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The Power of Compassion The Power of Compassion An Exploration of the Psychology of Compassion in the 21st Century Edited by Marion Kostanski CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLISHING The Power of Compassion: An Exploration of the Psychology of Compassion in the 21st Century, edited by Marion Kostanski This book first published 2007 by Cambridge Scholars Publishing 15 Angerton Gardens, Newcastle, NE5 2JA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2007 by Marion Kostanski and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN 1-84718-115-5 TABLE OF CONTENTS Part I Chapter One.....................................................................................................2 Compassion: What is in a Word? Peter Hosking SJ Chapter Two ..................................................................................................14 Mobilising Compassion as Catalyst for Social Action: Australian Psychologists' Responses to Asylum Seekers Emma Sampson, Lyn Bender, Catherine D'Arcy and Heather Gridley Chapter Three ................................................................................................29 Correctional Compassion: Working in a Prison as a Psychologist Debra Smith and Jeanette Gibson Chapter Four ..................................................................................................37 Mercy for Monsters Moira Rayner Chapter Five ..................................................................................................45 Euthanasia: A Clash of Compassions? Felicity Allen Chapter Six ....................................................................................................52 Surviving Emergencies: Post Disaster Mental Health — With Reference to the Tsunami Peter Hosking Chapter Seven................................................................................................71 Social/Emotional Issues for Child Asylum Seekers Entering Schools Rosemary Starr vi Table of Contents Part II Chapter Eight.................................................................................................86 What’s Yours and What’s Mine? Compassion in an Integrated Model of Psychotherapy Lillith Collins Chapter Nine..................................................................................................97 Managing Grief and Loss: Compassion in the Buddhist Social Ethic and the Meditative Life Padmasiri de Silva Chapter Ten .................................................................................................110 Mothers’ and Fathers’ Experiences of Complicated Childbirth Sarah J. Phillips and Gregory A. Tooley Chapter Eleven ............................................................................................120 Mothering and the Challenge of Special Health Needs Susan Esdaile Chapter Twelve............................................................................................141 Developing a Support Model for Life-Threatening/Terminal Illness in the Workplace Mary Tehan Chapter Thirteen ..........................................................................................152 Training Teachers in Building Empathy and Compassion in Young People Margot Trinder and Eleanor H Wertheim Chapter Fourteen .........................................................................................162 Selfish Mind, Compassion, and Therapeutic Techniques: Cultural Paradigms and Mental Health Yoshimi Matsuda Part III Chapter Fifteen ............................................................................................176 Becoming A Compassionate Therapist and Educator Marion Kostanski The Power of Compassion: An Exploration of the Psychology of Compassion vii in the 21st Century Chapter Sixteen............................................................................................186 Compassion in Psychological Practice: A Reflective Discussion Eva Canning Chapter Seventeen .......................................................................................188 Compassion Fatigue and How to Avoid it Elsa Gingold Chapter Eighteen .........................................................................................195 No More Hearts and Flowers: The Retreat from Compassion in Organisational Life Suzy Nixon Contributors .................................................................................................208 A NOTE FROM THE EDITOR The Power of Compassion: An Exploration of the Psychology of Compassion in the 21st Century was the theme set for the Australian Psychological Society Victorian Branch State Conference held in Melbourne Australia in May 2005. The theme of the conference was centred on questions such as: Does compassion have a place in the human service field in the 21st century? Has compassion been usurped by economic and scientific rationalism? Is compassion the pulsing heart of the helping professions–or is it dead? Response to the calls for submission to present at the conference was overwhelming, with practitioners and students across the fields of psychology, social work, counselling, disability, welfare, education, humanitarian aid and all areas of health submitting abstracts of their work and philosophy for consideration. A rigorous process of peer review of abstracts by the co-ordinators of the conference resulted in a very successful and stimulating conference. The feedback from attendees indicated that there were many valued presentations, which should be captured and shared with a broader range of readers. Hence, our keynote speakers and other nominated presenters were invited to present a paper for review to be included in a publication of proceedings. The result is this monograph. Our keynote speakers provided a stimulating focus for the conference, with presentations seriously questioning the semantic and conceptual issue of compassion, the call for compassion in relation to those considered ‘outsiders’ to society (prisoners, refugees), Eastern philosophy and the connections of grief and loss. Our presenters followed with these themes, and, as you will note, we have a diverse and often challenging composition of papers for you to digest. I trust you enjoy reading of others’ work and their perspectives on compassion within the field of psychology. Please feel free to write to me regarding any ideas, theories or perspectives you may have, which do or do not concur with the authors presented. Best Wishes, Marion Kostanski PART I LIVING COMPASSION CHAPTER ONE COMPASSION: WHAT IS IN A WORD? PETER HOSKING SJ Compassion informs my practice as a psychologist, but I do not often reflect on what it means. Much of my work has been in the area of trauma recovery, particularly for refugees and disaster survivors. I am also a Jesuit and we have a passing interest in words and spiritual things. It is in this context that I offer these scattered reflections on the theme of compassion. The origins of the word ‘compassion’ come from the root word pati/passio (Latin) patheia (Greek) meaning to “bear/suffer,” or “passion/affection,” and the prefix cum (Latin) or sym (Greek) meaning “with” or em (Greek) meaning “into/in”. The English words “compassion” (from Latin) or “empathy” and “sympathy” (from Greek) denote fellow feeling, affinity for, and sorrow for the sufferings of another. The word compassion is defined in various but similar ways as: (a) a feeling of sorrow or pity for the pain or misfortunes of another that inclines one to help; (b) feeling deep sympathy for another’s suffering or misfortune accompanied by a desire to alleviate the pain and remove its cause; (c) the feeling of emotion when one is moved by the suffering of another and by the need to relieve it, and (d) sympathetic consciousness of another’s distress with a desire to alleviate it. Feeling and showing compassion The definition has two components: first, feeling for or with, a feeling of closeness to others (to feel compassion), coupled with a desire to help, a sense of responsibility for another’s welfare (to show compassion). The Russian poet Yevgeny Yevtushenko described an incident that shows what it is to take a compassionate stance: Stalin ordered 20,000 German soldiers to be paraded through the streets. The onlookers gazed with hatred at their enemies; they were clenching their fists. But The Power of Compassion: An Exploration of the Psychology of Compassion in the 21st Century 3 then all at once something happened to them. They saw German soldiers—thin, unshaven, wearing dirty bloodstained bandages, hobbling on crutches or leaning on the shoulders of their comrades, and walking with their heads down. Suddenly an elderly woman in broken down boots pushed herself forward. She went up to the column, took from inside her coat something wrapped in a coloured handkerchief and unfolded it. It was a crust of black bread. She pushed it awkwardly into the pocket of a soldier. Then from every side, women came running towards the soldiers pushing into their hands bread, cigarettes, whatever they had. The soldiers were no longer enemies. They were people1. There is a feeling component to compassion and a showing component. We need to keep these in balance. On the feeling continuum, if we only have a feeling of distress with another’s pain, then there is the capacity for trauma simply to spread with vicarious effects and other consequences. However, if we are so detached, self-protected, and disconnected, then we have a diminished capacity to understand and intervene. On the showing continuum, if we just show un-discerned action, then there is the possibility of ineffectiveness, of compounding problems, and issues for “rescuers” such as whose distress is being relieved? However, if we are not practically engaged and merely have a vague hope that someone should intervene without taking any effective meaningful action, then this can lead to further impotence and victimization for the person (refer to Fig. 1-1). High on ‘showing’ Compassion Practical, advocate Assertive, rescuer Not always sensitive but good for the cause Hard headed Low on ‘feeling’ Compassion Cold, detached Indolent, impotent Hides behind title/role Hardhearted, softheaded Low on ‘showing’ Compassion Astute, discerning Generous, effective Empathic atonement, compassionate Warm hearted, wise headed High on ‘feeling’ Compassion Listener, Concerned Emotional, sensitive, receptive Attaching, dependent Soft hearted Fig. 1-1: The feeling and showing components of compassion 1 Yuvteshenko, Y. A Precocious Autobiography, New York: Dutton, 1963. 4 Chapter One Compassion and the relationship There are two participants in the activity of compassion: the one in distress and the one showing compassion. Power can be an issue in any relationship. The one in distress should not be a victim of another’s compassion. A wise mentor, Pat O’Sullivan once said: “When power meets power, you have a power struggle. When vulnerability meets power, the result is alienation; but when vulnerability is met by vulnerability, the result is intimacy."2 Vulnerability brings a degree of transparent honesty and defenceless trust to the act of compassion. Ideally the one showing compassion will have qualities of feeling with the other’s distress, of a desire to alleviate it, and of a willingness to hold the other’s anguish. This preparedness to bear another’s misery brings strength, surrender, and sacrificial love to the meaning compassion. The Hebrew word raham is often translated as ‘compassion’. It comes from the word for womb. To have compassion is to feel the life of another person, in a similar way to a mother’s feeling for the child in her womb. The Greek verb splangchnizomai ‘be moved with compassion’ comes from a word referring to the abdominal organs. It means that one is moved to the very depths of one’s being. In the biblical tradition, compassion is about feeling the anguish of another and responding in order to lessen suffering and to increase blessing. Compassion is related to mercy, provision, restoration, liberation, and good fortune. It involves enhancing personal dignity and helping people find their truest freedom. There are some similar words to “compassion” such as: pity—to feel sorrow for, solidarity—to bear with or stand alongside, connection—to attach emotionally, and love—with its levels of affection, intimacy, and commitment. Compassion is very different to a word like control. The Latin word passio means “I suffer, I feel, I bear . . . an event”. It leads to words like passivity ‘I let happen’ or passion ‘letting oneself be taken by . . . love, anger etc”. Compassion has an element of “let it happen, trust, give into the hands of another”. Love and suffering are things that happen to us. They are, if you like, gifts that come to us, if we let them. Control on the other hand is not about “letting happen” but “making happen”. Control is about reason and having power over something. Consider a word like “sacrifice”. This shows such concern for another that we let even difficult things happen. Perhaps we save others to the point where we cannot help ourselves. On the other hand consider a word like “fear”, where maybe we use cognitive strategies to control hormonal activity and regulate emotional distress. Fear focuses our internal resources into finding control. But 2 O'Sullivan SJ, P. Sure Beats Selling Cardigans, p.8, Aurora:Ringwood, 1995 The Power of Compassion: An Exploration of the Psychology of Compassion in the 21st Century 5 if we leave it there, then we will spend our energy trying to save ourselves to the point where we cannot help others. Compassion for someone else often seems to be easier than compassion for oneself. This may depend on our sense of self and our ability to connect with others (refer to Figure 2). Good sense of self I matter & You don’t matter Life is about me Poor empathy, not emotionally involved Sees self as the hero Perfectionist, refuses to admit weakness Dominance & control Rigidity but may ‘act out’ Limited sense of other I don’t matter & You don’t matter Nothing matters Feels unlovable Despair, depression, isolation Addictions Sees self as a lost child Poor boundaries—perhaps rigid Poor sense of self I matter & You matter Life is about us Emotional honesty: self/others Caring, genuine, responsive to the good Interdependent & mutuality Positive peer relationships Appropriate boundaries Good connection with others You matter & I don’t matter Life is about others Fear of abandonment, enmeshed Less is better than nothing, so settles for less Submissive, ‘acts in’ I’m a victim, not in control Blurry boundaries Fig. 1-2: Sense of self and ability to connect with others Suffering and compassion A compassionate response is associated with a willingness to suffer. Suffering can simply take us into our self but it can also take us beyond the self, and so connect us with the other. It can take us beyond self-preoccupations, selfpity, and self-justifications to what unites us in solidarity, to what links humanity. Some years ago I read about one of the terrible moments in Bosnia. Michael Paul Gallagher described an incident: A number of Catholic religious sisters were raped by the Serb militia. One of them, Sr. Lucia wrote a letter to her superior expressing her torment and the painful decision to leave religious life in order to give herself fully to being a 6 Chapter One mother of the child she was now expecting as a result of the rape. She had taken vows only a year before the night when these soldiers repeatedly abused her for hours. In her letter to her superior she recalled how she had pious thoughts of offering herself as a martyr “but not like this!” Her letter described not so much the horrible event itself but rather the aftermath, her total sense of shock at finding her imagined life destroyed: My trauma is not just the humiliation I suffered as a woman, nor the unhealable wound to my religious consecration, but the difficulty with squaring what happened with my faith, of seeing it as somehow part the mysterious will of the One I considered as my divine spouse. Her letter ended with: I will go with my child, I don’t know where, but God, who so suddenly broke my joy, will show me the road. My child, born from violence, will learn only love. Together we will witness the greatest thing a human being can do is to forgive 3. How can such a dawn of hope come from such a night of despair? Yet so often that is where hope is born. Georges Bernanos, the great French writer, once wrote: “To meet Hope you must have gone beyond despair. When you go to the far end of the night, you meet another dawn."4 We are timid about bearing sorrow. Often we try to avoid the pain, which usually means being stuck in it. In an analgesic society, we tend to flee from suffering, rather than reach into it to find that which is greater than our immediate gratifications. We want to avoid distress, so we turn away from it in any way we can rather than feel it and try to understand what to do. We need to discover something about facing pain. Amongst those who struggle, we find so many examples of the resilience of the human spirit. The Austrian existential therapist, Viktor Frankl wrote: We who lived in concentration camps can remember the people who walked through the huts comforting others, giving away their last piece of bread. They may have been few in number, but they offer sufficient proof that everything can be taken from a person except one thing: the last of human freedoms—to choose one’s attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose one’s own way5. This link between compassion and suffering is highlighted in the writings of many familiar with desperation. Consider, for example, those who wrote about the Jewish Shoah (Etty Hillesum, Elie Wiesel), or the difficult times in the 3 Gallagher SJ; MP. “The far end of the night", in The Messenger: a publication of the Irish Jesuits, 1996. 4 Cited in Michael Paul Gallagher “The far end of the night", The Messenger, 1996. 5 Frankl, V. Man’s Search for Meaning, p. 86, Simon and Shuster, 1997 (first published 1948). The Power of Compassion: An Exploration of the Psychology of Compassion in the 21st Century 7 Soviet Union and communist Europe (Anna Akhmatova, Arthur Koestler), or in the struggles in Latin America (Jon Sobrino, Jean Donovan, Leonardo Boff). Think about the stories of Cambodia and the Killing Fields, or Japan and the nuclear attacks. Reflect on the liberation struggles of Burma (Ang Sang Suu Kyi), South Africa (Nelson Mandela), Tibet (the Dalai Lama), and India (Mahatma Gandhi). Appreciate the stories of Brian Keenan in Lebanon, Sheila Cassidy in Chile and others. Consider also the writings of Dorothy Day (Catholic Worker), Dan Berrigan (civil disobedience), and Jean Vanier (L’Arche communities). They find redemption in awkward situations. It is not so much the events themselves but what we make of them that matters. How we respond to the reality gives rise to the heroism within all of us (refer to Figure 3). Hope Engagement P o s it iv e E ven t Process Impact Detachment Negative Protest Despair Fig.1-3: How we respond to choices Discernment and compassion Compassion is not an absolute. The one we seek to support is not just the person in front of us, and seldom just their emotional needs in the here and now. 8 Chapter One We always need to take further perspectives. Otherwise we risk the problems associated with subjectivity and urgency. There are traps of colluding with secrets, assuaging guilt, and violating boundaries. Those who are hurt can be damaged and their ways of relieving distress are not always fine. We can settle for the line of least resistance rather than creating new options, and challenging potential. We can hide behind simplistic notions of charity rather than acting for structural change. We need to assess why the person is distressed, which of their claims are justified, and what changes can be achieved. Compassion is not just a feeling—it needs to be discerned rationally. Discernment encourages us to listen carefully to what a person communicates. Listening takes place at many levels. First listen to the person. I need to work at understanding their cognitions (the way they construct reality and use their mind), their affect (what touches them emotionally and moves their passions), and their narrative (the significant moments and patterns in their experience). Second listen to myself. I need to understand my desires, attachments, prejudices, and areas of un-freedom, as well as countertransferences and the effects of vicarious trauma. Third listen to the context. This can be about social analysis, the various forces that operate to distribute benefits and burdens in a society, and the factors that allow or deny access and equity. It may be about appreciating the influence of popular culture. It can be about knowing the guidelines for professional behaviour, codes of conduct, statutory obligations, risk management and the like. Fourth listen to the magis (Latin ‘the better way, acting for the greater good’). This is about looking deeper into the values of integrity, ethical norms and virtues of justice. This is stage 5 and 6 in Lawrence Kohlberg’s moral developmental stages6 or stage 5 in the constructive developmental work of Robert Kegan.7 Compassion requires us to listen to the story of another with a willingness to allow ourself to be affected. Discernment invites us to feel the movements of the spirit as we listen, and to discern what is from the good spirit and what comes from elsewhere. In this we seek to comprehend from the other’s point of view what is happening in their life. We try to understand from a broader point of view what could be better. We wonder about what good may be possible for them to do from their point of view and from a broader point of view. Concurrently, we reflect on their effect on us in terms of the parallel processes that operate, and try to understand what this may mean in their other relationships. 6 Crain WC. Theories of Development, p 118-136, Prentice-Hall, 1985. Kegan, R. The Evolving Self: Problem and process in human development, Harvard Uni Press: Cambridge, 1982. 7 The Power of Compassion: An Exploration of the Psychology of Compassion in the 21st Century 9 Discernment leads to action that brings change for the better. We look at questions such as: What needs to be changed in the person’s attitudes and behaviour in the situation causing harm, etc? How can we intervene with the person’s coping and recovery (psychological), and with the broader context (advocacy, social awareness and policy change)? What is morally appropriate in terms of professional standards, ethical behaviour, consideration for another’s, or the community’s, interests? Discernment, decision and action revolve in a circle of planning, action, and evaluation where intention, acts and consequences all matter. Political leadership and compassion Compassion can be a social artefact and it can lose currency in a more selfish society. Consider the term “compassion fatigue”. It may be that the number of people who foster compassion in themselves and others is diminishing. It may be that we are overwhelmed by so many variations of emotional stimuli that we constrict reality to what we can absorb. Mostly, we just have difficulties with distressing things. There is a pendulum about social issues. Consider the political leadership that fostered welcoming attitudes to refugees in Australia in the early 1980s compared to that in the 1990s and beyond. Think about the courageous social policy initiatives concerning indigenous issues in the early 1990s compared with that in the early 2000s. There may also be a territory effect to social compassion, such that the degree of compassion is related to the distance from the person affected. Compare the sympathy for newborns with HIV in Africa, with attitudes to intravenous drug users with blood born viruses in Melbourne. Political leadership can undermine the community’s sense of compassion and the value we place on it. There are many stories where our political leaders have been found wanting in recent years, especially in the area of welcoming others and being a more inclusive society. One example is the SIEV X. The “Suspected Illegal Entry Vessel” (X = “unknown”) was an overcrowded Indonesian fishing boat with Iraqi and Afghani asylum seekers en route to Australia’s Christmas Island. It sank on October 19, 2001 with the loss of 353 lives (146 children, 142 women and 65 men). Some 20 hours later an Indonesian fishing boat found the survivors. One of the 44 survivors commented “. . . wherever you looked you saw the dead children like birds floating on the water…”8 About seven weeks earlier a Norwegian freighter had rescued 433 asylum seekers from a sinking Indonesian ferry in the Indian Ocean and headed 8 www.sievx.com 10 Chapter One to the nearest port, which was in Australian waters. The Australian Prime Minister had refused to allow them to land, and his political party went even further and turned their lack of compassion into an election banner: “We decide who can enter our country”. Language is important here as it so easily makes a human person into “the other”. Consider how people who flee their country of origin and seek protection in another country can be called desperate people in necessitous circumstances, those fleeing privation and persecution, refugees, asylum seekers, right through to unlawful entrants, illegal immigrants, and queue jumpers, people traffickers, and even terrorists. Language can include or exclude. “We” can be ungenerous (not you), or it can be hospitable (all of us). “We” decide who can enter our country is a mean “we”. Our compassion antennae can be jammed by manipulative language like this. It interferes with the magnetic point of the moral compass. Compassion invites us to value everyone’s story—to listen to the other because we are all “others”. If the story is struggle, then it is the lived experience for all. It is an essential story, about a person of intrinsic worth, with ultimate human dignity. Some narratives may have greater impact (positive or negative) but none are less deserving of compassion; all are vital to the whole. The Tibetan Buddhist Pema Chodron provides a clear perspective when she writes: When you begin to touch your heart or let your heart be touched, you begin to discover that it is bottomless, that it doesn’t have any resolution, that this heart is huge, vast, and limitless. You begin to discover how much warmth and gentleness is there, as well as how much space9. Traumatic experiences and compassion Compassion comes from being able to see beyond or through a person’s behaviour. This is not excusing, rationalising or minimising bad behaviour but it is to perceive the person in all her or his dignity, destiny and sacredness. It is to understand the hurt and pain that drives some of their behaviour. It is to observe more than simply the effects of the traumatic experience. It is to see beyond the anxiety, anger, and inadequacy to notice the person struggling to find their place. Compassion comes through our ability to distinguish our own pain, suffering, fears and insecurities reflected in the eyes of another human being. Many can be compassionate to a person in grief, but less tolerant to people who express their trauma sequelae through rage and manipulation. Being able to witness the true person beneath the hurt, pain, anger, the fury of distress, dissociate alters, 9 Attributed to Pema Chodron. I regret that I am not able to provide the original source. The Power of Compassion: An Exploration of the Psychology of Compassion in the 21st Century 11 inappropriate attention seeking, substance misuse, self-harm, sexual acting out, and some of the enduring personality disorder traits is a challenge for even the most sensitive and astute therapist. Traumatic experiences change people’s confidence in themselves and the world. The dynamics of trauma occur at several levels. A compassionate response requires us to understand what happens at these levels. Trauma is usually a response to the perpetration of an act. There is a remarkable similarity in the function of torture in a society, the horror of the methods, and the ways people are co-opted and coerced. Trauma has psychophysical effects on an individual in terms of the relationship between hormones, neural pathways, emotions, memory, and behaviour. People process the experience according to how the event impacts on them, how they interpret its significance, how they comprehend their reactions, and how they cope with their responses. Trauma sequelae involve a range of emotions—such as fear and anxiety, grief and loss, anger and rage, guilt and shame, shattering of assumptions, and changed relationships. Each has distinct recovery paths. Recovery is influenced by external supports and personal strengths. Resilience is enhanced by protective factors and undermined by risk factors. The external supports are critical and a compassionate response is an essential protective factor and important ingredient in recovery. Survivors of horrible events can have a range of reactions. Often they behave as a victim when they are fearful, anxious about making decisions, and ineffective, saying “I’m scared this may happen again”. Sometimes they will operate as a rescuer where they may be guilty, protective, and overwork to fix things for others, saying “I will save you from having to go through what happened to me”. Occasionally they will act like a perpetrator when they are angry, controlling, and bullying, saying “I’m not going to let it get out of control again”. For those who work with survivors, there is a myriad of transference and counter-transference issues. Transference can be a complex dynamic when a needy person engages in testing behaviours, attaches too intensely, and gets angry so often. The patterns of counter-transference, re-traumatization, and vicarious trauma affect our ability to be compassionate. Even seasoned workers can move to over-involvement (e.g. crusader, rescuer, etc) or under-involvement (cynical, efficiency rather than listening, etc). Compassion and forgiveness Compassion comes before forgiveness. If one cannot feel compassion for the person who has wronged us, it limits our capacity to heal. In order to heal one has to allow oneself to open up to the pain and surrender, to be with the vulnerability and powerlessness, and to really feel it and face it. One of the 12 Chapter One early theologians of the Christian church, possibly Augustine of Hippo, apparently said “Forgiveness has two lovely daughters: compassion and justice”. To forgive truly we need to act justly—to name the truth and not minimise its harm. Moreover, we must do so with compassion—with genuine feeling for all involved and a desire for reconciliation. Justice without reconciliation is vengeance. Vengeance too often just continues a cycle of violence. This is a concern with some of the aberrant behaviour of the counter-terrorists today. However, reconciliation without justice is amnesia (without memory). This is simply forgetting, not forgiveness, nor resolution. In recent years, I have had an opportunity to follow the truth and reconciliation commission in East Timor. 10 In post-conflict situations, the shared recovery of historical memory is a step towards rebuilding trust and restoring relationships. The taunt of the torturer is ‘no one will know, no one will care,’ so for others to understand and be concerned is an important step in healing. Naming the reality of the human rights violations assists the recovery of socio-historical memory—what happened here to us? This supports the community to understand the effects of those violations at a socio-cultural level—how has it affected and changed us? It names the crimes and perpetrators so that the abuse and violence do not happen again. It can assist the psychosocial healing of survivors. It helps honour the victims so their sacrifice was not in vain. This is a powerful experience for those who endured wanton cruelty. This seems to be a compassionate endeavour. Finally, there is a book by Chris Lowney on Jesuit organizational methods called “Heroic Leadership: Best practices from a 450-year-old company” 11 . Lowney says something about the qualities of compassion when he highlights four elements. First self-awareness: understanding your strengths, weaknesses, values, and worldview. Second ingenuity: being able to confidently innovate and adapt to a changing world. Third love: relating with others with a positive attitude that unlocks their potential. Finally heroism: being able to energize others and ourselves with courageous ambitions and a passion for excellence. An earlier writer on Jesuit spirituality, Jerome Nadal wrote12 in the 16th century that the path of Ignatius (the founder of the Jesuits) had three essentials: “to act in the spirit, from the heart, and practically”. To act in the Spirit suggests that the starting point is to listen to and call on God’s Spirit, the spirit of good news. 10 Chega: Final Report of the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) available at www.etan.org/news/2006/cavr.htm 11 Lowney, C. Heroic Leadership: Best practices from a 450-year-old company that changed the world, p. 27-35, Loyola: Chicago 2003. 12 Cited in O’Malley SJ, J. The First Jesuits, p. 251, Harvard Uni Press: Cambridge, 1993. The Power of Compassion: An Exploration of the Psychology of Compassion in the 21st Century 13 To give from the heart is to allow ourselves to be moved emotionally, sometimes by feelings of dejection and at other times, joy. It involves feeling and testing our deepest longings and desires. To choose a practical path is to be realistic and constructive in pursuing the truest call, and in living out what it reveals. CHAPTER TWO MOBILISING COMPASSION AS CATALYST FOR SOCIAL ACTION: AUSTRALIAN PSYCHOLOGISTS' RESPONSES TO ASYLUM SEEKERS EMMA SAMPSON, LYN BENDER, CATHERINE D'ARCY AND HEATHER GRIDLEY Isaac Prilleltensky's position on compassion is that it leads us to operate primarily at the individual level, without encouraging communal and political responses to issues (where broader social change really occurs) (Nelson & Prilleltensky, 2005). Yet the current responses of many psychologists to refugee and asylum seeker issues in Australia seem to indicate that compassion can be a very important element for people in motivating and sustaining their activism and drive towards social and political change, particularly when connected to a perception of injustices. This chapter draws on case examples of three psychologists involved in different areas of response to these policies in Australia: as researcher, practitioner and citizen. These examples lead into a discussion of broader questions about psychology, compassion, and social action, and some recommendations for individual and collective responses to social justice issues. Psychology, social responsibility and social action There has been an ongoing debate within psychology, particularly since the 1960s, about psychologists’ involvement in social issues (Cooke, 2000). There is a traditional tendency for psychologists to shy away from taking an active role in social issues, arguing that as an empirical science, psychology is not in a position to answer moral questions and cannot support social policies because of The Power of Compassion: An Exploration of the Psychology of Compassion in the 21st Century 15 their presumed value base (e.g., Kendler, 1993; Pellegrin & Frueh, 1994). Yet there is an increasing acknowledgement that a value-free science is not possible nor desirable (e.g., Howard, 1985; Prilleltensky, 1994) and that therefore, psychological science cannot be value-free, but is a conscious political endeavour with the goal of social transformation (e.g., Brabeck, 2000; Mulvey, 1988; Rappaport, 1984). Theorists such as Prilleltensky (1994) have drawn attention to the social and political embeddedness of psychological knowledge, and have suggested that values are inherent in all psychological research; arguing that denial of a political position in itself represents one that upholds the status quo. At the very least, psychology should not cause harm. In attempting to be values-neutral, there is a danger that we might contribute to discrimination against individuals and groups (Davidson, 1998). As a profession concerned with human welfare, psychology is in a unique position to incorporate a commitment to social responsibility. While many theorists accept that psychology can encompass social responsibility, there is no uniform agreement around the type of action or responsibility considered appropriate and/or relevant. Some believe psychologists should use existing psychological knowledge and techniques. Others believe psychologists need to be informed by explicit values and to adopt more active roles as advocates or activists. Cooke (2000) notes that the tension between Australian psychologists’ desire to contribute to social issues and their concern to preserve “scientific objectivity” has seen them become “commentators on social change, but not prominent members of social movements” (p.178). A current social and political issue that highlights questions for psychologists in relation to compassion and social responsibility is the impact of policies of deterrence towards those seeking asylum in Australia. This is the example that is now considered. Policy Context: Refugees and Policies of Deterrence The shift in Australian refugee policy towards deterrence can be traced back to the early 1990s when the then Federal Labour government introduced legislation that involved the compulsory detention of asylum seekers. Immigration detention centres were established around the country, particularly in remote locations such as Port Headland (Western Australia), Curtin (Western Australia) and Woomera (South Australia). This move was almost unprecedented in the western world and, despite these measures breaching numerous United Nations conventions on refugees, polls indicated that there was strong community support for the policy (Marr & Wilkinson, 2003). 16 Chapter Two In the late 1990s, a series of political and legislative changes was introduced that aimed to further deter refugees from seeking asylum in Australia. These policy and legislative changes included a new form of Temporary Protection Visa (TPV) for all “unauthorised arrivals” that no longer guaranteed permanent protection, as well as the provision of bridging visas, the conditions of which often restricted the right to work, to public health cover or to any welfare payments. Additionally, Christmas Island and Ashmore Reef were excised form the Australian migration zone, and “processing centres” were established in Nauru and Papua New Guinea. This was part of what is referred to as the “Pacific solution”, which in effect means that asylum seekers have little recourse to the safeguards and appeal processes of the Australian courts (Marr & Wilkinson, 2003). Psychology’s responses to policies of deterrence Responses to policies of deterrence from within Psychology have typically been framed within existing psychological discourses where psychologists provide individual assessment, diagnosis, treatment and research to draw attention to the trauma experienced by refugees. For example, psychological research has tended to highlight high rates of depression, trauma, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among asylum seekers, which are exacerbated by detention (Silove, 2002; Marston, 2003). The Australian Psychological Society (APS) has responded in a number of ways, producing media releases and fact sheets, establishing a working group to raise public awareness, and perhaps the most influential, making a submission to the National Inquiry into Children in Immigration Detention13 (APS, 2002c). In the submission, they argued against immigration detention “on the grounds that it is not commensurate with psychological best practice concerning children’s development and mental health and wellbeing” (p.1). Similarly, the APS Women and Psychology Interest group (2002a) produced a statement that not only referred to the inappropriate and damaging nature of detention, but also expressed concern over the type of language used by the Government and in the media (e.g., references to refugees as “illegals” and “queue jumpers”). They suggested that such language perpetuates public misunderstanding and denies natural justice to those seeking asylum. 13 The Inquiry’s report was published by the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) in May 2004, entitled “A last resort? The report of the National Inquiry into Children in Immigration Detention”. The Power of Compassion: An Exploration of the Psychology of Compassion in the 21st Century 17 Critiques of traditional psychological approaches suggest that constructions of refugees in clinical terms may risk further depersonalising refugees. Pupavac (2001) contends that constructing asylum seekers and refugees as “traumatised” fails to make a proper distinction between normal psychological reactions and the appearance of a disorder. Such constructions imply that individuals and communities displaying the characteristic defense responses are deemed to be at risk and unable to recover without professional intervention. (Pupavac, 2001, p. 3) Health professionals concerned with the social welfare of refugees may then have to identify their needs in clinical categories in order to help them gain assistance (Watters, 2001). The professional or agency may feel an overwhelming sense of responsibility to act and may eschew critical analysis in favour of a pragmatism that proliferates, and adds credence, to biomedical taxonomies. (Watters, 2001, p. 1710) A more appropriate role for psychologists might be one that assumes some background knowledge of the political landscape from which refugees have fled, acknowledging that practical advice and advocacy is of itself psychologically supportive and that a recounting of traumatic experience is an option but not a necessity. (Summerfield, 2001, p. 162) While recognising the need among asylum seekers to have their stories witnessed or validated, Griffiths (2001) argues that this need not necessarily be done by a professional or clinician, but by an outsider, another person. In this chapter, three case examples are presented which explore some professional, personal and political responses to asylum seeker issues by individual psychologists. The three examples may clarify some of the issues involved in directly supporting those seeking asylum. We hope they will also inform broader questions around compassion, social responsibility, and their applications within psychology. Psychologists responding to asylum seekers Emma (Postgraduate student researcher) For those who’ve come across the seas We’ve boundless plains to share; With courage let us all combine 18 Chapter Two To Advance Australia Fair (Australian National Anthem: www.dfat.gov.au/geo/australia) I first heard about Australia’s treatment of asylum seekers while I was travelling overseas. One of the few stories about Australia that received media coverage while I was away was that of the Tampa and ‘children overboard’ affair. I remember thinking at the time why people might throw their own children overboard, and then later wondering if this was indeed what was actually happening.14 Australia’s response to the Tampa incident was equally concerning for me; I wondered why this was happening in Australia and felt embarrassed that this was how the international community saw and heard of Australia. At the same time, I recall being particularly aware of the contrast between my own privileged position and that of those seeking asylum. While I was able to travel relatively freely to countries around the world, these people were prevented from coming to Australia, despite their fear of danger and persecution. As far as I could see, they were not even given the opportunity to make their case in this country. Upon returning to Australia, I resolved to learn more about the issue and to be involved in some way. At the same time, I resumed my studies in community psychology, and completed a placement at a community agency that had emerged in response to the support needs of asylum seekers. I also began exploring related issues through my research thesis. Looking at how this important social and political issue was being addressed and framed within my own profession, psychology, I began to explore the concept of social responsibility. I was interested in identifying ways in which psychologists were active in responding to asylum seekers and to Australia’s increasingly oppressive immigration policies—which is how I was first put in contact with ‘Louise’, a psychologist who had committed herself as a citizen to supporting a group of asylum-seekers. 14 The “children overboard” claim has widely been revealed as untrue; we now know this did not happen. No child was thrown in the water (Mares, 2002). It has instead been identified as part of the 2001 Federal election campaign, where issues around border protection and asylum seekers became a defining preoccupation. (Both Mares, 2002 and Marr & Wilkinson, 2003 offer a detailed analysis of what occurred at this time.) The Power of Compassion: An Exploration of the Psychology of Compassion in the 21st Century 19 A journey with no maps: Louise’s experience This case example comes from interviews Emma carried out over a year with “Louise” as part of a Community Psychology Masters thesis. The case study situates tensions emerging from the experience of one person (Louise), a psychologist, who has responded to policies of deterrence by adopting a strong advocacy role in relation to a group of refugees seeking asylum in Australia. In early 2002, Louise first visited an Immigration Detention Centre. There she met a group of young men, all in their early to mid twenties who had been placed in detention on the day they arrived in Australia. They held no hopes of getting out into the community but were very fearful of returning home. Over the course of a few weeks and many visits, she observed them sinking deeper into despair, and began to contemplate thoughts of enabling their release. The main obstacle was the requirement of a $10,000 bond (bail) for each of them. Following much soul searching and talking with her friends’ bond money was provided, including contributions from the young men’s friends. The men were all released later that year, having been in detention for six months, but this was only the start of the story. They were released on Bridging Visas class E, the conditions being that they must not work or engage in any activity that could be deemed as work, and had no access to any form of social security, concessions on public transport or Medicare. Most of the young men are still living in Melbourne. Rent and food is paid for by a small group of supporters who pay money into a bank account for this purpose. Utilities and telephone bills are paid for by the Brigidine Sisters.15 Louise describes how she has been involved—as honorary mother, money manager, counsellor, friend and cultural interpreter. She has supported the young men to live in the Australian community, financially and psychologically, liaising with legal representatives, finding medical support and planning for their future, including travelling to a third country to explore alternative options for migration. As she identified at one point of the research, “my relationship and support to these young men takes up all of my life, like it is my life at the moment”. Louise has strongly held values about human rights and the obligation to translate these into action. She reflected that there is also something about being in her mid 60s that gives her permission and impetus to take risks, and a 15 The Brigidine Asylum Seeker Project is a locally-based project that aims to provide hospitality and practical support for asylum seekers, actively network with like-minded individuals and groups who are working for justice for asylum seekers and promote advocacy for the rights of asylum seekers. 20 Chapter Two different perspective on what matters. Of her background and reasons for undertaking this commitment, Louise says: I grew up in the 1940s with many stories of the depression and holocaust. As a child I could not understand how ordinary people could let this happen in their midst. Later as stories of the stolen generation emerged, I was shocked to realize that this had been happening when I was adult. How come I did not know/ did not recognize what was happening and take action? When stories of asylum seekers and their treatment began to emerge, I determined that I would not look back at this time regretting my inaction. In collaboration with Louise, Emma organised key themes of the case study around personal, professional and political “acts” or dimensions. A personal act Louise has responded as a citizen and human being rather than as a psychologist, taking personal responsibility for an unjust situation, making close personal connections across differences and sharing personal journeys. This personal involvement with a group of young men shows human faces and reflects personal stories about people in the context of their daily lives, lives which are being lived within extraordinarily difficult circumstances, circumstances which leave them little hope for the future. Louise has played a holistic role in the lives of these young men, resulting in close personal connections that have been a rewarding learning experience. Louise’s experiences also draw attention to the challenges, struggles and impacts of being so personally involved in supporting refugees, where her close connections and holistic role have come with personal costs—financial, emotional, physical, and in respect to other friendships. This is echoed by Mansouri and Bagdas (2002) who state that: …it is clearly frustrating that people with such a commitment to address the plight of refugees are left unsupported, isolated and incurring enormous financial and emotional costs. (p.67) A professional act Louise identified both harmful and helpful aspects of the psychology profession that contributed to her experience. For example, her thirty years of counselling people in situations where there is little hope provided her with some idea about how to relate with the young men. However, she was critical of psychological discourses that speak about refugees solely in clinical terms as being traumatised or damaged. Louise’s experiences have implications for The Power of Compassion: An Exploration of the Psychology of Compassion in the 21st Century 21 psychologists engaging in social action, and point to the necessity of being knowledgeable about not only psychological issues, but also cultural, social and political ones. A political act While personal and professional aspects of Louise’s experiences have been identified as important, her experiences reflect an inherently political response to policies of deterrence. While Louise intended her response to be political, she had concerns about “whether in taking such individual action I was not being sufficiently political”. Because her actions, for the most part, are relatively private and individual (i.e., she is not connected to any organisation or collective), they may not appear to be highly visible or overtly political. Through the course of the interviews however, Louise reframed her experiences as political as well as personal actions. Louise’s dilemma about whether her actions are “sufficiently political” echoes the predicaments of those seeking to connect social responsibility with social injustice, where it is asked “are we are doing enough to work towards change at a broader structural level…?” As articulated by the APS Women and Psychology Interest Group (APS, 2002a), the most appropriate response is to remove the cause of despair. In this instance it must include considering what changes can be made to the process of how asylum seekers are assessed for residence in Australia. (p. 3) On compassion… Louise did not explicitly identify compassion as a significant concept in relation to her response and experience. When questioned about how compassion is important to what she has done however, Louise made links back to her values and drew attention to the tendency for compassion to be applied (conditionally) when considering refugees and policies of deterrence. …I have been open to a human connection, and while compassion has been part of it, it does have a sense of doing well for someone in a lesser circumstance. This has been forced to a degree by the enormous power differences that exist within the situation…but I have held to the principle that these people are equal and have connected with each of them individually, creating links beyond these differences… …as this period in our history is documented, we will look back at this time as an expression of human values. Some have shown that compassion is a value shown to all humans, equally. Others however, see compassion differently when it is in relation to refugees coming in leaky boats, and in some case drowning, and when we perhaps don’t like the places where some of these people have come from…. 22 Chapter Two Reflections and implications Louise’s experiences demonstrate that our personal experiences cannot be separated from our professional roles as psychologists, and that psychologists’ responses to social issues are inherently political endeavours. The study’s findings point to the importance for future involvement in social issues, whether as citizens or as psychologists, of attending to the needs and aspirations as identified by those whom we aim to support (in this case, refugees). This may mean that the type of action required is practical, social, legal or economic, rather than or in addition to psychological in nature. The research also contributes to understanding psychological responses to policies of deterrence, by rejecting clinical categories that totalise refugees as (no more than) traumatised, in favour of representing the human faces and lives of refugees affected by government policies. The study also documents the holistic role of those who support refugees in the context of such policies, identifying both significant rewards and challenges for those involved. The Woomera Experience: Lyn I answered an advertisement in the Melbourne Age for psychologists to work in ‘Remote Detention Centres’. I was asked to send my résumé. Within a week, I was heading for South Australia and the notorious high security Woomera Detention Centre. I was contracted to work for six weeks from mid March to early April 2002. This is my story, but it is also the story of many others. Most importantly, it is the story of men, women and children who have been and remain incarcerated. Some are now resident under temporary protection. Under this category of “humanity” they are subject to the tyranny of the anxiety of the possibility of forced repatriation to unstable Afghanistan or Iran or Iraq or Palestine. They suffer the despair of forbidden family reunion and the denial of full human rights. I am choosing not to speak on a diagnostic level and not to pathologise these people. Daily acts of self-harm were enacted, and many detainees were suffering extreme mental ill health, including severe depression and traumatic stress. I wish to focus on the traumatising environment of the detention centre. Many of the detainees were suffering previous trauma. The boat journey alone had often been terrifying and life threatening. This makes the case for a welcoming sensitive reception in Australia. Instead the detainees saw Woomera as even worse than the abuse that they had fled. The uncertainty of the future, lack of control to influence outcomes, lack of accurate information and perceived inconsistency created psychological torment. Parents had little control