometry and iqsa or kashaashi. These three are found everywhere. Masjids, town planning, minar, pots and pans, clothes, there are the primary art forms that were found in the whole of the Muslim empire. Book illustration was sort of a secondary thing. About figural representation being acceptable depends on which school of thought and which scholar you follow. Generally speaking Islam was if iconoclastic it was aniconic meaning : images were not condemned but also not encouraged. S .N: avoiding figures? R.K: exactly. There are some examples for instance there are incidents in the life of the prophet where when the prophet entered the rooms of one of his wives he saw a curtain Najum 40 hanging with a picture on it, in some traditions it states that he did not say anything but his face showed displeasure so the wife in question put it down and made cushion covers out of it. This is the basis for the “shafayee” position that Imam Ghazali gave that any picture is permissible if it‟s not put up on a place of value. If the pictures are put up they are being revered in a way which is not allowed. The other traditions include that angels do not enter a house that has pictures in it. Another tradition by the holy prophet is that we do not clothe our walls. In other words it‟s a waste of money. S.N: does that mean curtains too could be unacceptable? R.K: it is specific to a wall. On a window is fine. Wall hangings are considered wasteful. So what happens is that the Fuqaha that is the religious the indigenous scholars who formulate the religious laws. So they take certain positions in the matter which become the consensus of the people who follow. One group goes towards the total prohibition of images, they consider images to be bad and they need to be stayed away from. No good comes from images and why should we follow the culture of other nations that follow idolatry. Another group says that with certain rules and restrictions certain pictures are permissible. A third group which is not found much in history says that pictures are acceptable depending upon your intention going with “ ina mal amal u binniyat” meaning “actions are judged by intentions. Let me give you examples for the middle group : for the kind of restrictions they would. Like Imam Ghazali , he says that that picture is permissible which fulfills three conditions number 1: it should not be large (it should be small) he doesn‟t state how small. A lot of scholars say that the size should be such that if the image is out on the floor and a man stands and views it, he should not be able to make out what the picture is. It should be that small, number2: it should not be Najum 41 put up in a place of exaltation ( should not be revered [tazeem] ) number 3: it should not cast a shadow, it should not be 3D because then the scholars believe that God will ask them to put life into it. Like it is in the 10 commandments: thou shall not make graven images. The 10 commandments are common to Islam , Christianity and Judaism. So the commandment about images seems to apply towards sculpture. Graven image literally means when u dig out and make something so if u take it literally it means sculpture. And the restriction for the middle ground was about the cast shadows whether it‟s a painting of the illusion of cast shadows or whether its sculpture in the round then they were against it beacuse you would be giving it a real presence sort of a thing. And that was to be avoided. So these were the positions of the ulemas. So the images that are sort of present are under book illustrations. S.N: so what about the stylization of the representations? Of not making them exactly how they are. R.K: yes one group of scholars went with the idea that if the figure doesn‟t have a head or features that are recognizable or if it is fantastical it can‟t exist like unicorns then it‟s permissible. I‟ll give you the reason for that going back to why we have so many floral patterns. One reason is of course that floral patterns are the description of the Paradise the garden. The meaning of garden has been distorted and sort of changed for us due to the British rule. But the meaning of garden is paradise. The concept for it is of two sorts one is gulistan /food orchard and a flower garden. The concept about the flower garden was related to the floral patterns representing paradise. And the geometric patterns represent God. It all comes from the center and goes back to the center. And calligraphy is of course the art beautiful writing. Najum 42 Interviewer : Sumera Tazeen Head of the Miniature department at the Indus Valley School of Art and Architecture A semi structured interview held at IVS on the 3rd of March 2010. S.N: Being an artist how important is the incorporation “the figure” or the depiction of any living being in your art work? S.T: For me the incorporation holds its significance when the idea or concept I am working with requires me to. I don‟t feel it is a must for me to incorporate figural imagery an don‟t avoid it for any reason. S.N: Being a Muslim artist, what is your take on human representation in art or in any other form? S.T: I don‟t personally believe it is wrong or right. It‟s only a matter of what purpose it is used for. If the use of figural imagery is not demeaning or disrespecting religion in anyway then I don‟t object to the use of it. I believe everything in the world has a good and a bad use. Figural imagery can be used for wrong purposes too but just the use of figural imagery doesn‟t mean is wrong. S.N: Does the idea of figural imagery being prohibited by religion restrict or affect you in any way in producing work? S.T: absolutely not as long as I am not using it to harm religion in any way. There are certain scholars and sects that believe it to be highly prohibited but there are also so many scholars and good practicing Muslims who believe otherwise. S,N: Has your work ever been vandalized? Or have you ever experienced any threat or criticism of your work for the reason that it has figures in it? Najum 43 S.T: no never. Interviewer : Ather Jamal Practicing artist, water colorist, currently teaching at the Indus Valley School of Art and Architectur held at the Indus Valley School of Art and Architecture in March 2010. A semi structure interview held at IVS. As the interviewee spoke, I jotted down the information in points. S.N: how do u perceive figural imagery being prohibited or permissible by religion? Being a Muslim artist what is your take on the argument? A.J: figural representation is not the only aspect in Islam that is argued over, many controversies already exist. There are already so many debates about what is prohibited, what is not, what is lawful, what is not, what the right way is and what is not. People only seem to be arguing and fighting over each other‟s beliefs. Everyone thinks that whatever school of thought they follow is the right school of thought. And no one respects each other‟s beliefs. For me personally I don‟t object to figural depiction. Although I come from a very conservative family, my mother and father always encouraged me when I would draw or paint when I was a child. But I remember this incident when I was young, I was playing with clay and I made a small figure. I ran up to my mum and showed it to her very proudly like I would with every drawing I made. But she told me to break it and never make any statue or sculpture out of clay. Since then I never made any statue. But u see there is a difference in the word sculpture and the word idol. If a figural statue is praised and worshiped it becomes an idol. That for me is unacceptable since making idols is clearly haram in Islam. However I do not object to making figural paintings or drawings as long as I am not making imagery that is disrespectful or insulting to women. Najum 44