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 Students First Simple Writing Tips 2008‐2009 Oakland University Table of Contents
Active and Passive Voice…………………………………………………..1
Awkward Language………………………………………………………..2
Bias Free Language………………………………………………………...3
Clarity……………………………………………………………………….5
Sentence Variety……………………………………………………………6
Apostrophes………………………………………………………………...8
Brackets……………………………………………………………………10
Clauses……………………………………………………………………..11
Colons………………………………………………………………………12
Conjunctions……………………………………………………………….14
Commas……………………………………………………………………..16
Commonly Confused Words………………………………………………19
Dashes……………………………………………………………………….22
Ellipses Points………………………………………………………………23
Fragments…………………………………………………………………..24
Hyphens…………………………………………………………………….25
Modifiers……………………………………………………………………28
Number Usage………………………………………………………………29
Parentheses………………………………………………………………….32
Pronouns…………………………………………………………………….33
Quotation Marks……………………………………………………………37
Run-On Sentences…………………………………………………………..39
Semicolons…………………………………………………………………...40
Spelling………………………………………………………………………42
Subject-Verb Agreement…………………………………………………….49
Verbs…………………………………………………………………………..52
Who vs. Whom………………………………………………………………..55
Redundancy…………………………………………………………………..58
Topic Sentence…..............................................................................................59
Transitions……………………………………………………………………60
Active and Passive Voice
Definition: Good writers prefer active voice because it is more direct than passive. Active voice means the subject
of the sentence is performing the action; while in the passive voice, the subject is being acted upon.
Active voice: The candidate [subject] crisscrossed the state, shaking hands and kissing babies.
Passive voice: The state was crisscrossed by the candidate, shaking hands and kissing babies [The true subject of
this sentence, the candidate, is receiving the action about crisscrossing the state].
Still, passive voice is important. Academic journals are models for students’ reports and research papers so edit your
writing accordingly. Writers in formal, nonacademic publications (e.g., Harvard Business Review) use passive voice
even less often. Since formal, nonacademic publications are models for students’ essays and personal perspective
papers, your papers should contain as little passive voice as possible.
When to use passive voice?
Passive voice is useful when the doer of the action is considerably less important than the action—or for a change of
pace. Just be careful not to use passive in more than several clauses consecutively. The example below is an
example of a good passive voice sentence because the action of the verb is emphasized about the research.
The subsequent research was improved by randomizing.
The following paragraph, on the other hand, contains too much passive voice and leads to awkward and less concise
language (the passive verbs are underlined).
The subsequent research was improved by randomizing. The new subjects were assigned to a control or treatment
group, and the process was monitored by a researcher who had been hired by a neutral committee and who had been
awarded a master’s degree in 2002.
The table below is an example summary of active and passive voice of the verb to see:
Tense
Active Voice
Passive Voice
Past Perfect
Had seen (I had seen it)
Had been seen (it had been seen)
Past
Saw (I saw it)
Was seen (it was seen)
Present perfect
Have seen (I have seen it)
Has been seen (it has been seen)
Present
See (I see it)
Is seen (it is seen)
Future perfect
Will have seen (I will have seen it)
Will have been seen (it will have been seen)
Future
Will see (I will see it)
Will be seen (it will be seen)
Awkward Language
Problem Definition: Awkward writing is like a leaky faucet—it is inefficient and a little aggravating. It
communicates somewhat but is ungrammatical or unclear. Awkward writing is difficult to describe because the
possibilities for awkwardness are unlimited. Use the following rules to correct awkward language.
Rule 1
Some sentences simply need a word added or deleted:
Awkward: In the preoperational stage has been divided into two subcategories.
Solution: Delete the In to make a stronger sentence:
The preoperational stage has been divided into two subcategories.
Rule 2
Some sentences need different words:
Awkward: Both programs coincide with each other, but we are funded from different sources.
Solution: Delete with (unnecessary word) and replace the conjunction but with another to make a dependent clause.
In addition, the word Both is repetitive and should be replaced with the article The.
The programs duplicate each other and are funded from different sources.
Rule 3
Some sentences are not quite accurate:
Awkward: Tuition Plan and Pension Plans are a few benefits that are offered for career opportunity.
Solution: Add a few words to make the statement entirely accurate.
The tuition-reimbursement plan enhances employee skills or prepares employees for another career; the pension
plan helps to provide retirement income.
Rule 4
Some sentences need to be shortened:
Awkward: With the mass amount of communication via the Internet and other technological sources, criminal
justice officials can try to intercept possible terrorists’ information so that they can figure out whether or not these
particular individuals could be a threat to our society.
Solution: Eliminate some of the dependant clauses so the meaning of the sentence is not lost.
Criminal justice officials can use the Internet and wiretaps to try to intercept terrorists.
Avoiding Awkward Language
While no hard-and-fast rules exist for fixing awkward writing, the first step is recognizing it. Here are some rules to
follow:
Rule 1
Read your paper aloud slowly. If it doesn’t sound quite right to you, it will not sound right to others.
Rule 2
Stop working on your paper for a few minutes—or longer—to clear your mind. Come back to the paper and read it
aloud slowly; you’ll see errors that you didn’t see before.
Rule 3
Ask someone else to read your paper and underline any phrases that seem awkward.
Once you spot an awkward passage, rewrite it. Often you need to change only a word or two. However, if you get
stuck, do not be afraid to change an entire sentence. Notice the extent of the revisions in the sentences below:
•
•
•
•
Original: One of Marx’s contributions theory influences a number of social theories and other
philosophers.
Improved version: Marx’s theories have influenced other social theorists and philosophers.
Original: The view from the top is the mountains that surround Los Angeles all the way to the ocean.
Improved version: From the top of the mountains, one can see all the way to the ocean.
Bias-Free Language
Definition: Biased language is writing that favors one particular group, instead of remaining neutral. When referring
to people in general, your writing must be free of any biased inclinations.
Consider this puzzle: Driving down a dark road, a son and a father are involved in a car accident. The paramedics
take the son to a nearby hospital and call the doctor. The doctor looks at the boy and says, "I cannot operate on him
because he is my son." How is this possible?
If you are stumped, perhaps you have some gender bias. The answer is that the doctor is the boy’s mother. Many of
us are accustomed to thinking of doctors as males even though in 2006, 49% of med school grads were women.
(http://www.aamc.org/data/aib/aibissues/aibvol6_no7.pdf)
Like humans, language tends to carry biases. APA writing needs to be objective and scientific: neither gender should
be preferred. Historically, writing has reflected a bias toward males: chairman and mailman. Pronouns were also
biased toward males: the author – he, the scientist – he, the worker – he. Now, writers are more careful. They use
chair or chairperson instead of chairman, letter carrier instead of mailman, and humankind instead of
mankind. Here are some other suggestions for removing bias.
With Bias
Without Bias
Layman
Layperson
Forefather
Forebear, ancestor
Spokesman
Spokesperson
Policeman
Police officer
Manpower
Workforce, personnel
Salesman, saleslady
Salesperson
Housewife
Homemaker
When writers use pronouns to refer to nouns that are not inherently male or female, they should use gender-free
pronouns.
Consider this sentence: A good elementary school teacher gives her students with learning disabilities extra time to
take tests.
This sentence stereotypes elementary school teachers as women. A better choice is to recast the sentence in a way
that promotes no bias.
Efforts to avoid bias have produced an odd phrase: his or her. Notice the use of his or her in the following
sentence, which is technically correct.
A good elementary school teacher gives his or her students with learning disabilities extra time to take tests.
Teacher is singular so you cannot write; A good elementary school teacher gives their students with learning
disabilities extra time for tests. Granted, it might be acceptable in spoken English, but written, formal English
requires agreement between A teacher[singular] and their [plural]. His or her is correct, but it’s awkward. The
problem becomes worse if the author uses his or her several times in the same paragraph, as here:
Everyone placed his or her effects on the table for the customs officials to search. Since the airport was on red alert,
each traveler was required to open his or her suitcases and rummage through his or her belongings, including his or
her intimate clothing, while the agents watched.
Here are some rules to solve biased language in the above paragraph and in future writings.
Rule 1
Change the singular subject to a plural subject.
Example: The travelers placed their effects on the table.
Rule 2
Use second person instead of third person.
Example: Please show your identification to receive the student discount.
Rule 3
Drop the possessive pronoun.
Example: Everyone must show [eliminated possessive pronoun] identification to receive the student discount.
Rule 4
Consider leaving his or her as is. Scientific objectivity may be more important than an awkward passage.
Clarity
Definition: Clarity refers to writing directly, so that the intended audience easily understands your meaning.
Suppose you’ve provided a teammate directions to your office in downtown Cleveland. The listener repeats each
step, and you realize that you said “turn left” one time when you meant “turn right.” Thanks to feedback from the
listener, you avoid a frustrating experience. When writing, however, feedback is missing. Clarity becomes much
more troublesome. Even professionals struggle to make sure their writing is clear. It is a never-ending concern.
Consider the following sentences from college students’ papers. Can you see the need for clarity?
Unclear Example: Income in the late 1800’s and mid-1900’s was scarce and paid nothing.
Unclear Example: The evidence indicates that the police had Arnold under surveillance at the time of the crime.
The police could have questioned Arnold Sedge’s guilt over the last 20 years that it was withheld.
Unclear Example: I’ve worked at the same job for the past 10 years and find it quite comfortable. I began in the
mail room and have been the office manager now for the past four years. I have come to believe it is only so because
my awareness had diminished slowly.
Since you’re reading these for the first time, it’s likely that the problems stand out. If so, you’ve just learned one of
the best rules for enhancing clarity. Here are some others.
Rule 1
Once you’ve written a draft, set your writing aside so that it becomes “cold.” Becoming cold takes at least a few
minutes; a few hours or overnight is even better. When you come back, you may see gaps in the clarity. Edit your
work, and then repeat this step as often as necessary to produce a coherent paper.
Rule 2
Ask a couple of people to read your work and point out where it could be improved. Some people are reluctant to be
critical; ask them to simply put an “x” where it could be improved.
Rule 3
Read articles from the library. Try to get a feel for clarity. Knowing what clarity looks and sounds like will help you
write that way. Both formal, nonacademic writing and journal articles are helpful. Publications like the Harvard
Business Review and Newsweek contain formal, nonacademic writing. And a great number of academic journals are
available. APA format is used by many journals—but not all. To be sure you find a journal edited according to APA
format, access a library’s article databases, such as PsycARTICLES.
Rule 4
Consider conducting more research. Often the actual culprit is lack of research. No amount of raw talent can
compensate for lack of research. Let’s look at some examples:
Unclear Example: When open communication is achieved, then every team member can benefit by all the
knowledge shared. The sharing of knowledge is thus important to the success of the team. Each team member needs
to participate and feel a part of the team.
The problem here is partly clarity. But the more fundamental problem is that the author just doesn’t have enough to
say. There are no specifics. The solution is more research. Here is how the excerpt might read after research has
bolstered the generalizations:
Example of Clarity: Open communication fosters trust. Smith (2003) noted that 78% of teams felt trust when
leaders spent just 3 minutes sharing details of a previous team experience, and Harwood (2000) added that leaders
need to use details that others can relate to; sports examples may actually be useless to those who do not relate.
Here’s one more example:
Unclear Example: The leader must make sure that everything is planned out and must make room for more time if
needed. The plan is critical to the success of the mission. Even a small gap or error early on can make a big
difference in the course of the project. So the planning and time factors are essential for long-term accomplishment
of mission objectives.
The problem is too many generalizations and too few specifics. Here is one way to fix the problem:
Example of Clarity: Planning is vital: A famous Oregon architect once overlooked bathrooms when designing the
south wing of a 40,000-person stadium. The omission was not discovered until three months before completion (A
worker became suspicious when he had to walk nearly 50 yards to find a bathroom!) The cost? Blair (1989) claims
the cost of the poor planning was 1,500 times what it would have cost had the bathrooms been planned up front.
Sentence Variety
Definition: Sentence variety refers to altering the sentence structure and wording. Using a variety of sentences in
your writing will help maintain the attention of your audience. The following rules are ways to vary sentences in
your papers.
Rule 1
Vary sentence length. Many students tend to think that long sentences are more important; however, short sentences
lend emphasis.
Short Sentence: At 7 p.m. on Tuesday, the President declared war.
Long sentence: The President went before the American people today and solemnly, but forcefully, declared war as
commander in chief of the United States’ armed forces.
Rule 2
Vary the type of sentence: simple, compound, complex, compound/complex. Use longer, more complicated
sentences to show relationships between clauses.
Simple sentence example: The HR manager read the resume.
Compound sentence Example: He read the resume, and then he forwarded it to the unit manager.
Complex sentence example: After he read the resume, he forwarded it to the unit manager.
Compound/complex sentence example: He read the resume, and he forwarded it although he found the applicant
unqualified.
Rule 3
Add helpful transitions. Below is a chart of transitions and what they define.
Definition
Transition
Time
already, later, eventually
Sequence
first, second, last, then
Contrast
on the other hand, but, though, despite
Examples
namely, specifically, including
Cause and effect
therefore, so, as a result
Conditions
if, whether, provided
Rule 4
Add an introductory phrase. See the Introductory Phrases material in the Writing Style section.
Careful!
Do not vary sentence length and structure just for the sake of it. It is important that your writing flows. The best way
to grasp the idea of sentence variety is to read a variety of articles and journals from the university library. As you
read, look for the rules to see how the authors incorporate sentence variety into the flow of the article.
Apostrophes
Definition: An apostrophe indicates possession. In addition, apostrophes are used to replace missing letters or
numbers and to prevent misreading of confusing words.
Rule 1
To form the possessive case of most singular nouns, add an apostrophe and an -s, such as "the soldier’s knapsack."
Rule 2
When singular nouns end in -s or -es, add an apostrophe to the end of the word, such as "the boss’s anger."
Rule 3
Add an apostrophe and an -s to show the possessive case of plural nouns that do not end in -s or -es, such as “the
children's toys."
Rule 4
To show the possessive case of plural nouns ending in -s or -es, add only an apostrophe, such as "the boys’ clothes."
Uses of the Apostrophe
A possessive noun
Greg’s house = the house of Greg
A missing letter (contraction) or number
can’t = cannot
class of ’99 = class of 1999
A symbol for feet in measurement
3’ x 11"
2’ x 2’
Words that would be confusing without the use of an apostrophe
in’s and out’s
crossing the i’s and dotting the t’s
The plural form of letters and abbreviations if the context is unclear
three D’s
purple p.j.’s
Amounts, time, and the word sake
one week’s pay
two dollars’ worth
for Pete’s sake
Tips for Using an Apostrophe with Possessive Nouns
Add an apostrophe –s to form the possessive case of most singular nouns. For plural nouns, first make the word
plural and add the apostrophe to make it possessive.
Correct
Incorrect
Correct
Incorrect
Bill’s house is small. (Singular possessive)
Bills house is small. (Missing apostrophe)
The babies’ blankets are dirty. (Plural possessive)
The babies blankets are dirty. (Missing apostrophe)
Singular Possessive Nouns
Add an apostrophe –s to form the possessive case of most singular nouns.
The bodyguard’s role
The soldier’s knapsack
Add an apostrophe –s to form the possessive case of singular nouns ending in –s or –es.
The boss’s anger
The witness’s testimony
If adding the additional -s after the apostrophe would make the word difficult to pronounce, add only an apostrophe.
Correct
Incorrect
Charles Dickens’ books were sold at auction.
Charles Dickens’s books were sold at auction.
Plural Possessive Nouns
After creating a plural noun, add an apostrophe –s to show the possessive case of plural nouns that do not end in –s
or –es.
The children’s toys
The people’s choice
Add only an apostrophe to show the possessive case of plural nouns ending in –s or –es.
The boys’ clothes
The girls’ hairstyles
Careful!
Do not use an apostrophe with a plural noun that is not possessive.
Incorrect: He ate three hamburgers’ and four hot dogs’ for the contest.
Correct: He ate three hamburgers and four hot dogs for the contest.
Do not use an apostrophe in the wrong place.
Incorrect: dont'
Correct: don't
should'nt
shouldn’t
wo'nt
won’t
Do not use an apostrophe with a plural abbreviation that is not possessive.
Incorrect: four DVD's
Correct: four DVSs
two VIP's
two VIPs
some R.N.'s
some R.N.s
Brackets
Definition: Brackets are used in different instances to add information to a sentence that is not necessary to the
meaning.
Rule 1
To indicate additional information to a sentence that is not essential to the meaning.
Rule 2
To indicate special emphasis of a word or phrase in a direct quote.
Rule 3
To indicate a grammatical error or incorrect spelling within direct quotations, the Latin term sic enclosed in brackets
specifies that an error was contained in the original sentence.
Bracket Usage
Within parentheses
Pamela's court case (which was lost when her lawyer [Paul Jones] made a crucial error) was dismissed. [The name
in brackets is not necessary but clarifies who the lawyer was].
Within direct quotes
Henry said, "I never suspected it [winning the award]." (Adds additional information to clarify meaning)
Henry said, "I never suspected I would win" [emphasis added]. (Indicates special emphasis in a direct quotation)
Sally said, "It was fortunate [sic] that Bobby won the award." (Indicates an error within a direct quotation)
On the reference page to clarify the type of reference so that the reader can easily locate the source
Smith, Q. A. (2006, September 19). Student Drivers [Letter to the editor]. New York Times, A5.
Clauses
Definition: A clause contains a subject, verb, and modifiers—but is not necessarily a complete sentence. Below are
some types of clauses that should help you ensure that you write clear, concise sentences.
Types of Clauses
Independent Clause: An independent clause is a group of words that can stand alone as a complete sentence. While
independent and dependent clauses can have a subject and a verb, only an independent clause can stand alone.
Another name for an independent clause is main clause.
The book [subject] that you want [that you want = modifier] is [verb] at the library.
Two independent clauses can be joined together to make a compound sentence by either adding a comma and a
coordinating conjunction or a semicolon between the two clauses.
The book that you want is at the library [independent clause 1], and I want to check it out [independent clause 2].
Dependent Clause: A dependent clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb that cannot stand alone.
Dependent clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions and followed by a comma. The example below
could be added to the independent clause example to form a complex sentence; however, the phrase is not a
complete sentence on its own.
But [subordinating conjunction] it [subject] is [verb] checked out [modifier].
Relative Clause: A relative clause is the clause introduced by a relative pronoun. Relative pronouns are who,
whom, which, and that.
The book that you want [that you want = relative clause] is at the library.
Nonrestrictive Clause: A nonrestrictive clause adds information about the antecedent but does not limit the
antecedent. Remember, an antecedent is the word being referred to.
The human brain [antecedent], which weighs about three pounds, [which weighs about three pounds =
nonrestrictive clause] contains nearly 100 billion neurons.
Restrictive Clause: A restrictive clause limits the antecedent and is necessary to the meaning of the sentence.
Everyone [antecedent] who has a motorcycle [who has a motorcycle = restrictive clause] is required to attend a
safety course.
The clause, who has a motorcycle, restricts the antecedent, everyone, because it further defines who everyone is in
the sentence.
Careful!
Do not mistake a verb phrase for one of the types of clauses. A verb phrase is a group of words containing a verb but
no subject. A verb phrase contains additional words that function as a single verb and modify another word in the
sentence (usually the subject).
Verb phrase: Standing next to his brother, the boy did not look as short.
Relative restrictive clause: The boy, who was standing next to his brother, did not look as short.
Do not mistake a noun clause for one of the types of clauses. A noun phrase can be a noun or pronoun with
additional words that function as a single noun.
Noun phrase: Waiting for the train, Susan realized she had left her makeup case at home.
Relative clause: Susan, while waiting for the train, realized she had left her makeup case at home.
Colons
Definition: A colon [ : ] is primarily a mark of introduction pointing to something that follows in a sentence. Use a
colon only after a complete sentence.
Rule 1
Use a colon to introduce a series after a complete sentence.
Rule 2
Use a colon to introduce an element that explains the previous sentence.
Rule 3
Use a colon to form an appositive (a word that further explains a noun or pronoun).
Rule 4 Use a colon in special situations.
Uses of the Colon
To identify a list of items after a complete sentence.
The snacks for the hiker included a number of high‐energy foods: raisins, nuts, and dried fruit. To introduce an element that completes, summarizes, or explains the previous sentence.
The speaker concluded with an important thought: pay yourself first. To form an appositive (a word that further explains a noun or pronoun).
We will learn to make quiche from a talented chef: Rachael Ray. For special situations.
A salutation in a business letter—Dear Mr. Smith: Figures giving time—11:30 p.m. or 6:00 a.m. Subtitles of books or magazines—Style: A Complete Guide to Fashion. Biblical references to clarify between the chapter and verse—Luke 17:21. Careful!
Do not use a colon for a list if it is not preceded by a complete sentence.
Incorrect: The recipe requires: fresh eggs, bananas, and butter. Correct: The recipe requires the following ingredients: fresh eggs, bananas, and butter. Do not use a semicolon [;] in place of a colon [:].
Incorrect: Julie's goal was simple but costly; visit Mozambique. Correct: Julie's goal was simple but costly: visit Mozambique. Place a colon outside quotation marks.
Incorrect: Henry is sending us two packages marked "Fragile:" the large mirror and the Tiffany lamp. Correct: Henry is sending us two packages marked "Fragile": the large mirror and the Tiffany lamp. Conjunctions
Definition: Conjunctions are words that connect other words, phrases, and sentences together. The following
material will explain each of the different conjunctions.
Coordinating Conjunctions
Definition: A coordinating conjunction connects similar elements in a sentence. Few in number, the coordinating
conjunctions are easy to remember. They are the FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.
Rule 1
Coordinating conjunctions are preceded by a comma when they separate two main clauses.
Example: Ms. Ortega rose quickly in the executive hierarchy, and the old-school males gladly made room for her
because she made them all look a little better.
After a coordinating conjunction
Example: The purpose of the merger was clear to only a few of the stakeholders and [no comma here] was also
misunderstood by the press.
Between only two words or phrases connected by a coordinating conjunction
Example: Sonja [no comma here] and Peter are in Madrid studying Spanish architecture.
Rule 2
Eliminate commas with coordinating conjunctions in the following instances:
Between one main clause and a subordinate clause (a clause that needs something else to make it a complete
sentence).
Example: Ms. Ortega rose quickly in the executive hierarchy [no comma here] and became one of the favorites of
the board of directors.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Definition: A subordinating conjunction connects two thoughts in a sentence, but one of the thoughts depends on
the other. There are many common subordinating conjunctions; these are some of the most frequently used:
although, when, after, before, since, so that, as, once, and though.
Rule 1
When the sentence begins with the subordinating conjunction, a comma is required between the clauses.
Example: Although their critical-thinking skills were extraordinary, [comma required] the new grads needed to
adjust their writing skills.
Rule 2
When the subordinate clause is second, the comma is optional. Do not use a comma if the information following the
subordinating conjunction is essential to the meaning of the sentence.
Example: The human resources manager spoke sternly to the new employees about harassment [no comma] so that
they would not have to learn hard lessons through experience.
Correlative Conjunctions
Definition: The correlative conjunctions often occur together: [not only and but also] [neither and nor] [either and
or] [both and and].
Example: Neither the director nor the supervisors were able to find the bug.
Example: Not only the carpets but also the computers were ruined by the ceiling sprinklers during the false alarm.
Conjunctive Adverbs
Definition: Other words that connect independent (or main) clauses are called conjunctive adverbs because they
function both like conjunctions and like adverbs. (Sometimes they are called adverbial conjunctions). The table
below lists some of the common conjunctive adverbs:
However
Moreover
Nonetheless
Hence
Otherwise
Consequently
Indeed
Therefore
Rule 1
Use a conjunctive adverb as a transition between ideas. These words function as conjunctive adverbs only when they
connect two complete sentences.
Example: Joe would have come to the movie with us; however, [this is a conjunctive adverb because it connects
two complete sentences] he had to study for a test.
Example: Connie went sunbathing, however, [this is not a conjunctive adverb because the following is not a
complete sentence] not swimming.
Rule 2
Use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb and a comma after.
Example: I took the job, [the comma is incorrect] however, I did it with grave reservations.
Commas
Definition: A comma is used to define the relationships of various elements of a sentence and to clarify meaning for
the reader.
Rule 1
Use a comma to define relationships in a sentence.
Rule 2
Use a comma to clarify meaning for the reader.
Uses of the Comma
Before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, so, yet, for, nor) between two main clauses.
Interest rates are low, so more people are buying new homes.
To set off nonessential elements from the rest of the sentence.
The company, which is located in Ohio, has a good reputation.
Between items in a series of three or more.
We had potato salad, corn on the cob, and hot dogs at the picnic.
To set off introductory elements at the beginning of a sentence.
When her husband died, Clarice inherited $60 million.
Between two or more adjectives that equally modify the same word (these are called coordinate adjectives—
each adjective describes the noun independently).
The winding, scenic highway follows the coastline from Los Angeles to San Francisco.
To separate adjectives following a noun.
Tommy, bruised and bloody, ran home crying after he fell.
In dates with at least three parts: day, month, year (place comma after the day).
He received the letter March 23, 2006.
To separate the city from the state and the state from the rest of the sentence.
Phoenix, Arizona, is the location of the corporate office.
In numbers larger than three digits.
The crowd at the game was estimated to be more than 20,000.
To set off an appositive (a word that further explains a noun or pronoun).
George Washington, the first President, lived at Mt. Vernon.
After the name of a person being addressed in the beginning of a sentence.
Lucy, please put the soap in the dishwasher.
Before and after names of people being addressed in the middle of a sentence.
In about an hour, Lucy, please put the soap in the dishwasher.
Before such as, including, and especially when the information that follows is not essential to the meaning of
the sentence.
Martha likes several kinds of ice cream, such as pistachio, chocolate fudge, and cherry cheesecake.
To separate transitional words from the rest of the sentence.
The mayor, therefore, voted against building the arena downtown.
After a conjunctive adverb (however, consequently, furthermore, otherwise, therefore, otherwise) that separates
two complete sentences. (A semicolon must also be used before the conjunctive adverb.)
I like to go bowling; however, I do not bowl well.
Inside quotation marks.
“Knowledge is power” wrote Francis Bacon.
Careful!
Do not use a comma before a conjunction unless a complete sentence follows.
Incorrect: I will bring the hot dogs, and the punch.
Correct: I will bring the hot dogs, and Julie will bring the punch.
Do not use a comma after a coordinating conjunction.
Incorrect: Interest rates are low so, more people are buying homes.
Correct: Interest rates are low, so more people are buying homes.
Do not use a comma after short introductory elements indicating when.
Incorrect: Tomorrow, we will take a short shuttle to the airport.
Correct: Tomorrow we will take a short shuttle to the airport.
Do not use a comma after the final adjective with coordinate adjectives.
Incorrect: Fragrant, stately, magnolia trees lined the street in Atlanta.
Correct: Fragrant, stately magnolia trees lined the street in Atlanta.
Do not use a comma with only the month and year.
Incorrect: He received the letter in March, 2006.
Correct: He received the letter in March 2006.
Do not use a common if the following information is necessary to the meaning of the sentence.
Incorrect: Gestures, such as rolling your eyes and clenching your teeth, are offensive to listeners.
Correct: Gestures such as rolling your eyes and clenching your teeth are offensive to listeners.
Commonly Confused Words
The following list contains words that are commonly confused. Although the words sound similar, the different
spelling indicates a different meaning. For more detailed information, see the Common English Errors link in the
Tutorials and Guides section of the Center for Writing Excellence.
Accept
Except
Adapt
Adopt
Addition
Edition
Affect
Effect
Advise
Advice
Allusion
Illusion
Altogether
All together
Alot
A lot
Already
All ready
Anyone
Any one
Anyway
Any way
Appraise
Apprise
Assent
Ascent
Awhile
A while
Bare
Bear
Board
Bored
Break
Brake
Canvas
Canvass
Cite
Site
Compliment
Complement
Confident
Confidant
Conscious
Conscience
Counsel
Council
Course
Coarse
Desert
Dessert
Disburse
Disperse
Eminent
Imminent
Envelop
Envelope
Everyday
Every day
Fair
Fare
Farther
Further
Formally
Formerly
Forth
Fourth
Hear
Here
Hole
Whole
Its
It's
Know
No
Lead
Led
Loose
Lose
Maybe
May be
Meat
Meet
Moral
Morale
Past
Passed
Patience
Patients
Peace
Piece
Personal
Personnel
Plain
Plane
Precede
Proceed
Presence
Presents
Principle
Principal
Respectfully
Respectively
Right
Write
Road
Rode
Sales
Sells
Scene
Seen
Stationary
Stationery
Than
Then
Their
There
To, too
Two
Waist
Waste
Weak
Week
Weather
Whether
Where
Were
Which
Witch
Whose
Who's
Your
You're
Dashes
Definition: Dashes (—) are used to provide emphasis or clarity. Create a dash with two hyphens, and do not space
before or after the dash.
Uses of Dashes
To create emphasis (The dash creates greater emphasis than commas or parentheses).
The opera singer—if you can call her that—used to sing with a rock band.
To create greater clarity when other punctuation is used in a sentence.
Some of the things needed in the play—props, costumes, and trumpet—still need to be rented.
To set off a final statement that completes the main idea found at the beginning of the sentence.
The opera singer began her training in a strange music genre—rock.
To separate elements in the sentence that abruptly interrupt the meaning.
Charlie needs to earn $8,000—more or less—for his upcoming trip to Europe.
To introduce items in a series (The dash creates greater emphasis than a colon).
On our way to Washington, DC, we drove through every kind of bad weather— sleet, rain, snow, hail, and fog.
Careful!
Do not use a closing dash if it comes at the end of a sentence. Use the appropriate end punctuation mark for the
sentence.
Incorrect: You will have the check by Friday—in two days—.
Correct: You will have the check by Friday—in two days.
Ellipsis Points
Definition: Ellipsis points consist of three dots with spaces in between each dot. [ . . . ] Ellipsis points are used to
indicate missing words in a direct quotation. Ellipsis points can also be used at the end of a sentence when it seems
to fade out before completing the thought.
Rule 1
To indicate missing words in a direct quotation.
Rule 2
To indicate the sentence fades out before completing the thought. Use only the ellipsis points (three dots) and
eliminate the period in this kind of construction.
Uses of Ellipsis Points
To indicate missing words in a direct quotation.
The professor stated, "Many Americans . . . wanted to join the fight in the first years of World War I."
To indicate the sentence fades out before completing the thought.
Pam was known for raising African violets, but her husband . . . he was an expert at growing wild orchids.
Careful!
Use four dots instead of three to indicate missing words at the end of a sentence of a direct quotation. (The first dot
is the period and next three dots are the ellipsis points).
Incorrect: The professor stated, "In the first years of World War I, many Americans wanted to join the
fight . . . America didn't enter the war until 1917."
Correct: The professor stated, "In the first years of World War I, many Americans wanted to join the
fight . . . America didn't enter the war until 1917."
Do not use ellipsis points at the beginning or end of a direct quotation.
Incorrect: Ingrid said, " . . . come to the park with us."
Correct: Ingrid said, "Come to the park with us."
Fragments
Definition: A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not express a complete thought. Sentence fragments
can be turned into complete sentences by adding words that will complete the thought. Remember—a sentence must
contain a subject (noun) and a verb and be able to stand alone. The reasons fragments occur are listed below.
Rule 1
Fragment contains no subject.
Rule 2
Fragment contains no verb.
Rule 3
Fragment results from a missing thought with an introductory word.
Avoiding Fragments
Adding a subject to the fragment can create a complete thought.
Fragment: Splashing some olive oil in the pan and quickly adding onions.
Sentence with subject: Splashing some olive oil in the pan and quickly adding onions, Sally burned herself.
Adding a verb to the fragment can create a complete thought.
Fragment: Hot dogs, apple pie, ice cream, and soda.
Sentence with verb: Hot dogs, apple pie, ice cream, and soda are favorite American foods.
Adding an additional element to a dependent clause (a phrase that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence).
Dependent clause: Although Steve said he would reboot the computer.
Complete sentence: Although Steve said he would reboot the computer, he forgot to do it before he went to bed.
Careful!
Do not be deceived by the length of a sentence fragment. Many times a fragment can be long and complicated, so it
is assumed that the fragment is a complete sentence.
Incorrect: Waiting in the airport with her dog Corky in a pet container on her lap.
Correct: Waiting in the airport with her dog Corky in a pet container on her lap, Cindy was dismayed to hear the
plane had been delayed.
Many times a sentence fragment occurs because it should have been attached to either the previous or the following
sentence.
Incorrect: When my mother came for dinner. We barbequed steak.
Correct: When my mother came for dinner, we barbequed steak.
Any sentence that begins with the following words needs to have a complete thought: as, after, because, before,
when, although, as soon as, and since.
Incorrect: Since I went to bed late. I was grumpy in the morning.
Correct: Since I went to bed late, I was grumpy in the morning.
Hyphens
Definition: A hyphen (sometimes referred to an en dash) is used to connect two or more words in a sentence.
Hyphenated words can act as modifiers or as compound words that can stand alone.
Rule 1
Use a hypen to connect two or more words in a sentence in order to prevent misreading and misunderstanding.
Rule 2
Use a hypen in special situations with numbers that are written out and some computer terms.
Uses of the Hyphen
With a compound modifier (two words used together to modify another word) when it comes before a noun
The girls wore old-fashioned dresses to the ball.
With some prefixes and suffixes (The prefixes pre, post, self, pro, and ex always require a hyphen, and the suffix
elect always requires a hyphen.)
The author is a self-proclaimed leader of women's rights.
With numbers between 21 and 99 that are written out
There were fifty-four people in the waiting room at the doctor's office.
With short fractions
One-half of the students are male.
Between numbers to indicate a sequence of numbers
Rows 15-30 were empty.
With some computer terms that contain e
The e-book contains information relevant to the course.
Careful!
Do not use a hyphen when a compound modifier comes after the noun.
Incorrect: The secretary was well-organized.
Correct: The secretary was well organized.
Do not use a hyphen with common compound modifiers that are recognized as a single unit.
Incorrect: I ordered a chocolate ice-cream cone.
Correct: I ordered a chocolate ice cream cone.
Do not use a hyphen with an adverb that describes another word.
Incorrect: The owners of the badly-kept house have many domestic animals.
Correct: The owners of the badly kept house have many domestic animals.
The prefix mid requires a hyphen when used with a number or a capitalized word.
Incorrect: The world experienced a grain crisis in the mid 1970s.
Correct: The world experienced a grain crisis in the mid-1970s.
Do not use a hyphen with words beginning with Web. Write them as two words.
Incorrect: The Web-site contained information on the company's goals and objectives.
Correct: The Web site contained information on the company's goals and objectives.
Modifiers
Definition: A modifier further explains or restricts another word in a sentence. A modifier can consist of one word
or a series of words that function as the explanation.
Rule 1
A modifier is an adjective or adverb that further explains or restricts a noun, verb, or an adjective.
Rule 2
A modifier is a group of words that further explain or restrict another word in a sentence.
Uses of Modifiers
An adjective modifying a noun
The belligerent student was placed in detention.
An adverb modifying an adjective
Only highly skilled workers are hired in the IT department.
An adverb modifying a verb
The swiftly running water in the stream posed a hazard to children.
Multiple-word modifiers
The secretary who won the award received a raise.
While on the runway, the airplane had an electrical system malfunction.
I found a beautiful old diamond ring lying in the gutter.
Careful!
Place a modifier as close to the word it modifies to avoid confusion. A dangling modifier is placed at the beginning
of a sentence and modifies the incorrect word.
Incorrect: Crushed beyond repair, Jenny found her watch on the street [This says that Jenny was crushed beyond
repair].
Correct: In the street, Jenny found her watch crushed beyond repair [This says that the watch was crushed beyond
repair].
A misplaced modifier modifies the wrong word in a sentence and alters the meaning of the sentence.
Incorrect: The UPS messenger spoke to the secretary who delivered the package [this says the secretary delivered
the package].
Correct: The UPS messenger who delivered the package spoke to the secretary [this says the UPS messenger
delivered the package].
Number Usage
Definition: Although the basic rule for number usage is to spell out numbers one through nine and use figures for
numbers 10 and above, there are exceptions. The following rules will help you use numbers correctly.
Numbers as Words
Rule 1
Spell out numbers from one to nine, including street names.
We will be gone for three days.
Rule 2
Spell out indefinite numbers that can be expressed in one or two words.
We received hundreds of requests for our product.
Rule 3
Spell out numbers that introduce a sentence, title, or heading.
Twenty-one children rode the bus.
Rule 4
Spell out fractions that are used alone.
More than one-third of the students received an A on the test.
Numbers as Figures
Rule 1
Use figures to express numbers 10 and above.
I leave for New York in 30 days.
Rule 2
Use figures to express the following numbers:
A. Amounts of money
I paid $53.74 for groceries on Saturday.
B. Dates
Paula was born on September 7, 1995.
C. Time
Sunrise occurred at 6 a.m.
D. Ages
Charlie will be 8 on Wednesday.
E. Dimensions
The smallest box is 6" by 8" by 3".
F. Percentages and Decimals
The beginning law students were 9% female.
After the gas station, turn left in 1.4 miles to find the stadium.
G. Degrees of temperature
Friday it was 5 degrees above zero.
H. Street numbers and house numbers
Pick up the packages at 126 Broad Street.
I.
Pages and divisions of a book
She found the information in Volume 8, page 24.
J.
Numbers preceded by nouns
Julie and Marty stayed at the Waldorf in Suite 6.
K. A whole number and a fraction
Jake and Jan stayed at the ranch 3 1/2 days.
L. Mathematical functions
The tip had to be divided by 3.
Numbers Combined with Words and Figures
Rule 1
Use a figure for the number and spell out million and billion in round numbers for easier reading.
The machine counted 1 million votes.
Rule 2
Use a figure for the large number and spell out the small number for greater clarity when two numbers are
used together.
I have to read 22 fifteen-page reports by Friday.
Careful!
Spell out one cent.
Incorrect: Ken had .01 left after he paid the parking ticket.
Correct: Ken had one cent left after he paid the parking ticket.
Use figures for all dates written in ordinal numbers.
Incorrect: We will be in New York on the second of June.
Correct: We will be in New York on the 2nd of June.
Use figures for ages expressed in years and months.
Incorrect: Billy walked at one year and two months.
Correct: Billy walked at 1 year and 2 months.
Write out large numbers at the beginning of a sentence or rewrite the sentence.
Incorrect: 2,345,615 people voted in the recent state election.
Correct: In the recent state election, 2,345,615 people voted.
If several numbers in a sentence perform the same function, express them uniformly. If one should be written as a
figure, write them all as figures.
Incorrect: We have 32 ranges, three dishwashers, eight refrigerators, 22 washers, and 12 dryers in stock.
Correct:We have 32 ranges, 3 dishwashers, 8 refrigerators, 22 washers, and 12 dryers in stock.
Parentheses
Definition: Parentheses are used to add explanations that are not essential to the meaning of a sentence.
Parentheses Usage
To add explanations that are not essential to the meaning of a sentence.
The party cannot be outside in February (the coldest month of the year).
Use parentheses to add a citation or reference page entry to a paper or essay.
. . .according to the research (Smith, 2002)
Smith, Q. A. (2002). . .
Use parentheses to enclose numbers or letters that designate elements in a series.
Before her trip, Peggy must purchase the following items: (1) a guidebook to Spain, (2) a money belt, (3) a Eurail
pass, (4) an international driver's license, and (5) a good pair of hiking boots.
Use parentheses to enclose an acronym after a complete name.
John works for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).
Use parentheses in an outline to indicate minor subdivisions.
I.
Primary purpose of adult education
A.
Acquisition of knowledge
B.
Skills development
1.
Job training
2.
Technological development
(a) Computer skills
(b) Internet functions
Careful!
Place other punctuation required in a sentence outside the closing parenthesis.
Incorrect: If Dan does not finish the paperwork by Monday, (July 15) he will lose his job.
Correct: If Dan does not finish the paperwork by Monday (July 15), he will lose his job.
If a complete sentence is contained within a set of parentheses, place the closing punctuation mark inside the closing
parenthesis and do not use any additional punctuation.
Incorrect: William signed in at his dorm on campus. (He arrived on September 5.).
Correct: William signed in at his dorm on campus. (He arrived on September 5.).
Pronouns
Definition: A pronoun is used in place of a noun and is used to refer to persons, places, or things.
Rule 1
Use a pronoun to eliminate awkward phrasing caused by unnecessary repetition.
Types of Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns: An indefinite pronoun is one that does not refer to a specific person, place, or thing. Below
are three charts identifying singular and plural indefinite pronouns.
Singular Indefinite Pronouns
Anyone
Each
Either
Every
Neither
None
No one
One
Someone
Something
Anybody
Anything
Everybody
Everyone
Everything
Much
Nobody
Nothing
Somebody
Plural Indefinite Pronouns
Both
Few
Many
Several
Singular or Plural Indefinite Pronouns
All
Any
More
Most
Some
Reflexive Pronoun: A reflexive pronoun ends in –self or –selves and reflects action from the verb back to the
subject.
John is going by himself.
Intensive Pronoun: An intensive pronoun ends in –self or –selves and adds emphasis to a noun or another pronoun.
The governor himself attended the party.
Pronoun Usage
Forms: Pronouns have different forms [Number, Person, Gender, Case], and each must be used correctly in a
sentence.
Number: Indicates whether the pronoun is singular or plural.
Bill [singular noun] checked his [singular pronoun] grades on the computer.
Bill and Henry [two singular nouns combine to make a plural noun] checked their [plural pronoun] grades on
the computer.
Person: Pronouns have three person forms: first person, second person, and third person. The following three charts
indicate first-, second-, and third-person pronouns.
First Person Pronouns
I
Me
Mine
Us
Our
Ours
We
Second Person Pronouns
You
Your
Yours
Third Person Pronouns
He
She
It
Him
Her
They
Them
Hers
His
Its
Theirs
Gender: Indicates whether the pronouns are masculine, feminine, or neuter.
Case: This is the form of a pronoun that indicates how it is used in a sentence and its relationship to other words in
the sentence. The following tables define the three pronoun cases and how they are used.
Case
Use in a Sentence
Subjective
Subject of a verb or a complement
Objective
Direct object, Indirect object,
Object of a preposition
Possessive
Singular
Plural
Shows ownership
Subjective
Objective
Possessive
I
You
He, She, It
Me
You
Him, Her, It
My, Mine
Your, Yours
His, Her, Hers, Its
We
You
They
Us
You
Them
Our, Ours
Your, yours
Their, Theirs
A pronoun must agree in number, person, gender, and case with its antecedent [a word that the pronoun refers
to].
Nancy wore her favorite black dress.
Cindy and Janie hailed a taxi so they would be on time for the play.
Every organization has its own mission statement.
The girl in the red coat was she.
Careful!
Shifting the number, person, or gender of a pronoun will cause agreement errors.
Incorrect: A student must study to receive good grades on their test.
Correct: Students must study to receive good grades on their tests.
Incorrect: Jill is studying Spanish, a course you need to take before studying abroad.
Correct: Jill is studying Spanish, a course she needs to take before studying abroad.
Incorrect: Every hurricane is given its name in alphabetical order when she becomes more than a tropical storm.
Correct: Every hurricane is given its name in alphabetical order when it becomes more than a tropical storm.
Use a singular pronoun with two singular nouns or pronouns joined by or or nor.
Incorrect: Neither Tommy nor Sam walks to their work.
Correct: Neither Tommy nor Sam walks to his work.
Eliminate gender-specific pronouns in sentences.
Incorrect: A nurse should take the patient's temperature; she should also write the blood pressure on the chart.
Correct: A nurse should take the patient's temperature; he or she should also write the blood pressure on the chart.
Better: Nurses should take the patient's temperature; they should also write the blood pressure on the chart.
Use the correct pronoun case with compound subjects.
Incorrect: Nate and him want spaghetti for dinner.
Correct: Nate and he want spaghettie for dinner.
Do not use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun.
Incorrect: The bag is your's.
Correct: The bag is yours.
Do not confuse the possessive pronoun its with the contraction it's (meaning it is).
Incorrect: The dog buried it's bone.
Correct: The dog buried its bone.
Use a reflexive pronoun carefully. It must have a clear antecedent in the sentence.
Incorrect: My mother bought Jennifer and myself a plane ticket.
Correct: My mother bought Jennifer and me a plane ticket.
Use the second person personal pronoun you only when referring to the reader or listener. Eliminate you in
academic writing unless your assignment specifies otherwise.
Quotation Marks
Definition: Double quotation marks are used to set off someone's words or thoughts, titles of minor literary works,
words that need special emphasis, and formal definition of words.
Rule 1
To indicate a person's exact words or thoughts (direct quote).
Rule 2
To set off literary titles that can be found within larger works.
Rule 3
To create emphasis.
Rule 4
To indicate the formal definition of a word.
Uses of Quotation Marks
Use quotation marks only for the words that have been spoken directly
Helen said, "My dog learned how to fetch."
Use quotation marks only for titles within larger works, such as magazine articles, chapters in books, essays,
and titles of songs and short stories
The chapter "Writing a Case Study" was helpful in completing my English assignment.
Use quotation marks to create emphasis
If we "ever" get to Washington, we can visit the Smithsonian.
Use quotation marks to indicate the formal definition of a word
A poker is "a metal rod used to stir a fire."
Careful!
Single quotation marks are used to indicate a direct quotation contained within another quotation.
Incorrect: Donna told me, "Jean said, "I am not going to attend graduation," but I think she'll go any way."
Correct: Donna told me, "Jean said, 'I am not going to attend graduation,' but I think she'll go any way."
Do not use quotation marks for phrasing that indicates what someone said but does not use the person's exact words
(indirect quote).
Incorrect: Helen said "that her dog sat down instead of fetching the stick."
Correct: Helen said that her dog sat down instead of fetching the stick. [The word that indicates general meaning
of what was said.]
Place commas and periods inside quotation marks.
Incorrect: "Knowledge is power", wrote Francis Bacon.
Correct: "Knowledge is power," wrote Francis Bacon.
Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks.
Incorrect: Mrs. Harper said, "Use only your pencils on the test;" automatic grading systems will not read pen
marks.
Correct: Mrs. Harper said, "Use only your pencils on the test"; automatic grading systems will not read pen marks.
Place question marks inside quotation marks when the quoted material is a question.
Incorrect: Cindy said, "Did Sharon win the award for best actress"?
Correct: Cindy said, "Did Sharon win the award for best actress?"
Place question marks outside quotation marks when the entire sentence is a question.
Incorrect: Did you say, "Sharon won the award for best actress?"
Correct: Did you say, "Sharon won the award for best actress"?
Place exclamation marks inside quotation marks when the quoted material is an exclamation.
Incorrect: Cindy said, "Sharon won the award for best actress"!
Correct: Cindy said, "Sharon won the award for best actress!"
Place exclamation marks outside quotation marks when the entire sentence is an exclamation.
Incorrect: Cindy was shocked and shouted, "Sharon won the award for best actress!"
Correct: Cindy was shocked and shouted, "Sharon won the award for best actress"!
Do not use quotation marks for quotes of 40 words or greater [block quote]. Use an indent to offset block quotes.
The example below is a correct illustration of block quotes.
We honor Rose Banks not just for what she did when she was here at work but for what she did when she was not at
work. She was a PTA president and a constant advocate for children. She adopted several children herself.
Run-on Sentences
Definition: A run-on sentence is two complete sentences (main clauses) that are run together without correct
punctuation. The rules below are for correcting a run-on sentence.
Rule 1
Place an end punctuation mark (period, question mark, exclamation mark) between the two sentences.
Sparky was not hungry. He wanted a treat.
Rule 2
Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) to link the two sentences.
Sparky was not hungry, but he wanted a treat.
Rule 3
Use a semicolon to separate and connect the two closely related ideas.
Sparky was not hungry; he wanted a treat.
Rule 4
Form a simple sentence by adding a word to subordinate one sentence to the other.
Sparky was not hungry because he already had a treat.
Careful!
Do not use more than two main clauses in a sentence. This causes overly long and awkward sentences.
Incorrect: Sparky was not hungry, and he wanted a treat, so Sue gave Sparky a bone.
Correct: Sparky was not hungry, but he wanted a treat. Finally, Sue gave Sparky a bone.
Semicolons
Definition: A semicolon is stronger than a comma but weaker than a period because it does not indicate the end of a
complete thought.
Rule 1
Use a semicolon to join elements of a sentence that are closely related.
Uses of the Semicolon
Use a semicolon with two complete sentences that are closely related when no conjunction (and, but, or, nor,
for, yet, so) is between them.
It snowed 12 inches last night; major roads were closed today.
Use a semicolon with items in a series when one or more of the main elements already contains a comma.
I have lived in Duluth, Minnesota; Denver, Colorado; and Dallas, Texas.
Use a semicolon with two complete sentences joined by a transitional expression that functions as a
conjunctive adverb (see the list below of common conjunctive adverbs).
Interest rates were at all-time lows; consequently, more people bought homes.
Common Conjunctive Adverbs
However
Moreover
Therefore
Otherwise
Consequently
For example
Furthermore
Nevertheless
Indeed
Accordingly
Thus
Finally
Use a semicolon with elements in a sentence that would become confusing for the reader with the addition of
another comma
When you sell the house, leave the stove; but take the refrigerator.
Careful!
Do not use a semicolon between a complete sentence and a dependent clause (an incomplete sentence).
Incorrect: It rained all night; before the horse race.
Correct: It rained all night before the horse race.
Do not use a comma before a conjunctive adverb that joins two sentences.
Incorrect: The Tigers won the baseball game, nevertheless, they still had to practice.
Correct: The Tigers won the baseball game; nevertheless, they still had to practice.
Do not confuse a conjunction (a term that joins two dependent clauses) with a conjunctive adverb (a term that joins
two independent clauses).
Incorrect: During the game; however, three players were ejected for fighting.
Correct: During the game, however, three players were ejected for fighting.
Do not use a colon in place of a semicolon.
Incorrect: Tim received all A's in his classes: Princeton gave him an academic scholarship.
Correct: Tim received all A's in his classes; Princeton gave him an academic scholarship.
Do not use a space before a semicolon; use one space after a semicolon.
Incorrect: Elizabeth won the lottery;she bought a new car.
Correct: Elizabeth won the lottery; she bought a new car.
Do not use a semicolon before an opening or closing parenthesis or an opening dash.
Incorrect: Eleven inches of snow fell Tuesday;—Jane missed Judy's birthday party.
Correct: Eleven inches of snow fell Tuesday—Jane missed Judy's birthday.
When using a semicolon with quotation marks, always place the semicolon outside the quotation marks.
Incorrect: The professor said, "Study hard;" he might give a pop quiz tomorrow.
Correct: The professor said, "Study hard"; he might give a pop quiz tomorrow.
Spelling
Definition: English contains basic spelling rules that make reading easier. Although many people today send e-mail
and text messages without worrying about spelling, standard rules for spelling apply in business and academic
writing. One of the problems with using correct spelling is that even though spelling has specific rules, so many
exceptions exist that it is frequently difficult to spell correctly. The rules below are a good start to help you on your
journey to become a better speller.
Rule 1
Use the letter I before E except after C or when sounded like A. See the charts below for some common words that
follow this rule and irregular words that do not follow this rule.
I before E
Believe
Brief
Grief
Siege
Thief
Perceive
Receive
Except after C
Ceiling
Conceive
Deceive
Or when Sounded Like A as in Neighbor and Weigh
Beige
Eight
Freight
Sleigh
Weight
EI Exceptions
Counterfeit
Either
Foreign
Forfeit
Heifer
Height
Heir
Leisure
Neither
Seismology
Seize
Seizure
Sheik
Sleight
Sovereign
Their
Weird
IE Exceptions
Ancient
Conscience
Efficient
Sufficient
Financier
Rule 2
Plural Words: Plural Words are another source of spelling errors. Regular plural words are formed by adding an –s
to the end of the word. However, words that end in –s, –ss, –x, –z, –sh, –ch form the plural by adding an –es at the
end of the word. The exception to this rule is when words end in –ch with a –k sound, only add an –s to create the
plural, such as monarchs. See the chart below for basic examples of this rule and the exception.
–s
Circus
Circuses
–ss
Business
Businesses
–x
Box
Boxes
–z
Waltz
Waltzes
–sh
Dish
Dishes
–ch
Church
Churches
–ch exception
Monarch
Monarchs
Words ending in –y preceded by a consonant, change the –y to an –i and add –es. For words ending in –y preceded
by a vowel, add –s.
–y Preceded by a Consonant
Singular
Plural
Copy
Copies
Query
Queries
Policy
Policies
Story
Stories
–y Preceded by a Vowel
Singular
Plural
Attorney
Attorneys
Day
Days
Monkey
Monkeys
Donkey
Donkeys
Words ending in –f or –ff form the plural by adding an –s, such as with chief to chiefs and cliff to cliffs. However,
some words ending in –f and –ff form the plural by changing the –f to a –v and add –es, such as leaf to leaves and
loaf to loaves.
Words ending in –fe form the plural by changing the –f to a –v and add an –s, such as with life to lives and knife to
knives.
Irregular Plural words: Irregular plural words are those that do not form the plural by adding an –s or –es. Below
is a chart of common irregular plural words.
Singular
Plural
Child
Children
Crisis
Crises
Goose
Geese
Man
Men
Mouse
Mice
Ox
Oxen
Tooth
Teeth
Woman
Women
The following chart shows words that are the same in the singular and plural form.
Singular
Plural
Deer
Deer
Fish
Fish
Sheep
Sheep
The following nouns only use the plural form: pliers, slacks, scissors, and thanks.
Words derived from foreign languages also have irregular plural forms. Below is a chart of some common words
derived from foreign languages and their plural forms.
Singular
Plural
Alumna (female)
Alumnae
Alumnus (male)
Alumni
Appendix
Appendices
Criterion
Criteria
Curriculum
Curricula
Datum
Data
Medium
Media
Memorandum
Memorandums/memoranda
Phenomenon
Phenomena
Radius
Radii
Rule 3
Words with a Prefix: A prefix consists of letters attached to the beginning of a word that change the meaning of the
word. Some words do not use a hyphen to establish the prefix at the beginning of the word. Some words use a
hyphen. Below is a chart with common prefixes with and without a hyphen.
Prefix with a Hyphen
Prefix without a Hyphen
Self-centered
Selfish
Self-discipline
Selfless
Self-indulgent
Selfsame
De-escalate
Preexisting
De-emphasize
Preempt
Pre-owned
Reeducate
Co-op
Reelect
Co-organizer
Coauthor
Co-owner
Cofounder
Redress
Reform
Rule 4
Words with a suffix: A suffix consists of letters attached to the end of a word that change the meaning of the word.
See the points below for adding a suffix to a word.
Words Ending in a Silent –e, drop the –e before adding the suffix.
Words Ending in a Silent –e
Issue
Issuing
Desire
Desirable
Consume
Consumable
Argue
Argument
Words ending with –y preceded by a consonant change the –y to –i and add the suffix.
Words Ending with –y Preceded by a Consonant
Likely
Likelihood
Happy
Happiness
Ordinary
Ordinarily
Easy
Easier
Exceptions
Dry
Dryly
Shy
Shyly
Country
Countrywide
Copy
Copying
Forty
Fortyish
Generally retain the –y when the suffix is preceded by a noun.
Retain the –y when Suffix is Preceded by a Noun
Joy
Joyful
Obey
Obeying
The use of the suffixes –ible and –able cause many spelling errors. Most words use –able rather than –ible. If you do
not need to change the base word use –able. If you do not need to change the base word, use –able. Most words use
–able rather than –ible. The chart below contains some common words that end in –ible.
Audible
Edible
Legible
Responsible
Compatible
Feasible
Negligible
Sensible
Credible
Flexible
Permissible
Terrible
Digestible
Horrible
Possible
Visible
For words that end in –ede, –ceed, and –sede, only one word ends in –sede [supersede], only three words end in –
ceed [exceed, proceed, succeed], and the rest end in –ede.
For words that end in –ance, –ant, –ence, and –ent, there are no rules that exist. Use a dictionary to determine the
correct spelling of these words.
Spelling Demons
The following list contains words that might not follow the common rules of spelling. You might want to memorize
the spelling of these words or keep the list of Spelling Demons handy to prevent spelling errors. Create your own
list of spelling demons (words that you use and misspell regularly). This should be a perpetual list—you will
keep adding to it.
Accommodate
Embarrass
Millennium
Renaissance
Accumulate
Existence
Miniscule
Resistance
Asinine
Feasible
Mischievous
Resuscitate
Auxiliary
Freight
Moccasin
Sacrilegious
Baboon
Gauge
Moccasin
Seize
Battalion
Genealogy
Nickel
Separate
Bureaucracy
Glamour
Noticeable
Siege
Chauffeur
Grammar
Occurred
Silhouette
Chihuahua
Harass
Occurrence
Souvenir
Chrysanthemum
Inane
Pastime
Stupefy
Connoisseur
Independence
Pavilion
Subpoena
Coolly
Indispensable
Permanence
Supersede
Dalmatian
Inoculate
Perseverance
Tattoo
Defendant
Iridescent
Pharaoh
Toboggan
Definitely
Lackadaisical
Precede
Traveler
Desperate
Ladle
Privilege
Ukulele
Dilettante
Legend
Proceed
Unparalleled
Diphtheria
Liaison
Questionnaire
Vaccinate
Dysfunction
Liqueur
Rarefy
Weigh/Weight
Ecstasy
Mayonnaise
Reckless
Weird
Subject-Verb Agreement
Definition: In grammatically correct sentences, the subject should agree with the verb. To determine if the subject
and verb agree in a sentence, first locate the subject. Second, decide whether the subject is singular or plural.
Finally, write the appropriate form of the verb. Using the rules below will help you to write sentences free from
subject-verb agreement errors.
Rule 1
Use a singular verb with a singular subject and a plural verb with a plural subject.
Singular: Betsy [singular subject] walks [singular verb] to the bus stop on Wednesday.
Plural: The boys [plural subject] are going [plural verb] to the circus.
Rule 2
Use a plural verb with two or more subjects joined by and. This is known as a compound subject.
The Chihuahua [subject 1] and the poodle [subject 2] are [plural verb] in the top five winners of the dog show.
Rule 3
Use a singular verb with two or more singular subjects joined by or or nor.
Sam [subject 1] or Charlie [subject 2] is receiving [singular verb] the prize.
Rule 4
Use a verb that agrees with the closer subject when a singular subject and a plural subject are joined by or or nor.
Ken [singular subject] or the Cub Scouts [plural subject] bring [plural verb] refreshments.
Rule 5
Use a singular verb with a collective noun that names a group of people acting as a single unit.
The jury [collective noun] has been deliberating [singular verb indicates the collective noun was acting as a
single unit] for several days.
Use a plural verb with a collective noun that names a group of people acting independently of one another.
The faculty [collective noun] are beginning [plural verb indicates the collective noun was acting independently]
their own projects to receive credit for continuing education in the field.
The list below contains common collective nouns.
Common Collective Nouns
Army
Club
Fleet
Number
Team
Assembly
Committee
Flock
Public
Troop
Audience
Crowd
Herd
Squadron
Board
Faculty
Jury
Staff
Class
Family
Majority
Swarm
Rule 6
Use a singular verb with a title even though the title might be plural.
Little Women [plural movie title] is [singular verb] a touching movie.
Rule 7
Use a singular verb with the name of one company even though it might contain a compound noun.
Smith and Brown [company] is [singular verb] the best law firm in town.
Rule 8
Use a singular verb with an amount (money, distance, time) when it is expressed as a single unit.
Four hundred dollars [amount expressed as a single unit] is [singular verb] a fair price.
Rule 9
Use a verb that agrees with the antecedent of the pronoun with who, which, and that.
Lilia wants the teachers [antecedent of who] who work [plural verb] tirelessly to win an award.
Rule 10
Use the appropriate singular or plural verb form with an indefinite pronoun, depending on whether the indefinite
pronoun is singular or plural. For a list of indefinite pronouns visit the Pronoun section of the Grammar Mechanics
section.
Singular: Each [singular indefinite pronoun] of the departments works [singular verb] independently.
Plural: Both [plural indefinite pronoun] of the departments work [plural verb] independently.
Careful!
Beware of subjects that are inverted in a sentence.
Incorrect: High above the sea perched near the edge of the cliffs stand [plural verb] the dilapidated house
[singular subject].
Correct: High above the sea perched near the edge of the cliffs stands [singular verb] the dilapidated house
[singular subject].
Beware of subject-verb agreement errors in questions, where the subject usually comes after the verb.
Incorrect: Are [plural verb] each [singular indefinite pronoun] of the departments fully staffed?
Correct: Is [singular verb] each [singular indefinite pronoun] of the departments fully staffed?
Understood subjects that are not listed, such as when someone gives orders or directions, can casue subject-verb
agreement errors.
Incorrect: (you) [understood singular subject] Please returns [plural verb] the car keys to Peter.
Correct: (you) [understood singular subject] Please return [singular verb] the car keys to Peter.
Beware of subject-verb agreement errors in sentences with there and here. These words are false subjects. Locate
the true subject and make sure the verb agrees with the subject in number.
Incorrect: There is [singular verb] only two tickets [plural tickets] to the basketball game.
Correct: There are [plural verb] only two tickers [plural tickets
Verbs
Definition: A verb is a part of speech that indicates time and expresses action, condition, or existence. Without a
verb, a group of words can never be anything but a sentence fragment.
Types of Verbs
Action Verbs: These verbs indicate the action someone or something is performing. Action verbs can represent a
visible action or mental action. Shout is a visible action, but learn is an action that takes place in the mind, so it
cannot be seen.
Visible: Hank dropped the hammer when he tried to put it away.
Mental: Sally appreciates the kindness of her friends.
Examples of Mental Action Verbs
Appreciate
Dream
Promise
Thought
Worry
Ask
Learn
Think
Wonder
Wish
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs: An action verb is either transitive or intransitive. A transitive verb requires a
direct object, and an intransitive verb cannot have a direct object. A direct object is placed after an action verb and
describes who or what received the action.
To determine whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, use this simple test: Ask who or what after the verb. If you
can find an answer, the verb is transitive.
Transitive: Karl ate five hot dogs [Ate what? Hot dogs]
Intransitive: The fans cheered loudly [Cheered what? No answer]
Linking Verbs: A linking verb links a noun or pronoun at the beginning of the sentence to something that follows
the verb. In other words, a linking verb describes the subject. A linking verb does not show action.
The house smelled bad because of the dead fish [smelled describes the smelly house].
The chart below contains a list of all the linking verbs.
Linking Verbs
Appear
Grow
Seem
Stay
Become
Look
Smell
Taste
Feel
Remain
Sound
Turn
Helping Verbs: Helping verbs are used with other verbs to create a more specific meaning in the sentence. The
most common helping verb is any form of the verb to be.
He can write clearly and concisely.
Helping Verbs
Can
Does
Has
Might
Should
Could
Did
Had
Must
Will
Do
Have
May
Shall
Would
Verb Tenses
Definition: The tense of a verb indicates when an action or state of being took place. The following is a chart of
verb tenses and the time sequences they represent.
Tense
Verb Usage
Representation
Present tense
I drive
An action is occurring now
Past tense
I drove
An action that started and was completed in the past
Future tense
I will drive
An action that is expected to occur in the future
Present perfect tense
I have driven
An action that began in the past and has been
completed
Past perfect tense
I had driven
An action that ended prior to some definite time in
the past
Future perfect tense
I will have driven
An action that will be completed by a specific time
Present progressive tense
I am driving
An action that is occurring now and continuing
Past progressive tense
I was driving
An action in the past that continued over time
Future progressive tense
I will be driving
A continuing future action
Regular Verbs: A verb is called a regular verb if the tense of the verb can be formed using a regular and expected
pattern, such as the example of the verb to drive in the chart above.
Irregular Verbs: The tense of irregular verbs is formed on a varied pattern. Consult a dictionary to locate irregular
forms of a verb. If the forms of the verb are not listed, the word is a regular verb.
Verb Usage
A verb must agree with its subject. Number refers to whether the subject and verb are singular or plural. To
create the present singular form of a regular verb add an –s or –es.
For more information on subject-verb agreement, visit the subject-verb agreement section of the Grammar
Mechanics section.
Verbs have three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. Mood indicates changes in the verb that
specify the viewpoint of the writer.
Indicative: makes a statement or asks a question
Bob and Ben went to play soccer.
Imperative: issues a command
Put the clothes in the dryer.
Subjunctive: states a desire or wish. Use the subjunctive mood for information that is contrary to what is true.
Sally wishes she were able to dance.
Verbs can be written in the active or passive voice. Active voice sentences are much more effective than
sentences written in the passive voice. Below are some examples of active and passive voice verbs. However, for
more extensive information on active and passive voice, visit the active and passive voice in the writing style section
of the Grammar Guide.
Active voice: The subject performs the action
Jesse found a Rolex watch.
Passive voice: The action is performed on the subject
A Rolex watch was found by Jesse.
Careful!
Most action verbs can be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another.
Transitive:Harvey rushes home after work.
Intransitive: Harvey rushes after work.
Linking verbs can also be action verbs.
Linking Verb:The baby appears sleepy.
Action verb: The stray dog appears after dark.
Be sure to keep verb tenses the same throughout a sentence.
Incorrect: I joined [past tense verb] the sorority and sing [present tense verb] the pledge.
Correct: I joined [past tense verb] the sorority and sang [past tense verb] the pledge.
The verbs lie versus lay, rise versus raise, and sit versus set can be difficult to use properly. Use lay, raise, and set
only when the sentence contains a direct object (transitive). Use lie, rise, and sit only when no direct object is in the
sentence (intransitive).
Transitive: Lay the book [direct object] on the desk.
Intransitive: I lie down with the baby [no direct object].
Transitive: Raise the shades [direct object] to let in more sun.
Intransitive: Temperatures always rise by the afternoon [no direct object].
Transitive: Set the tea set [direct object] in the center of the table.
Intransitive: Students sit in a semicircle around the teacher's desk [no direct object].
Who versus Whom
Problem Definition: Who and whom are pronouns. Many students have difficulty using who and whom correctly in
a sentence. The chart below identifies the correct pronoun case for who and whom. The rules that follow will help
you to use these pronouns correctly.
Case Identification:
Subjective Case
Objective Case
Possessive Case
Singular
Who
Whoever
Whom
Whomever
Whose
Whosever
Plural
Who
Whoever
Whom
Whomever
Whose
Whosever
Usage of Who and Whom
Using Who and Whom
Case
Pronoun
Use in a sentence
Subjective
Who
Whoever
Subject of a verb or a complement
Objective
Whom
Whomever
Direct object, Indirect object,
Object of a preposition
Possessive
Whose
Whosever
Indicates ownership
Rule 1
Use who or whoever when the pronoun is
The subject of a verb.
Who wants to eat the drumstick?
A subject compliment.
The man who offered the reward was who?
The subject of a subordinate clause.
I wonder who wrote the letter to the editor.
Rule 2
Use whom or whomever when the pronoun is
The direct object of a verb.
Whom did she finally ask to the party?
The object of a preposition.
With whom were you discussing the merger?
The object of a verb in a subordinate clause.
I wonder whom the CEO will select as the manager.
Rule 3
Generally, you can use the following hints to determine when to use who or whom.
(Note that these hints might not work with questions.)
When a pronoun is followed by a verb, use who.
When a pronoun is followed by a noun, use whom.
Careful!
Do not use that in place of who when referring to people and animals with specific names.
Incorrect: He is a project manager that always develops a contingency plan.
Correct: He is a project manager who always develops a contingency plan.
Point of View
Definition: Point of view in writing refers to the source of the writer's opinions and conclusions. There are three
points of view in writing that are appropriately termed first, second, and third person. The rules below explain the
different points of view.
Rule 1
First person point of view uses I or We as subjects and My or Our as pronouns.
Example: I have found that the best way to avoid conflict is to communicate.
Example: In conclusion, my research reveals that the best way to avoid conflict is to communicate.
Rule 2
Second person point of view uses You as a subject and your as a pronoun.
Example: In order to earn better grades, you must study more.
Example: Your study habits have contributed to your grades.
Rule 3
Third person point of view uses proper nouns and pronouns such as he, she, it, and they.
Example: Project managers [plural noun] should dedicate enough time to project planning, so they [plural
pronoun] can implement a successful project.
Point of View in Academic Writing
Third-person pronouns [he, she, it, they] are the most common pronouns in academic writing. Second-person
pronouns [you, your] are not used. First-person pronouns [I, we] can be used.
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association permits the use of I when referring to yourself,
but only if you are the sole author (p. 39). APA advises to restrict the use of We. However, individual assignments
may direct otherwise on the use of I and We, so check with your facilitator on specific assignment criteria.
Careful!
Be sure that if you use the pronoun We for the third person that it refers to the authors and not humankind in
general.
Incorrect: We are social animals ['We' refers to the authors].
Correct: Humans are social animals.
Because second person is not approved in academic writing, avoid using you when speaking of people in general.
Incorrect: You can no longer travel to Canada without a passport.
Correct: Travelers can no longer enter Canada without a passport.
Be careful when using third-person singular pronouns, such as anybody, nobody, each, everybody, and so on. For
third-person singular pronouns, be sure to use the correct possessive pronouns.
Incorrect: Each [singular pronoun] student has their [plural possessive pronoun] passport.
Correct: The students [plural noun] have their [plural possessive pronoun] passports.
For more information on pronoun usage please review pronouns in the grammar mechanics section.
Redundancy
Definition: Redundancy in writing is unnecessary repetition of words and phrases. The rules for identifying
redundancies are the same for any other type of editing.
Rule 1
Let your writing get “cold” by doing something else for a while and then coming back to your paper. When you
come back to your paper, your mind will be fresh to identify redundancies.
Rule 2
Read your writing aloud slowly. Your ear can help you identify words and phrases that are repeated unnecessarily.
Rule 3
Ask someone else to read your writing and mark redundancies. Another set of eyes and ears is always helpful in
identifying redundancies.
Redundancy Examples
Reviewing common redundancies is the best way to begin identifying redundancies in your own writing. Below are
some examples with sample improvements.
Example: This is a topic of which I will speak of ['of' is repeated twice].
Better: This is a topic of which I will speak.
Example: The company’s future goals…[all 'goals' are future].
Better: The company's goals…
Example: As we look forward into the future…['into the future' is forward].
Better: As we look forward…
Example: Most internal changes within a company are pre-planned [‹internal changes’ are ‹within a company’ and
all ‹planning’ is done before hand].
Better: Most changes in an organization are planned.
Example: In life, we sometimes have goals that are often unreachable [the introductory phrase ‹in life’ is cliché and
unnecessary and the phrase 'have goals that are often' is wordy and should be reworded to be more concise].
Better: We sometimes set goals that are unreachable.
Example: Acceptance of individual teammates within a team builds strength and character that leads to achieving
the team’s intended purpose [the phrase ‹acceptance of individuals within a team’ and ‹builds strength and character
that leads to achieving the team’s intended purposes' are wordy and can be reworded].
Better: Accepting teammates builds character that leads to reaching team goals.
Example: For the vast majority of us, the blatant abusive use of political influence by our public officials both
locally and nationally has made the average citizen very distrusting and skeptical about all politicians.
Better: For most of us, the abuse of influence by our public officials, both local and national, has aroused distrust.
Topic Sentence
Definition: A topic sentence summarizes the information in a paragraph. It helps the reader understand the writer’s
intent.
Rule 1
Because a topic sentence summarizes the information in a paragraph, it should be the first or last sentence in the
paragraph.
Paragraph without a topic sentence:
This prevents some minor tragedies. Should you fail to do so, you won’t harm things like dark socks, but your white
T-shirts and shorts may turn dingy brown—or worse yet—pink. This can be an embarrassing mistake. Most people
don’t mind wearing a pair of brownish gym socks, but not many guys are willing to don a pink basketball jersey.
With a topic sentence as the first sentence:
Separating the whites from the darks is the first step in washing your clothes. This prevents some minor tragedies.
Should you fail to do so, you won’t harm things like dark socks, but your white T-shirts and shorts may turn dingy
brown—or worse yet—pink. This can be a costly mistake. Most people don’t mind wearing a pair of brownish gym
socks, but not many guys are willing to don a pink basketball jersey.
The underlined sentence is the topic sentence because it summarizes the steps that will follow in the paragraph about
washing clothes.
With a topic sentence as the last sentence:
Many college students struggle with washing their clothes. Separating whites from darks will prevent minor
tragedies. Should you fail to do so, you won’t harm things like dark socks, but your white T-shirts and shorts may
turn dingy brown—or worse yet—pink. This can be a costly mistake. Most people don’t mind wearing a pair of
brownish gym socks, but not many guys are willing to don a pink basketball jersey. Separating the whites from the
darks is the first step in washing clothes.
Again, the underlined sentence is the topic sentence because it summarizes the steps that will follow in the
paragraph about washing clothes.
Transitions
Definition: Transitions are words or phrases that help a reader move smoothly from one thought to the next. Many
words help the reader move easily through a paper: coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, relative
pronouns, adverbs, and prepositional phrases.
Rule 1
Use a variety of transitions in your paper to maintain the interest of your audience. The chart below shows a few
examples of each of these transitions.
Types of Transitions
Examples
Coordinating conjunctions
and, but, for
Subordinating conjunctions
while, if, although
Relative pronouns
who, which, that
Adverbs
later, then, however
Prepositional phrases
in the end, as a result
Below is a paragraph without transitions:
In 1916, Margaret Sanger opened the first birth-control clinic. She was helped by several other women. It was
located in New York City. They provided contraceptive advice to poor women. They provided contraceptive advice
to immigrant women. The clients sought assistance to control unwanted pregnancies. Sanger gained worldwide
recognition for founding the movement. It was named the American Birth Control League. The League was
renamed the Planned Parenthood Federation of America. The year was 1942.
Below is the same paragraph with transitions [the transitions are in bold].
In 1916, Margaret Sanger and several other women opened the first birth-control clinic in New York City. They
provided contraceptive advice to poor and immigrant women who sought help controlling unwanted pregnancies. In
time, Sanger gained world recognition and admiration for founding the movement, which was named The American
Birth Control League. In 1942, the League was re-named Planned Parenthood Federation of America.
Rule 2
Inserting transitions sometimes becomes clearer when editing. After writing a draft, do something else for at least a
few minutes. When you return to your paper, the need for transitions will become more apparent.
Rule 3
Sometimes the best transition is punctuation: a comma, period, or dash.
Example: During an earthquake, stand in the doorway—don’t run outside!
In the example above, the comma causes the reader to pause and the dash creates an emphasis transition for the
statement "don't run outside!"