Download The Significance of Figural Representation in Islam By Sara Najum

The Significance of Figural Representation in
Islam
By
Sara Najum
Indus Valley School of Art and Architecture
Najum 2
The Significance of Figural Representation in Islam
By
Sara Najum
This Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
BACHELOR OF FINE ART, from Indus Valley School of Art and
Architecture.
Internal Advisor
:
Fatima Qureshi
Arshad Farooqui
DEPARTMENT OF FINE ART
INDUS VALLEY SCHOOL OF ART AND ARCHITECTURE
KARACHI PAKISTAN
2011
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
List of Abbreviations
List of Figures
Abstract………………………………………………………………………… 6
Chapter 1 - Introduction …………………………………………………….…7
Chapter 2- Literature Review…………………………………………………..9
Chapter 3- Research Methodology…………………………………………....25
Chapter 4- Findings and Analysis…………………………………………….27
Chapter 5- Conclusion………………………………………………………...34
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………..36
Appendices……………………………………………………………………37
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank God for giving me the patience and persistence I needed to
put together this dissertation. I would like to thank Miss Fatima Qureshi for her immense
support and guidance throughout the course of this research paper. Miss Ayesha Dar for
all her presentations and discussions on how to conduct and carry out our research.
Arshad Farooqui for giving us constructive and helpful feedback. I would also like to
thank Wahab Suri, Saqlain Zaidi, Khurram Khan and all my interviewees who guided
and advised me in formulating this dissertation.
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List of Abbreviations
Pbuh : Peace be upon him
Etc: etctera
i.e: that is.
List of Figures
Figure 1-Princely feast, from the Kihamnsa of Nizami, Iran, 1574-75, with later iconoclastic
alterations. London, India Office Library ms 1129, fol. 29 (photo: By permission of The
British Library.
Figure 2- Maqamat of al-Hariri, Iraq, ca. 1240, with later iconoclastic alterations, fol. 32v. St.
Petersburg, the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Figure 3- Muhammad Receives the Revelation through the Angel Gabriel, from Rashid al-Din's
Compendium of Chronicles, Tabriz (Iran), 1314-15. Edinburgh, University Library Arab.
ms 20
Figure 4- Kamal al-Din Bihzad, The Seduction of Hazrat Yusuf from a manuscript of Saadi's
Bustan, Herat (Afghanistan), 1488. Cairo, National Library (photo: Los Angeles County
Museum of Art).
Figure 6- Firdausi in the Bathhouse, painting added to the Spencer Shahnama in the 19th
or 20th century. New York Public Library Pers. ms 2, fol. 5.
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Chapter 1: Abstract
Every individual in this day and age has his or her own manifestation of religion.
Despite having sectarian differences in Islam, there are also further differences in the
beliefs and practices of each individual from one another. Regarding the issue of figural
representation in any form, most individuals have their own perceptions, opinions and
beliefs as to whether or not, or to what extent they are acceptable for them. Most people
have a certain tolerance or intolerance towards this aspect based on their knowledge, how
religious they are, and how much they practice what they believe. The objective of this
paper is not to prove whether or not figural representation is lawful or unlawful in Islam,
but it is merely to form a basic understanding depending upon the written material
present and by carefully examining events in the past and present: of how and why there
is uncertainty amongst Muslims regarding this aspect and what the reasons may or may
not have been. The purpose is by no means to pass a judgment or a final verdict regarding
my findings but to delve in to the question of the prohibition of figural imagery since
despite such strong viewpoints regarding this facet by some orthodox sects in Islam, there
is a continuation in the use of images and the production and promotion of art in various
Islamic nations.
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Chapter 2: Introduction
Say: "O People of the Book! come to common terms as between us and you:
that we worship none but Allah; that we associate no partners with Him; that
we erect not, from among ourselves, Lords and patrons other than Allah." If
then they turn back, say ye: "Bear witness that we (at least) are Muslims
(bowing to Allah's Will) (Quran 3:64)
Allah mentions in the Quran, "So shun the abomination of idols, and shun the word
that is false."[Quran 22: 30].1 By all means Islam clearly condemns idol worship2.
Reverence of figural representation in the form of 2D images or 3D sculptures are both
forbidden in Islam. But the question of making images for a reason other than idolatry is
one that has been a source of confusion and controversies. The most authentic book of
guidance for all Muslims, the Quran, does not directly forbid the use of images. Neither
does it encourage the destruction of already existing representations unless of course they
are used for the purpose of idolatry3. Then why is it that some Muslims strictly believe
that Islam forbids any kind of figural representation and any such imagery should be
destroyed? This dissertation will focus on the dilemma of using figural representation in
Islam. My aim is to draw attention to the difficulties in understanding the idea of the
lawfulness of figural representation in Islam, bearing in mind the existing highly
polarized ideologies; one that considers figural representation to be allowed and the other
which not just condemn imagery but also encourages the destruction of it. There are
various incidents in the history of Islam that highlight the practice of destroying images
and though “iconoclasm” may be carried out by people of different religions towards the
1
Web. 2 Mar. 2011. <http://www.hoor-al-ayn.com/articles/Knowledge/Destruction%20of%20Idols.pdf>.
"Islamic Voice - Islam and Comparative Religion." Islamic Voice - Magazine. Web. 05 May 2011.
<http://www.islamic-voice.com/islam-and-comparative-religion.php>.
3
Oleg Grabar. "Islam and iconoclasm chapter II." Early Islamic Art. Vol. 1. Birmingham,: A. Bryer and
J. Herrin, 1977. 43-52. 2005. Ashgate. 10 Jan. 2011 <http://archnet.org/library/documents/onedocument.jsp?document_id=10127>.
2
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images and icons of the other, it is often the result of disputes and differences of belief
between groups or sects of the same religion4. With examples of incidents of image
destruction in the beginning of Islam and in the 21st century my aim is to imply that the
destruction of images in Islam could merely be due to differences of beliefs in not just the
different sects with in Islam, but also from one individual to another.
I will also be shedding light upon why -with the continuation of iconoclastic beliefs
and practices, there is a rich figurative culture in Islamic Art and how figurative art and
the use of images continues to flourish in Muslim cultures. I will be mentioning some
Muslim artists that have and continue to incorporate figural representations in their art
work.Works with the incorporation of figures that are either nude or insulting and
derogatory in some manner often experience criticism and vandalism by some Muslims.5
I will also be referring to incidents like the destruction of the Bamiyan Budhas by the
Talibans in 2001 and some art vandalizing events that have occurred and that bring to
light the degree of differences in the way Muslims respond to this single aspect.
4
Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The
Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>.
5
Zaidi, Saima. "Be Pakistani, Buy Pakistani." Mazaar, Bazaar: Design and Visual Culture in Pakistan.
Oxford [u.a.: Oxford UP, 2009. 136-38. Print.
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Chapter 3: Literature Review
The permissibility of depictions of living beings has long been a concern in
Islam's history6. It is generally believed that Islam condemns figural imagery, and
figurative art is unacceptable in Islam. This issue, although not such an imperative one
has created many controversies in the Muslim community as a whole, and in the various
sects within Islam. Some sects in Islam strictly tend to believe that there are passages in
the Quran that prove proscription of figural imagery and that there is no room for figural
depiction in Islam7. The key concern more often is that the use of images can lead to
idolatry-where the image becomes more important than what it represents and if an act
can lead to a sin as big as idol worshipping, it might as well be refrained from8.
To form a base for the understanding of the argument I will first be stating verses
from the Quran that mention idols or statues or any kind of figural depiction. Then I will
move on to stating some of the Traditions/Hadiths of the Holy Prophet (pbuh) that will
make the understanding of this predicament a bit clearer. I will also be mentioning
incidents and events in the past regarding the attitude of early Muslims on the subject of
images and the visual culture in the pre and post Islamic Arabia. Books and manuscripts
in the history of Islamic Art and culture that have had figures of not just rulers and
common people but also that of the Holy Prophet (pbuh) will also be mentioned. In
contrast to the prevalence of figures in Islamic history the controversy of the depiction of
the Holy Prophet in the form of Danish cartoons will also be touched upon.
6
Creswell, K. A. C. "The Lawfulness of Painting in Early Islam." Ars Islamica 11/12 (1946): 159-66.
Jstor. Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution. Web. 10 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/4515631>.
7
Ibid.
8
Check appendices
Najum 10
Before I quote any passage of the Quran it is important to ascertain that the Quran
itself is a document that is written in such a manner that could make it hard for even a
speaker of Arabic to easily comprehend. Since the advent of Islam, Muslims all over the
world believe the Quran is the most authentic word of God that has not changed or varied
in the slightest possible way since its revelation9. This is one thread that unites all
Muslims, whatever sect they may be followers of. The content is the same and has been
since the time it was revealed and later compiled, but to be able to deduce a thorough
understanding of any particular passage sometimes it is significant to look in to the
background ie. When it was revealed and what was happening at that particular point in
time so that one can be able to translate it in that context. Also since the Arabic language
is such a comprehensive one sometimes the interpretation needs to be more elaborate,
considering each of the words and what they precisely mean10.
In the verse 6.74 from the Quran Abraham chides his father for making idols as
divinities: “I see thee and thy people in manifest error.” The words for idols
used in these passages are al-ansab and al-asnam , both of which imply
representations, statues or paintings, used for idolatory. Here the Quranic
meaning is clearly that of opposing the adoration of physical idols and may
not be also for rejecting art or representations as such. 11
Another verse in the Quran (Qur.v.92) says- „O believers, wine and games of
chance and statues and (divining) arrows are an abomination of Satan‟s
handiwork ; then avoid it!‟- Which theologians of a later generation could
quote in support of their condemnation of this art makes it clear that the real
objective of prohibition was the avoidance of idolatry.12
9
Note: The Holy Qur'an, Chapter 15,Verse 9 No falsehood can approach it from before or behind it: It is
sent down by One Full of Wisdom, Worthy of all Praise.The Holy Qur'an, Chapter 41,Verse 42
"Who Wrote the Quran?" Gain Peace. OMR Solutions. Web. 5 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.gainpeace.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=59:who-wrote-thequran&catid=40:holy-quran&Itemid=106>.
10
Ibid.
11
Oleg Grabar. "Islamic Attitudes towards the Arts." The Formation of Islamic Art. London: New Haven
and London, Yale UP, 1973. 75-103. Print.
12
Ibid.
Najum 11
These are usually the passages that could be quoted when the question of whether
or not figural representation is allowed in Islam arises. Here, the understanding can get
clearer once a precise description of the words is considered.
Moving on to the tradition of the Holy Prophet (pbuh) it is important to note that even
though the Quran states no direct prohibition of art or images for any sake other than
worship and is silent in this affair, the Hadiths ( traditions of the Prophet) are almost
uniformly filled with such denunciations. As Oleg Grabar says:
Much has been written about Islamic attitudes toward the arts. Encyclopedias or
general works on the history of art simply assert that, for a variety of reasons which
are rarely explored, Islam was theologically opposed to representation of living
beings. While it is fairly known that the Quran contains no prohibition of such
representations, the undeniable denunciation of artists and of representations found
in many traditions about the life of the prophet are taken as genuine expressions of
an original Muslim attitude.13
However there are also some instances in the life of the Prophet where he has not
condemned figural imagery and has permitted it in certain ways that will be mentioned
later. This has become a source of confusion and dilemma that has led to differences, as
to why there is such a strong disregard for imagery in some Hadiths despite the Quran
remaining silent14.
Some of the Hadiths that condemn figural imagery are:
The Prophet (PBUH) said :
“Verily , Al-Musawwiroon (picture makers) will receive the severest torment from Allah
among the people on the Day of Resurrection” (Muslim)15
13
Oleg Grabar. "Islamic Attitudes towards the Arts." The Formation of Islamic Art. London: New Haven
and London, Yale UP, 1973. 75-103. Print.
14
Sadria, Modj-ta-ba. "Figural Representation in Islamic Art." Middle Eastern Studies 20.4 (1984): 99104. Jstor. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283032>.
15
"TAKING PICTURES | The Revival." The Revival | Voice of the Muslim Youth! Web. 25 June 2011.
<http://www.therevival.co.uk/forum/general/347?page=1>.
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He also said “ Verily those who make these pictures will be punished on the Day of
Resurrection. It will be said to them: „Bring life to what you have created.‟‟‟ (AlBukhaari and Muslim)16
He also said: “ Every Musawwir (picture maker) in the Fire will be punished in Jahannam
( Hell) by a soul created for every picture he made.” (Muslim)17
The Messenger of Allah also said: “The angels do not enter a house where there are dogs
and pictures.” (Muslim)18
Overlooking the fact that there are doubts in the authenticity of numerous Hadiths
(since this is another issue altogether) there are several other sayings of the Holy Prophet
that denounce figural imagery and the creator of such images and although for a Muslim
a single authentic prohibition should be enough, there are also certain incidents in the life
of the Prophet (pbuh) as well as the Caliphs and companions of the Prophet that are not
as stringent regarding this aspect.
For example according to Modj-ta-ba:
It has been recorded that, while the Prophet Mohammad lay ill, his wives
came in to divert him with conversation and that they discussed with great
enthusiasm the pictures two of them had seen during a visit to a church in
Abyssinia. It seems that the enthusiasm of the wives was not deemed
inappropriate by the Prophet. He had also allowed his youngest wife, Aisha, to
bring dolls into his house.19
Azraki (d. 858 A.D.), author of the earliest extant history of Mecca, tells that
Muham- mad, after his triumphal entry into that city in Ramadan 8
(December, 629-January, 630) went inside the Kaaba and ordered the pictures
in it to be obliterated, but put his hand over a pic- ture of Mary with Jesus
seated on her lap, and said: "Rub out all the pictures except these under my
hands"; and Azra1ki goes on to say that this picture remained until the Kaaba
was destroyed in 63 H.2 Sa'd ibn Abi Wakkas who was one of the
companions of the prophet and his Arabs at the capture of al-Mada'in, or
16
"TAKING PICTURES | The Revival." The Revival | Voice of the Muslim Youth! Web. 25 June 2011.
<http://www.therevival.co.uk/forum/general/347?page=1>.
17
Ibid.
18
Ibid.
19
Sadria, Modj-ta-ba. "Figural Representation in Islamic Art." Middle Eastern Studies 20.4 (1984): 99104. Jstor. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283032>.
Najum 13
Ctesiphon, used the great lwan for the Friday prayer and were not disturbed by
the paintings decorating it, one of which represented the siege of Antioch by
Khusrau Anfishirwan (538 A.D.).' Zak! Hasan tries to explain away this fact
partly by the lack of time, the troops being so anxious to give thanks for their
great victory that they did not stop to obliterate them, and partly by saying that
"victorious armies do not always act according to religious principles." But he
has to admit that these paintings were allowed to remain for two and a half
centuries at least, for they were seen by al-Buhturi, who died in 897 A.D.20
The Caliph Umar (r.634-44) ( the second caliph and one of the closest companions of
the Prophet) is also said to possess a silver censer, with figures on it, which he got from
Syria in order to perfume the mosque of Medina21. According to Finbarr Barry Flood it
was only in 785 that the figures (tamathil) on a silver Syrian censer donated by the caliph
Umar were rendered innocuous (probably by decapitation) by the governor of the city.
He also points out that this remedial action falls within the period in which the earliest
traditions regarding images were codified, according to a recent reevaluation, hinting at
further shifts in attitudes to figuration between the late seventh and late eighth centuries.22
On another incident the Holy Prophet is supposed to have objected to a woven
curtain Aisha, his youngest wife, hung in a doorway, for the cloth was patterned with
figures. She was required to cut up the fabric and make cushions of it since such
designs were only acceptable to the Prophet as furnishings to be leaned or trodden
on.' 23
Considering this incident it could be derived that perhaps after tearing the cloth
the figures didn‟t remain figures, lost their form and became unrecognizable and that
perhaps may be the reason why they were acceptable. Or the figures remained even after
20
Creswell, K. A. C. "The Lawfulness of Painting in Early Islam." Ars Islamica 11/12 (1946): 159-66.
Jstor. Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution. Web. 10 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/4515631>.
21
Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The
Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>.
22
Ibid.
23
Sadria, Modj-ta-ba. "Figural Representation in Islamic Art." Middle Eastern Studies 20.4 (1984): 99104. Jstor. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283032>.
Najum 14
tearing up the cloth but they were only tolerable if they were used as something to lean
and trod on instead of something that is put up like a curtain. Considering the latter it
could also be deduced that figural imagery is not acceptable in any art form like painting
etc since an art form is put up in a space or hung on a wall (somewhat like a curtain) , is
respected and not leaned or trampled on. It is only a matter of which scholar u Tradition
u would prefer to follow. Some scholars declare images to be highly intolerable while
other scholars are less stringent regarding this matter.
As Finbarr Barry Flood says :
Two basic alternatives emerge from the various Traditions dealing with
figuration: recontextualization in a manner that made clear that the images
were in no way venerated (by reusing figural textiles as floor cushions, for
example), or decapitation, so that they became inanimate, that is, devoid of a
soul (ruh).24
Also if the Caliph Umar used a censor with figures on it, that could indicate that if figural
imagery in that form was acceptable to the Caliph Umar who was one of the closest
companions of the Prophet , it might not be as big of an issue as it rather became for the
Muslims at a later period.
According to Finbarr Barry Flood:
There is a general consensus in the hadith forbidding all representations that have
shadows (whose defacement is obligatory), and some schools go so far as to liken
the artists as polytheists. Such proscriptions were undoubtedly a factor in both
promoting aniconism (the eschewal of figural imagery) and motivating acts of
iconoclasm (the destruction or mutilation of already existing imagery), but their
impact on arts varied greatly according to time and place.25
24
Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The
Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>.
24
Sadria, Modj-ta-ba. "Figural Representation in Islamic Art." Middle Eastern Studies 20.4 (1984): 99104. Jstor. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283032>.
25
Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The
Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>.
Najum 15
It is believed that most of the Hadiths that strictly prohibit figural depiction are the ones
that were coded at a much later period.26
Regarding the attitudes of the pre-Islamic Arabia concerning the Arts Oleg Grabar
says that the living architecture of central Arabia was not an impressive one. He points
out that “There exists no Islamic writing of an aesthetic reaction to the Kaabah (the
holiest and most important architectural building) of an interpretation of its holiness in
terms of visual beauty.”
According to him:
It is difficult to imagine that the wealthy merchants of Mecca did not build for
themselves fairly elaborate dwellings. But there is no evidence for it, and the
developments of later centuries would tend to confirm the simplicity of the
setting of aristocratic life in pre-Islamic Arabia. For instance, almost none of the
visible features of Umayyad palace art seem to have been derived from preIslamic Arabia, and it is perhaps correct to conclude that architecture
ostentatiousness was not a typical feature of traditional Arabian society.27
He also points out that “traditional Muslim culture perhaps did not possess a
doctrine about the arts, neither formal thought-out rejections of certain kinds of creative
activities nor positive notions about the possible instructional or beautifying values of the
various existing techniques of art.”28 Art perhaps was not one of the key concerns of the
early Islamic period and the Arabs were not inclined towards the making of art in
anyway. This might perhaps be the reason as to why the Quran doesn‟t directly state
anything regarding this aspect.
26
Sadria, Modj-ta-ba. "Figural Representation in Islamic Art." Middle Eastern Studies 20.4 (1984): 99104. Jstor. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283032>.
27
Oleg Grabar. "Islamic Attitudes towards the Arts." The Formation of Islamic Art. London: New Haven
and London, Yale UP, 1973. 75-103. Print.
28
Ibid.
Najum 16
Grabar says:
“that very little sculpture, painting, or manufacture of other than purely utilitarian
objects took place in Arabia itself. The idols that have assembled in Mekkah were
most primitive, and the painitng of a virgin and child found in the kaabah was
probably the work of a non arab or folk art. What accounts of aesthetically
significant paintings and sculptures do exist refer generally to work found outside
of Arabia, mostly in the Christian worlds of Syria , Egypt, and occasionally
ethopia. Most expensive objects came from elsewhere and the celebrated textiles
and pillows with figures which were owned by aisha , the prophets youngest wife
and about which much has written later on , were probably Syrian or Egyptian.”29
He believes that:
Since the Islamic world had no form of art they could call their own 'when
religions and political factions fought with each other through images.'Thus the
later ruling against representation provided a means to 'avoid being confused with
the alien world of Christians and by later extensions of Buddhists or of pagans. It
was therefore essentially the ideological and political circumstance of the late 7th
century Christian world that led Islam to this particular point of view' .This scheme
of development is used to explain a means of establishing an identity distinct from
Christian Art which had used figural depiction in various forms in order to spread
the religious messages.30
Arnold, a latest scholar to discuss this question, believed that this hostility towards
representation dates almost from the time of Muhammad, and held that the paintings of
Kusair 'Amra were executed in defiance of it 31 to which K.A.C . Creswell says :
Now although later caliphs and sultans certainly did defy the prohibition on many
occasions, there appears to be good reason for believing that this prohibition had
not yet been formulated at the time when the frescoes of JKusair 'Amra were
executed. 32
G.R.D King states that the only evidence of iconoclasm until the fall of Ummayd
Caliphate is confined to the well known attack on images and statues carried out by the
29
Oleg Grabar. "Islamic Attitudes towards the Arts." The Formation of Islamic Art. London: New Haven
and London, Yale UP, 1973. 75-103. Print.
30
Ibid.
31
Creswell, K. A. C. "The Lawfulness of Painting in Early Islam." Ars Islamica 11/12 (1946): 159-66.
Jstor. Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution. Web. 10 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/4515631>.
32
Ibid.
Najum 17
orders of Yazid II. b. 'Abd al-Malik (101-105/720-724).33 He points out that the absence
of references to image-breaking under Caliphs before Yazid implies that his action was a
rarity worthy of comment: under normal circumstances, it would seem the Muslims left
the Christians to use icons and representations or not, as they wished. 34
As Dr. Abraham P. Sakili mentions the mutilation of a number of paintings in
illustrated manuscripts some of which were totally burnt or destroyed and pages with
figures were detached and thrown away: or the head of the figures were scratched out of
the pages. 35 The manuscripts contained beautiful miniature paintings illustrating the life
and achievements of the several Muslim sultans. He states that on a larger scale there is a
written account of a peasant in 1897 who threw into the river--as unholy things--five
cartloads of Manichaean manuscripts with pictures decorated in gold and colors. (Arnold,
1965:40).36 He also points out how despite prohibition of pictures by the Muslim ulama,
many Muslim monarchs continued to patronize pictures in the confines of their palace
away from public eye. The frescoes discovered in royal baths in Kusair 'Amra and in the
ruins of Mutawakkil Palace in Samarra yielded pictures not only of "fierce lions, barking
dogs and butting rams" but also of nude female figures and dancing girls--to the horror of
the faithful 37. Scandalous erotic images, were reported to have been painted in the palace
of a son of famous ruler Mahmud of Ghazni (998-1030). (Arnold, 1965:86).38
33
G. R. D King. "Islam, Iconoclasm, and the Declaration of Doctrine." Bulletin of the School of Oriental
and African Studies, University of London 42.4 (1985): 267-77. Jstor. Cambridge University Press on
Behalf of School of Oriental and African Studies. Web. 25 Nov. 2010.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/617544>.
34
Ibid.
35
Sakili, Dr. Abraham P. "Muslim Culture & Arts." Muslim Mindanao Website. Asian Institute of
Journalism and Communication, 2 Jan. 2006. Web. 11 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.muslimmindanao.ph/muslim_arts_figurative.html>.
36
ibid
37
Ibid.
38
Ibid.
Najum 18
It therefore could be concluded that with the existence of a strong prohibition of
figural imagery in Islam there also existed a rich culture of the making of Art(with
figures or without them) by some art appreciators which was at numerous times
vandalized not by the people of other religions but by the people with in Islam. The
evidence of which exists in several early manuscripts where some faces of the figures
were rubbed out or a line was drawn across the throats of the figures.39
Dr.Sakili believes that the prohibition of figurative art was a matter of attitude of
orthodox theologians not of Islamic doctrine40. And goes on to saying : The
condemnation of figurative arts was, therefore, a theological opinion common to the
whole Muslim world, and the practical acceptance of it largely depended on the
theologians' influence upon the habits and tastes of society at any particular time.41
K.A.C Creswell concludes in his article “The Lawfulness of Painting in Early Islam”
“The prohibition against painting did not exist in early Islam, but that it grew
up gradually, partly as a result of the inherent temperamental dis- like of
Semitic races for representational art, partly because of the influence of
important Jewish converts, and partly because of the fear of magic.” 42
The phrase "Islamic art" tends to conjure up images of ornate metalwork,
geometric patterns, intricately woven textiles and rugs, ceramics with calligraphic
39
Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The
Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>.
40
Sakili, Dr. Abraham P. "Muslim Culture & Arts." Muslim Mindanao Website. Asian Institute of
Journalism and Communication, 2 Jan. 2006. Web. 11 Mar. 2011.
<http://www.muslimmindanao.ph/muslim_arts_figurative.html>.
41
Ibid.
42
Creswell, K. A. C. "The Lawfulness of Painting in Early Islam." Ars Islamica 11/12 (1946): 159-66.
Jstor. Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution. Web. 10 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/4515631>
Najum 19
decoration and stylized floral designs and delicately trimmed glassware.43 What it doesn‟t
highlight in general is the prevalence of several colorful illustrated miniatures testifying
the lifestyle and achievements of many sultans. Within Islamic Art the difference in these
styles lies in what is considered to be religious art that is aniconic in nature and secular
art that contains figural representation.44 Although the manuscripts do not directly fall
under Islamic Art. They are referred to as Book illustrations but since they were made in
Islamic cultures under Islamic rule I am mentioning them as examples indicating the
diversity within Islamic belief and practice. Attitudes towards figurative art varied
somewhat throughout the course of Islamic history and across different Islamic cultures
and depiction of animals and humans appear sporadically throughout the centuries.45
Many of the beautiful figurative art from the Islamic world depicting the life of
Muhammad (pbuh), the prophets, scenes from paradise and everyday life subject come
from the medieval period in Iran.46
Some examples of miniature paintings containing figural depiction include:
1. Princely feast, from the Kihamnsa of Nizami, Iran, 1574-75, with later iconoclastic alterations.
London, India Office Libraly ms 1129, fol. 29 (photo: By permission of The British Library.47
43
Sadria, Modj-ta-ba. "Figural Representation in Islamic Art." Middle Eastern Studies 20.4 (1984): 99104. Jstor. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283032>.
44
Persian, Comparison With. "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art, by Terry
Allen." (Sonic.net). Web. 25 June 2011. <http://sonic.net/~tallen/palmtree/fe2.htm>.
45
Depictions of Muhammad in Islamic Art - ReligionFacts." Religion, World Religions, Comparative
Religion - Just the Facts on the World's Religions. Reliigion Facts. Web. 25 June 2011.
<http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/things/depictions-of-muhammad-in-islamic-art.htm>.
46
Ibid.
47
Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The
Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>.
Najum 20
Figure 1
2.
Maqamat of al-Hariri, Iraq, ca. 1240, with later iconoclastic alterations, fol. 32v. St. Petersburg,
the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Figure 2.
Najum 21
3.
Muhammad Receives the Revelation through the Angel Gabriel, from Rashid al-Din's
Compendium of Chronicles, Tabriz (Iran), 1314-15. Edinburgh, University Library Arab. ms 2048
Figure 3.
4. Kamal al-Din Bihzad, The Seduction of Hazrat Yusuf from a manuscript of Saadi's Bustan, Herat
(Afghanistan), 1488. Cairo, National Library (photo: Los Angeles County Museum of Art)49
Figure 4.
48
Blair, Sheila S. "The Mirage of Islamic Art: Reflections on the Study of the Unwieldy Field."The Art
Bulletin 85.1 (March 2003): 152-84. College Art Associations, Mar. 2003. Web. 16 Nov. 2010.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177331>.
49
Ibid.
Najum 22
5.
Firdausi in the Bathhouse, painting added to the Spencer Shahnama in the 19th or 20th
century. New York Public Library Pers. ms 2, fol. 5. 50
Figure 5.
There are several examples of miniature paintings made under Islamic rule in
which the Holy Prophet and other prophets too are depicted. There were some images
that were destroyed by some Muslims who believed images to be unlawful and their
50
Blair, Sheila S., and Jonathan M. Bloom. "The Mirage of Islamic Art: Reflections on the Study of the
Unwieldy Field." The Art Bulletin 85.1 (March 2003): 152-84. Print
Najum 23
destruction to be obligatory. For some Muslims figural depiction was permissible if a line
was drawn on the throats of the figures as shown in the Figure 1. Some scholars believe
that if the face of the figure is unrecognizable or unclear it could be acceptable. Some
believe that figures that are small or that are stylized (not realistic) like in miniature
paintings they could be acceptable.51 Within Islam there are variations amongst religious
schools ( Madh‟abs) and the practices and beliefs between these branches . Aniconism is
the practice or belief in avoiding or shunning the graphic representation of divine beings
or religious figures, or in different manifestations, any human beings or living creatures52.
It is common among orthodox sunni sects like the Wahabis and Salafis which are also
aften iconoclastic (the talibans too are the followers of the Wahabi tradition)53. Shia sects
however are more liberal and have lesser stringent views on aniconism.54
On an individual level whether a person believes in avoiding figural depiction
depends on how much importance and credibility they give to the Hadiths and how strict
or liberal they are in the way they practice religion. It is evident that in the history of
Islam if there are incidents in the life of the Prophet (pbuh) that condemn figural
depiction there are also incidents which could leave some room for figure representation
to be permissible. Throughout history there have existed Muslims who believed in the
making of beautiful art that included human and animal depiction alongside people
whose beliefs were contradictory in this aspect. Islamic Art too is not completely devoid
of figures. In the earliest days of Islam, a specifically "Islamic art" had not yet begun to
51
Check appendices
AskDefine | Define Aniconic. Web. 26 June 2011. <http://aniconic.askdefine.com/>.
53
Check appendices
54
Check appendices
52
Najum 24
develop and art in general was not a prominent issue and According to the Encyclopedia
Britannica:
"Earliest Islam as seen in the Qur'an or in the more verifiable accounts of the
Prophet's life simply do not deal with the arts, either on the practical level of
requiring or suggesting forms as expressions of the culture or on the ideological
level of defining a Muslim attitude toward images....” 55
But as the Islamic community grew and conquered a great deal of new territory,
it came into contact with the religious art and architecture of other cultures and
began to develop its own. By the mid-8th century there was a clear Muslim
doctrine against the creation of images.It is interesting that Islam came into
contact with Byzantine culture at the height of the iconoclastic controversy and It
is possible that those intensely negative associations of religious art influenced or
strengthened Islamic views on the matter.56
It is however a debate that has existed and although this aspect may not be the
most fundamental and imperative of all issues, it has created many controversies where
people have presumed Islam to be highly intolerable towards imagery. If there are certain
sects who disregard images and believe that they need to be destroyed there are also
various people following the same religion who believe in making imagery and
appreciating it..
55
"Depictions of Muhammad in Islamic Art - ReligionFacts." Religion, World Religions, Comparative
Religion - Just the Facts on the World's Religions. Web. 26 June 2011.
<http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/things/depictions-of-muhammad-in-islamic-art.htm>.
56
"Depictions of Muhammad in Islamic Art - ReligionFacts." Religion, World Religions, Comparative
Religion - Just the Facts on the World's Religions. Web. 26 June 2011.
<http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/things/depictions-of-muhammad-in-islamic-art.htm>.
Najum 25
Chapter 3- Research Methodology
The methods used for conducting my research related to this dissertation are
elaborated in this section. In order to answer the particular question this dissertation is on
the subject of, my first step was to inquire and restate what the Islamic scriptures say
about the topic to form a basic ground for how this question was formulated. However
my lack of knowledge in the understanding of the Quran and Sunnah/Hadith, led me to
gain information only through scholarly written material that was about the topic and that
also contained related passages or verses from the scriptures and rely on them for the
support of my discussion.
In the first part of my research I was mostly looking at the existing scholarly
literature regarding this matter and even though my aim was not to get in to the
authenticity of the written literature or the existing Hadith (traditions of the Holy
Prophet), it was a question that I feel I perhaps should have also delved in to first before
moving on. My reason of skipping ahead however was because the question of how
authentic a particular hadith/tradition is, is another convoluted discourse altogether,
concluding which would be a task impossible for me to accomplish or carry out
considering the limitation of time and lack of the required knowledge. Hence I stated the
traditions I felt were imperative to the discussion without considering their origin and
authenticity.
Being aware of the prevalent figural culture in our society, being a Muslim living
in an Islamic state and studying in an Art Institution, having this dilemma of a
preconceived contradiction regarding Art in Islam and experiencing how significant
figural imagery is in this day and age - led me to question what the early attitudes of
Najum 26
Muslims on this subject might have been. In order to understand whether this issue was a
cause of concern in the early Islamic culture or whether it is a recent issue. I then moved
on to looking at Muslim artists work and discovering their views about the depiction of
figural imagery and how they respond to the idea of it being prohibited by religion.
I have attempted to carry out a research that is qualitative in nature. I have spoken to
several practicing artists and art teachers and found out their take on this matter. In my
opinion the literature I read up and what I derived from the views of Muslims of today
aided me into concluding my research. The review of the artists work and their opinions
lead me to identify what the present Muslim artistic trend and attitude regarding figural
depiction is. I have mostly looked and spoken to practicing artists who may or may not
necessarily include the figure in their art work and getting their view point on the subject.
I believe more resourceful results could have been attained had this research been
more precise studying each area in depth. A more holistic approach, stating more
examples and incidents too would have increased the possible profundity and depth of the
findings leading up to new areas of discussion and study.
Najum 27
Chapter 4- Findings and analysis:
Works of several Muslim artists in Pakistan and in other states identify that the art
world is not a least bit concerned with the prohibition of figural representations by
religion since this is not one of the concerns for artists. A general survey of speaking to
various artists and looking at their work that also include Ather Jamal and Sumera
Tazeen led me to believe that artists do not seem to have any trouble as such in depicting
figures in their work. Sumera Tazeen believes that there is no issue for her if the idea
with which an artist is working with requires him or her to use the figure in their work be
it in any form or way.57 She has included figural imagery in some of her work but doesn‟t
necessarily work with the human body unless her concept requires for her too. Ather
Jamal, who mostly does paintings of Thar females, however only objects to nude work
for religious and social reasons and also objects to 3D figural sculptures but has no issues
regarding depiction of figural imagery otherwise. For him the work should be such that it
does not degrade or demean women in any way. He says that before making any piece of
work he questions himself if the work will offend any woman and if his family members
wouldn‟t find it disrespectful. He goes ahead with it if he feels that the work is not
demeaning or disrespectful especially to women in any manner.58
According to Irfan Gul , a miniaturist form Lahore ,an art work is always about the
human body and human experiences whether the figure is depicted or not. He too has the
human figure in several of his works and does not seem to be hesitant in the depiction of
57
58
Check appendices
Check appendices
Najum 28
any living being for religious reasons.59 An unstructured open ended interview held with
Rizwanullah Khan, Head of the Islamic Art department in Karachi University lead me to
understand that in the society the way people perceive religion or any aspect of it varies
from individual to individual in such a degree that it seems as though every other person
follows his or her own version of the particular religion or sect they follow. We all reject
some beliefs and practices either verbally or just in practice. There have always existed
different groups of people with in Islam that have had contradictory ideologies and with
the society becoming more secular and modern this gap between orthodox believers and
people with a more liberal approach towards religion, widens. I am considering makers
promoters or appreciators of art as a single group /sect who although are Muslims, but
have their own materialization in the aspect of the lawfulness of figural depiction in
Islam.
Naiza Khan who also incorporates nude figures in her work experienced some
form of vandalism of her work in 2002.
The series “Henna Hands” which consisted of life-size female figures
stenciled on to walls with henna pigment. In some areas like in the Dhobi ghat
the images were scratched out soon after they were made. In another location,
the work remained for some time, children enjoyed it, and women angered by
the blatant use of the women‟s body, argued to see it replaced by that of a
man. Conversations and reactions from residents, visible alterations and
additions to the work, censorship of body parts, have been indicators of how
people have „viewed‟ this work.60
59
Check appendices
Zaidi, Saima. "Be Pakistani, Buy Pakistani." Mazaar, Bazaar: Design and Visual Culture in Pakistan.
Oxford [u.a.: Oxford UP, 2009. 136-38. Print.
60
Najum 29
Muslim artists living in non Muslim states too experience not just the threat but
actual vandalism of their artwork for the reason that depicting certain imagery is
unacceptable to certain people. Sarah Maple, a 23 year old Muslim artist who had
exhibited photographs and paintings of a provocative and controversial nature at London
gallery received death threats, angry emails phone calls and the gallery hosting the show
was vandalized.61 Maple says her work is based on personal experiences, feelings and
reflection on them and says her goal is to give her audience food for thought.62
Some of her photographic self-portraits feature her in a headscarf in provocative
and suggestive poses and one painting shows the artist in a headscarf with a bare
breast. Another painting features a woman in a headscarf holding a pig.63
The issue perhaps for the people who objected to her work was not “the
representation of figures” as some might assume but was for what she was depicting
which easily could have offended any Muslim.
But not everyone, or even all Muslims for that matter, objected to her work.
For one, Maple told the Iran Times, "My family is extremely proud of me and
doesn't think I should stop what I'm doing."64
Maple told the Iran Times, "I hope that people will see the humor and the
intelligence in the work. It is about the combination or clash of cultures and
struggling to be faithful to both. It is asking if you can find a balance and still
be faithful to your religion and culture. I am not saying all western Muslims
feel this way, but it is how I, and many others, feel. This is heightened
because of my mixed parcentage.I also believe people should not confuse
culture and how they have been brought up with the essence of the religion
itself. It is also about perception and what is stereotypically seen to be a good
Muslim on appearances. I believe it is what you believe and feel inside which
makes you a good Muslim and I think people should have confidence in their
beliefs and see my art with an open mind and consider what I am saying,”
61
Nasri, Grace. "Young Muslim Artist Stirs Controversy." Payvand, Iran News, Directory and Bazar.
Web. 23 June 2011. <http://www.payvand.com/news/08/dec/1006.html>.
62
Ibid.
63
Ibid.
64
Ibid.
Najum 30
Her intention as she claims was not to offend anyone for that matter and it could
be argued since there is a saying by the Holy Prophet that “ Actions are judged by
intention” which many Muslims take as a core principal for what they do in life. That if
their intention is pure and not to offend religion or anyone then their actions are justified.
Case study – Danish Cartoons:
The controversy of the Danish cartoons that were first published in 2005 depicting
the Holy Prophet stirred a very angry response from Muslims all over the world.65 The
most common explanation for the violence in the English and European language press
was that the production of images of Mohammad is prohibited by Islamic law.66 The
controversy has pitted two newspapers championing what they say is the cause of free
speech against Islam's prohibition of any artistic depiction of the prophet Muhammad,
which is considered blasphemous, no matter how benign.67 Islamic critics charged that
the cartoons were a deliberate provocation and insult to their religion designed to incite
hatred and polarize people of different faiths68. Defenders of the newspapers and artists
said the 12 published cartoons simply were intended to highlight Islam's intolerance. 69
The concern here too was not just that the Holy Prophet was depicted but more
that the cartoons were insulting and derogatory and seemed to serve no purpose other
65
Sullivan, Winnifred Fallers. "What the Danish Cartoon Controversy Tells Us About Religion, the
Secular, and the Limits of the Law." Religion Dispatches. 23 June 2011. Web. 23 June 2011.
<http://www.religiondispatches.org/books/2151/what_the_danish_cartoon_controversy_tells_us_about_re
ligion,_the_secular,_and_the_limits_of_the_law>.
66
Ibid.
67
Anderson, John Ward. "Cartoons of Prophet Met With Outrage - Washingtonpost.com." The
Washington Post: National, World & D.C. Area News and Headlines - The Washington Post. Katharine
Weymouth. Web. 23 June 2011. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2006/01/30/AR2006013001316.html>.
68
Ibid.
69
Ibid.
Najum 31
than to provoke a reaction. According to Imam Talal Eid, director of the Islamic Institute
of Boston: "He [the Prophet] instructed his companions not to draw a picture of him, and
this has been taken as a general prohibition.”70 Even if the Prophet was depicted in some
manuscripts in the past, today many Muslims consider any public depictions of the
Prophet Muhammad offensive and objectionable, no matter how respectful.
Case study -Bamiyam Buddhas in Afghanistan:
The Taliban regime dynamited the magnificent Budhaas of the Bamiyan Valley in
March 2001, to comply with their strict ban on human or animal representations. 71
Buddhist monastic institutions in the Bamiyan Valley suffered iconoclastic
damage even before the advent of Islam: in the fifth or early sixth century.72
Despite such setbacks, Buddhism continued to flourish here after the advent
of Islam, for there were practicing Buddhists in the valley as late as the ninth
or tenth century, and even in the eleventh century it was not fully
Islamicized. 73
According to Flood :
Between the tenth and thirteenth centuries, the Bamiyan Buddhas were often
referred to in Arabic and Per- sian literature, where (along with remains of
Buddhist stupas and frescoes) they were depicted as marvels and wonders.
Several writers emphasize that nowhere in the world can one find anything to
equal the Bamiyan Buddhas, popularly known as Surkh-but (red idol) and
Khink-but (gray idol).74
70
"Depictions of Muhammad in Islamic Art - ReligionFacts." Religion, World Religions, Comparative
Religion - Just the Facts on the World's Religions. Web. 26 June 2011.
<http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/things/depictions-of-muhammad-in-islamic-art.htm>.
71
"Islamic Voice - Islam and Comparative Religion." Islamic Voice - Magazine. Web. 05 May 2011.
<http://www.islamic-voice.com/islam-and-comparative-religion.php>.
72
Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The
Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>.
73
Ibid.
74
Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The
Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>.
Najum 32
If the Bamiyan Budhaas have existed for so many centuries suffering
iconoclastic moments, they have also been considered important enough for some
Arabs and Persian ( Muslims) to consider them as marvels and wonders.
This is an unofficial translation of the edict concerning the destruction of religious
images, prepared by the United Nations staff in Kabul, which was compiled by the
Afghanistan Research Group (ARG) and circulated in an electronic news- letter as
"News from Afghanistan" on March 2, 2001. The edict was published in Pushtu by
the state-run Bakhtar News Agency and broadcast on Radio ShariCa on February
27, 2001 :
On the basis of consultations between the religious leaders of the Islamic
Emirate of Afghanistan, religious judgments of the ulema and rulings of the
Supreme Court of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, all statues and nonIslamic shrines located in different parts of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan must be destroyed. These statues have been and remain shrines of
unbelievers and these unbelievers continue to worship and respect them.
God Almighty is the only real shrine [taghit] and all fake idols should be
destroyed.155 Therefore, the supreme leader of the Islamic Emirate of
Afghanistan has ordered all the representatives of the Minis- try of
Promotion of Virtue and Suppression of Vice and the Ministries of
Information to destroy all the statues. As or- dered by the ulema and the
Supreme Court of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan all the statues must be
destroyed so that no one can worship or respect them in the future.75
The justification presented for what most of us would see as an act of
religious intolerance and pure vandalism is that these 'graven images' offend
the religious sentiments of Taliban. Their supreme leader Mullah
Mohammad Omar says that Afghan Muslims should be proud of smashing
the statues. "It is a shame for those Afghans who criticise this decree." He
was quoted as saying, "I ask Afghans and the world's Muslims to use their
sound wisdom...Do you prefer to be a breaker of idols or a seller of idols? Is
it appropriate to be influenced by the propaganda of the infidels?"76
75
Flood, Finbarr Barry. "Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum." The
Art Bulletin, 84.4 (2002): 641-59. College Art Association, Dec. 2002. Web. 25 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/3177288>.
76
Rohini Hensman. "Religious Sentiment and National Sovereignty: Resisting Talibanisation."Economic
and Political Weekly. Economic and Political Weekly, 9 June 2001. Web. 3 Dec. 2011.
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/4410713>.
Najum 33
This event of the Taliban destroying the massive rock cut Budhaas highlights the
degree of abomination for idols or representative imagery by this group of Muslims.
Where there exist people who consider it to be one of the wonders there is also this sect
that believes in the destruction of idols as an act of peity and take pride in such an action.
The Bamiyan Budhaas are idols and there are traditions by the Holy Prophet regarding
the destructions of idols. If people, Muslims or non Muslims, believe the destruction of
these idols as vandalism, the strict followers of Islam take pride in destroying them. For
them there is no argument of whether the action of destroying them was right or wrong
since Islam very clearly condemns idol worshipping. Their destruction does not signify
Islam to be intolerant of any kind of imagery but it does signify the unacceptability
towards idol worshipping.
My usage of the term sect refers to:
Following a particular leader or authority, or attached to a certain opinion; a
company or set having a common belief or allegiance distinct from others; in
religion, the believers in a particular creed, or upholders of a particular practice. 77
77
"Definition of Sect - BrainyQuote." Famous Quotes at BrainyQuote. Web. 22 June 2011.
<http://www.brainyquote.com/words/se/sect217231.html>.
Najum 34
Chapter 5 : Conclusion
The permissibility of figural depiction in any form has been a debate in Islam that
has varied from time to time and from each individual to another. Even though Islamic
Art is generally known to be aniconic (devoid of figures) and calligraphy and vegetal
ornamentation seem to be dominant features of it, there is also a prevalence of beautiful
figural imagery including that of the Holy Prophet (pbuh). The examples of works that
fall under Islamic Art and that include human and animal depiction sometimes do not
seem to be highlighted when the subject of Islamic art is generally discussed. It is clear
however that figurative art has and continues to make frequent appearances in the
Islamic world. As explained on the website of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art:
“Contrary to a popular misconception, however, figural imagery is an important
aspect of Islamic art. Such images occur primarily in secular and
especially courtly arts and appear in a wide variety of media and in most periods
and places in which Islam flourished. It is important to note, nevertheless, that
representational imagery is almost invariably restricted to a private context.
Figurative art is excluded from the decoration of religious monuments. This
absence may be attributed to an Islamic antipathy toward anything that might be
mistaken for idols or idolatry, which are explicitly forbidden by the Qur'an. “78
In this day and age Muslims are divided not just in terms of sectarian division but
also in terms of how each individual perceives religion. Even with the presence of sects
that believe in the destruction and obliteration of any kind of imagery there also exist a
sect (of artists) that believe in the making and growth of art that may or may not include
figural depiction. Despite such strong prohibition of figural depiction in Islam artists do
not seem to hold back or have any problem doing the work they do. Also with our culture
78
"Depictions of Muhammad in Islamic Art - ReligionFacts." Religion, World Religions, Comparative
Religion - Just the Facts on the World's Religions. Reliigion Facts. Web. 25 June 2011.
<http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/things/depictions-of-muhammad-in-islamic-art.htm>.
Najum 35
being flooded with images in the form billboards, in the form of truck art, photographs
etc, it seems as though there is hardly even an issue regarding this aspect anymore for a
common man. This subject however seems to come in the spot light when events occur
on a grand scale like the destruction of the Bamiyan Budhas or the controversy of the
Danish cartoons where people start assuming that Islam is a religion that is highly
intolerable towards any figural depiction.
Based on my research I conclude that the question of the prohibition of figural
representation even for a reason other than idolatry is a doubtful one since the most
authentic book for the Muslims worldwide that is the Quran does not say so. Having a
strong disregard for figural imagery and physically obliterating it too are a practice that
roots from sectarian differences and any such beliefs that derive from the various
traditions of the prophet some of which could be questionable. It is due to these
differences within the Muslim community that there are some sects who have a strict
belief in one thing while there are others who have a completely different belief regarding
the same aspect. Perhaps this is why even with the growth of religious fundamentalism
there is also a growth of a Muslim sect that believes in the making and promotion of art
and not the destruction of it.
Najum 36
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Najum 37
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Interviews conducted :
Rizawanullah Khan. Personal Interview. April 2010
Sumera Tazeen. Personal Interview. March 2010
Ather Jamal. Personal Interview.March 2010
Najum 38
Appendices : Interviews
Interviewee : Sara Najum
Interviewer: Rizawanullah Khan
Head of the Islamic Art department at Karachi University
Unstructured open ended interview held at the Indus Valley school of Art and
Architecture on April 17th, 2010.
S.N: what in your opinion is the significance of figural representation in Islam. Since the
Quran does not condemn figural depiction unless it is for idolatory.
R.K: the Quran does talk about images (not for idolatory) that were used to decorate the
palace of Hazrat Suleiman in Surah Namaul. Tamathil is the word used in the Quran .it is
one of the words that mean Pictures.(tusweer) literally it means representation. Here the
use of images was not for the sake of idolatory but the Jins used images to decorate the
Palace.
S.N: does this mean that pictures or representations could be allowed?
R.K: well there are different interpretations. One group of scholars go with the idea that
something which is allowed for one Prophet might not necessarily be allowed in another
Prophets time. Because Hazrat Yousufs brothers did “Sajdah” (bow)on him but later the
followers were not asked to do “sajdah” on the prophets . Some people take this position
that the use of pictures at that time might not have been the same as it is today. Some
scholars give fatwas in the favor of pictures while some don‟t. I can only give a different
opinion.
Najum 39
S.N: how much of the figure is used in Islamic art? It is generally believed that Islamic
art has no figural representations. What is your opinion?
R.K: well for Islamic art the number one component is calligraphy, number two is
geometry and floral patterns are number 3.
S,N: so what about all the miniature manuscripts that are filled with figural depiction of
emperors?
R.K: we make a mistake when we approach it this way. That art is pictures. We are
going through a particular paradigm right? That this is art and art is pictures. We do have
pictures in manuscripts but a better way to look at it is that this is book illustrations.
S.N: but these manuscripts do fall under an Islamic culture or have been made by
Muslims.
R.K: but it is not a major art or religious art. It is secular art. It has to do with
illustrations, scientific books, stories, poetry but its not the major art form. The three I
told you before that is number 1. Khattatee , number2. Geometry and iqsa or kashaashi.
These three are found everywhere. Masjids, town planning, minar, pots and pans, clothes,
there are the primary art forms that were found in the whole of the Muslim empire. Book
illustration was sort of a secondary thing. About figural representation being acceptable
depends on which school of thought and which scholar you follow. Generally speaking
Islam was if iconoclastic it was aniconic meaning : images were not condemned but also
not encouraged.
S .N: avoiding figures?
R.K: exactly. There are some examples for instance there are incidents in the life of the
prophet where when the prophet entered the rooms of one of his wives he saw a curtain
Najum 40
hanging with a picture on it, in some traditions it states that he did not say anything but
his face showed displeasure so the wife in question put it down and made cushion covers
out of it. This is the basis for the “shafayee” position that Imam Ghazali gave that any
picture is permissible if it‟s not put up on a place of value. If the pictures are put up they
are being revered in a way which is not allowed. The other traditions include that angels
do not enter a house that has pictures in it. Another tradition by the holy prophet is that
we do not clothe our walls. In other words it‟s a waste of money.
S.N: does that mean curtains too could be unacceptable?
R.K: it is specific to a wall. On a window is fine. Wall hangings are considered
wasteful. So what happens is that the Fuqaha that is the religious the indigenous scholars
who formulate the religious laws. So they take certain positions in the matter which
become the consensus of the people who follow. One group goes towards the total
prohibition of images, they consider images to be bad and they need to be stayed away
from. No good comes from images and why should we follow the culture of other nations
that follow idolatry. Another group says that with certain rules and restrictions certain
pictures are permissible. A third group which is not found much in history says that
pictures are acceptable depending upon your intention going with “ ina mal amal u
binniyat” meaning “actions are judged by intentions. Let me give you examples for the
middle group : for the kind of restrictions they would. Like Imam Ghazali , he says that
that picture is permissible which fulfills three conditions number 1: it should not be large
(it should be small) he doesn‟t state how small. A lot of scholars say that the size should
be such that if the image is out on the floor and a man stands and views it, he should not
be able to make out what the picture is. It should be that small, number2: it should not be
Najum 41
put up in a place of exaltation ( should not be revered [tazeem] ) number 3: it should not
cast a shadow, it should not be 3D because then the scholars believe that God will ask
them to put life into it. Like it is in the 10 commandments: thou shall not make graven
images. The 10 commandments are common to Islam , Christianity and Judaism. So the
commandment about images seems to apply towards sculpture. Graven image literally
means when u dig out and make something so if u take it literally it means sculpture. And
the restriction for the middle ground was about the cast shadows whether it‟s a painting
of the illusion of cast shadows or whether its sculpture in the round then they were
against it beacuse you would be giving it a real presence sort of a thing. And that was to
be avoided. So these were the positions of the ulemas. So the images that are sort of
present are under book illustrations.
S.N: so what about the stylization of the representations? Of not making them exactly
how they are.
R.K: yes one group of scholars went with the idea that if the figure doesn‟t have a head
or features that are recognizable or if it is fantastical it can‟t exist like unicorns then it‟s
permissible. I‟ll give you the reason for that going back to why we have so many floral
patterns. One reason is of course that floral patterns are the description of the Paradise the
garden. The meaning of garden has been distorted and sort of changed for us due to the
British rule. But the meaning of garden is paradise. The concept for it is of two sorts one
is gulistan /food orchard and a flower garden. The concept about the flower garden was
related to the floral patterns representing paradise. And the geometric patterns represent
God. It all comes from the center and goes back to the center. And calligraphy is of
course the art beautiful writing.
Najum 42
Interviewer : Sumera Tazeen
Head of the Miniature department at the Indus Valley School of Art and Architecture
A semi structured interview held at IVS on the 3rd of March 2010.
S.N: Being an artist how important is the incorporation “the figure” or the depiction of
any living being in your art work?
S.T: For me the incorporation holds its significance when the idea or concept I am
working with requires me to. I don‟t feel it is a must for me to incorporate figural
imagery an don‟t avoid it for any reason.
S.N: Being a Muslim artist, what is your take on human representation in art or in any
other form?
S.T: I don‟t personally believe it is wrong or right. It‟s only a matter of what purpose it is
used for. If the use of figural imagery is not demeaning or disrespecting religion in
anyway then I don‟t object to the use of it. I believe everything in the world has a good
and a bad use. Figural imagery can be used for wrong purposes too but just the use of
figural imagery doesn‟t mean is wrong.
S.N: Does the idea of figural imagery being prohibited by religion restrict or affect you in
any way in producing work?
S.T: absolutely not as long as I am not using it to harm religion in any way. There are
certain scholars and sects that believe it to be highly prohibited but there are also so many
scholars and good practicing Muslims who believe otherwise.
S,N: Has your work ever been vandalized? Or have you ever experienced any threat or
criticism of your work for the reason that it has figures in it?
Najum 43
S.T: no never.
Interviewer : Ather Jamal
Practicing artist, water colorist, currently teaching at the Indus Valley School of Art and
Architectur held at the Indus Valley School of Art and Architecture in March 2010.
A semi structure interview held at IVS. As the interviewee spoke, I jotted down the
information in points.
S.N: how do u perceive figural imagery being prohibited or permissible by religion?
Being a Muslim artist what is your take on the argument?
A.J: figural representation is not the only aspect in Islam that is argued over, many
controversies already exist. There are already so many debates about what is prohibited,
what is not, what is lawful, what is not, what the right way is and what is not. People only
seem to be arguing and fighting over each other‟s beliefs. Everyone thinks that whatever
school of thought they follow is the right school of thought. And no one respects each
other‟s beliefs. For me personally I don‟t object to figural depiction. Although I come
from a very conservative family, my mother and father always encouraged me when I
would draw or paint when I was a child. But I remember this incident when I was young,
I was playing with clay and I made a small figure. I ran up to my mum and showed it to
her very proudly like I would with every drawing I made. But she told me to break it and
never make any statue or sculpture out of clay. Since then I never made any statue. But u
see there is a difference in the word sculpture and the word idol. If a figural statue is
praised and worshiped it becomes an idol. That for me is unacceptable since making idols
is clearly haram in Islam. However I do not object to making figural paintings or
drawings as long as I am not making imagery that is disrespectful or insulting to women.
Najum 44