Download teaching english clause structure

TEACHING ENGLISH CLAUSE STRUCTURE
WILLIAM CHENG
Introduction
The decision to write an article on this topic came about as a result of talks with some teachers
on problems of teaching English. There was general agreement that many secondary pupils had
difficulty with the more complicated clause structures and teachers would appreciate some guidance
on teaching method. The present article attempts to give a brief survey of the different clause types
and suggest ways of teaching them.
Earlier Studies on Syntax
Although there have been many articles on linguistic studies of clause structures, the systematic study of the effect of syntax on the comprehension of written English is a fairly recent development. Of special interest are articles by Botel et al. (1973), Hunt (1966), O'Donnell (1963), Stoodt
(1972), Chomsky (1972), Bormuth (1970) and Athey (1977). These studies pinpointed specific
structures which are likely to cause difficulty for native speakers. The studies by Stoodt and
Bormuth and his colleagues, both at the fourth grade, helped to establish an ordering of difficulty
in respect of conjunctions and sentence structures. It is interesting to note that Stoodt listed the
following as being the most difficult conjunctions to comprehend: when, so, but, or, where,
while, that and if, while, and, how, for and as were considered the easiest. On the other hand, the
Bormuth study showed that sentence structures which appear to be basic and simple can still pose
problems for young learners. Two examples- from a table on percentage of students responding
correctly to questions testing different sentence structures will suffice:
% correct
Comparative, unequal
(Joe runs faster than Bill)
88.3
Comparative, equal
(Joe runs as fast as Bill)
28.1
A study of the above-mentioned literature would tend to confirm the view that understanding
clause structure and the relationships signalled by conjunctions facilitates the comprehension of
reading passages.
It is regrettable that there is no comparable literature in respect of ESL students, although
an article 'The Relationship of Syntax to Readability for ESL Students in Thailand' by Nilagupta
(1977) would seem to indicate that Thai college students are perplexed by the same syntactic struct-
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ures which pose problems for younger native speakers.
Another area of research is connected with the teaching of writing. Although studies carried
out by Mellon (1969), Miller and Ney (1968) threw some light on the relationship between the
teaching of structures and the writing performance of pupils, a more interesting and relevant study
is that conducted by Frank O'Hare (1973). His experiment indicated that pupils given systematic
instruction and practice in sentence-combining attained syntactic maturity at a faster rate; they
were also able to write compositions that were judged to be better in overall quality. Although
there is no comparable study in respect of ESL pupils, it would seem that there is considerable
justification for teaching local pupils to master clause structure at the secondary stage.
Clause Types
Traditional grammar separates clauses into co-ordinate and subordinate clauses, the latter
being classified into noun, adjectival and adverbial clauses, each with its own sub-divisions.
In this present article the terminology of traditional grammar is largely preserved although
new terms used by descriptive linguists may occasionally be introduced.
Conjunctions and the Relations They Signify
The teaching of clauses is closely linked with the teaching of conjunctions. Whether it is the
conjunctions that determine the nature of the clauses or vice versa is an interesting point.
Consider the following sentences:
He arrived late.
He finished his work on time.
If we are asked to combine the two sentences, we may choose any of the following possibilities:
BUT
(1) He arrived late but (he) finished his work on time.
This is a compound sentence because but introduces a coordinate clause.
ALTHOUGH (2) Although he arrived late, he finished his work on time.
HOWEVER
(3) He arrived late; however, he arrived on time.
Sentence (2), however, is a complex sentence because although introduces a
subordinate clause.
Let us examine another pair.
Offer him enough money.
He will sell his house.
IF
(1) If you offer him enough money, he will sell his house.
AND
(2) Offer him enough money and he will sell his house.
There is considerable justification, therefore, in defining co-ordinate and subordinate clauses
in terms of the conjunctions used. A useful discussion of this problem is found in 'Coordinate and
Subordinate Clauses - A Formal Analysis of the Traditional Classification' by H. Sopher (1974).
The connection between conjunctions and clause structure also explains why exercises in clause
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structure usually begin with the blank-filling type in which the pupil is asked to complete the
sentence by adding the right conjunction. Whether this will help pupils to use conjunctions to
link up sentences in a sensible manner is a moot point. The pupil must be aware of the implied
relationship before he can join together sentences such as those given above.
COORDINATE CLAUSES
Teachers spend much less time teaching coordinate clauses than they do subordinate clauses
and even books on language teaching devote very little space to this topic. It is necessary, however,
to understand some of the significant differences between coordinate and subordinate clauses.
The traditional division of coordinate conjunctions into: cumulative, adversative, alternative and
illative can be ignored but some of the findings of linguists should be noted.
Linkage and Bondage
The two terms may be unfamiliar to teachers who are accustomed to traditional grammar.
They are, however, useful for distinguishing between coordinate conjunctions, which are known
as linkers because they conjoin like items, and subordinate conjunctions, called binders, which
join together unlike terms.
The following differences between the two are worth noting. **
(a) Because the linkers conjoin like items, there is no difference between the contextual class of
the sentence and that of individual clauses, e.g.
(i) He came, (and he) looked over the room and (he) left.
(Statement)
(ii) Sign this or leave the room.
(Command)
(iii) Will you report this or will you ignore it?
(Question)
On the other hand notice the following sentences:
(iv) Ask her to drop in when she happens to be passing by.
(Command)
(v) Will you ask her to drop in when she happens to be passing by? (Question/request)
The contextual class changes from command to question. A change of the dependent clause
will not bring about a change in the contextual class of the sentence.
The difference between the two types can be further exemplified by examining sentence
(iii) and the one given below:
(vi) Would you tell me whether you will report this?
The difference in word order of the two clauses in (vi) clearly indicates that the two are not
like items.
(b) Another difference can be seen by examining the following sentences:
(vii) John is wise but Jack is foolish.
(viii) Jack is foolish but John is wise.
**A much fuller description is given in 'A Grammar of Contemporary English' by Quirk et al. (1972)
and 'A course in spoken English: grammar' by J.M.H. Sinclair (1972).
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Both are acceptable, but we do not attest the following:
*(ix) But Jack is foolish, John is wise.
Notice that though but is linked with the second clause, this relationship is rather loose; the
two clauses can be switched, but the linker remains in its original position, (ix) is not acceptable.
On the other hand, notice the following:
(x) If you invite him, he will certainly come to the party.
(xi) He will certainly come to the party if you invite him.
The binder if is closely tied up with the dependent clause and if the latter is moved, it must
also move along with the clause.
(c) A third difference is that of ellipsis of the subject of the linked clause. In (i) the subject
(he) in the second and third clauses is co-referential with that of the first clause; it is normally
suppressed. On the other hand the subject cannot normally be suppressed in a dependent
clause,
e.g. (xii) John will thank you personally when he comes here,
(xiii) John will come here and thank you personally.
(d) A fourth point is that a linker can link several clauses and in such cases all but the final instance
of the linker can be left out, e.g.
(xiv) He grabbed his coat, put it on in a hurry, flung open the door, and rushed out of the room.
Notice also that quite a number of linkers can link subordinate clauses.
(xv) I am sure he will come, and if he does, he will definitely invite you to the party.
(xvi) He will not dare to do it, but if he does, I will report him to the Principal.
Linkers — a Classification
The classification of linkers or coordinate conjunctions into cumulative, adversative, alternative and illative conjunctions is meaning-based and does not really help much in teaching sentence construction.
We should perhaps group linkers into at least two groups: those joining words, phrases or
clauses and those which join complete clauses only, e.g.
(a) Joining words, phrases or clauses; and, but, or, nor, (yet)
(b) Joining complete clauses: so, for.
When teaching linkers, teachers often concentrate only on: and, but, either ... or, neither ...
nor, yet, for, nor, then, or, yet. The authors of 'English Grammar: A Linguistic Study of its Classes
and Structure' point out that linkage relationships may have the following features:
(a) a linking particle,
(b) a shared element,
(c) a repeated word,
(d) a pronoun.
(e) punctuation.
*A single asterisk indicates that the sentence that follows is grammatically unacceptable.
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The teacher should also mention the less obvious ways of joining clauses when he is teaching
upper forms.
Sentence Connectors
It is worth noting that apart from the familiar linkers and binders, there are also sentence
connectors which serve a useful purpose in signifying certain relationships and are very useful in
developing an argument or exposition. They are words such as: indeed, in fact, besides, consequently, furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, perhaps, similarly, then, therefore. They are
more mobile than linkers and can appear at the beginning of a sentence before the main verb and
sometimes at the end of a sentence. Linkers can, of course, come at the beginning of a sentence
but not in front of the verb or at the end of a sentence.
A useful article on teaching sentence connectors and the relationships they signify is 'Getting
the connection' by J.F. Stead (1978). Stead suggests using a cognitive approach to the teaching of
sentence connectors. The first step is to present the distinctions in the meanings of a few common
connectors. This is done through simple explanations and illustrations, e.g. 'A; however, B.
(B is something different from A).' Then follows a short quiz in which the pupils are asked to
join pairs of sentences using each time one of four clearly different sentence connectors supplied
by the teacher. This often generates a discussion of why certain connectors are chosen. Further
practice is provided by linking such activities to the study of reading texts or through the use of a
dicto-comp. The article is well worth reading.
BOUND CLAUSES or SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Bound clauses are divided into these groups:
1. Noun clauses
2. Adjectival clauses
3. Adverbial clauses.
'A Grammar of Contemporary English' classifies such clauses into the following categories:
nominal, adverbial, relative, comparative, complementary, and comment clauses. Since teachers
are more conversant with the traditional classification, I shall use the latter in the description that
follows. However, teachers are urged to make a close study of the description in the book, especially
Eleven: The Complex Sentence pp. 717-798.
Noun Clauses
The teaching of noun clauses is often connected with the teaching of Reported Speech.
Linton, Stone in 'Cambridge Proficiency English' states on p.93 'Noun Clauses are studied in
detail in the chapter on Reported Speech.' However this treatment leaves out some types of noun
clauses which may pose difficulties for the average ESL pupil.
For the sake of convenience, we can divide noun clauses into two types according to the re-
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latives used. These are in turn sub-divided according to the position in the structure:
(a) Noun clauses with 'that'
(b) Noun clauses with wh-words
with 'that'
(i) as subject: That she has returned safely calls for celebration,
(ii) as object: I hope (that ) you will be promoted,
(iii) as subjective complement: The agreement is that he should be offered a more attractive
post.
(iv) in apposition: The rumour that he will be transferred is totally unfounded,
(v) as adjective complement: I'm certain that conditions will improve.
with 'wh-word'
(i) as subject: How he will make out is no business of yours,
(ii) as object: I can't understand how he can tolerate such impertinence,
(iii) as subjective complement: The question is not who will pass but who will get a distinction.
(iv) as adjective complement: I wasn't sure whose book had been misplaced,
(v) prepositional complement: It all depends on what you mean.
In principle we can say that that-clauses should be taught first since there is no change in
word order, whereas wh-clauses in Reported Speech often involve such changes (except when
the wh-word is the subject).
An Examination of some Problems in Teaching Noun Clauses
Pupils often find it difficult to compose sentences with a that-clause or a wh-clause as subject.
There is also another problem - that of choosing between 'that-clause x to be x subjective complement' and 'It x to be x subjective complement x that clause.' The latter is the more normal form.
This can be linked with the teaching of one type of the passive, e.g. 'It is suggested that they should
be given another term of office.' It can also be drilled in connection with patterns involving adjectives. 'It is true that he has been offered the prize.' But notice that sentence (i) 'That she has
returned safely calls for celebration' would sound a bit odd if changed to the pattern with introductory 'it'. If it is necessary to give pupils practice in using this structure, a combination or completion drill can be used.
e.g. combination He has obtained his Ph.D. This calls for celebration.
That he has obtained his Ph. D. calls for celebration.
completion That he has obtained his Ph.D. comes as no surprise to me.
In apposition
Another difficulty pupils have is that of distinguishing between noun clauses in apposition and
adjectival clauses. Provided that they can use both types of clauses in natural situations, it does
not really matter very much whether they have such academic knowledge. However, the following
examples may be of some help to those who have difficulty in distinguishing between the two.
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(i) The news that he will be promoted has been confirmed, (noun clause)
Q. What is the news that has been confirmed?
A. That he will be promoted.
The clause is therefore a noun clause.
(ii) The news (that he told you) is false.
Q. What is the news?
A. It is not stated in the sentence.
The clause 'that he told you' is therefore an adjectival clause.
Notice that (i) could be rephrased as 'It has been confirmed that he will be promoted'. This
is a construction that is both common and natural and pupils should be encouraged to practise
using it. However, it must be pointed out that there are times when the construction mentioned
earlier should be used. e.g. 'The rumour that he has been dismissed is completely unfounded.'
We do not normally say* 'It is completely unfounded that he has been dismissed.'
Another point to note is that there are nouns other than 'news' or 'fact' that take noun clauses
in apposition and pupils who restrict themselves to 'the news that' or 'the fact that' should be
reminded of the existence of such words. A few examples are: alibi, rumour, idea, impression,
assurance, suggestion, opinion, prospect, problem, theory, evidence, truth, possibility etc.
As object
Noun clauses as object are usually taught in connection with Reported Speech. Practice in
using such clauses can also be linked with the teaching of verb patterns (Hornby's VP 9, 10, 11,
and 21 - classification given in the new edition.)
Notice the different patterns into which the two reporting verbs say and tell enter.
SAY
subject x say x that clause
(also say x to x indirect object)
TELL
subject x indirect object x that-clause.
Notice also that the two verbs can take quoted speech as object.
It is also necessary for the teacher to remind pupils that other verbs can be used in the two
constructions. Thus it would be useful for pupils to practise using such verbs to report different
statements.
Say - answer, admit, announce, agree, argue, claim, conclude, emphasize, explain, maintain,
mention, declare, remark, complain, comment, reply, protest, report, suggest, indicate,
boast, promise
Tell - inform, warn, convince, remind, assure, advise, promise, teach, show
Some Suggestions on Teaching Noun Clauses
Teachers are familiar with the various types of drills associated with noun clauses. Examples
can be found in Gordon Drummond's 'English Structure Practice' (Longman) pp. 80-87 and
'English Sentence Structure' by Jupp and Milne (Heinemann) Section 9.
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One criticism levelled against pattern drills is that they are often uncontextualized. If the sentences can be used to build up a connected paragraph, pupils will find the work more meaningful,
e.g.
The Trial Scene
Make up a report on a trial by completing the following:
The prosecutor said
The suspect explained
He denied
He also maintained
The lawyer asked
The prosecutor pointed out
The suspect then claimed
The witness testified
On being cross-examined, he admitted
The judge declared
An alternative method is for the teacher to ask a series of questions, the answers to which will
involve the use of noun clauses. An interesting example is found in James Day's 'An advanced
English Practice Course' p. 129.
For lower forms the following game may be useful.
The relatives that, how, where, when, why, which, if are written on the board. A list of
verbs is also given.
Divide the class into two teams A and B. Ask a pupil in Team A to announce a verb and point
to a relative and challenge a pupil in the other team to make a sentence.
PI: Ask (points to 'how')
P2: I asked him how he found the answer. (The Team B pupil scores a point)
A pupil from Team B then announces a verb and points to a relative and the game continues.
P3: Tell (points to 'where')
P4: I told him where to go. (The sentence is grammatically correct but a phrase is used.
No point is awarded. However, the class must be made aware of this rule before the
game starts.)
PS: Say (points to 'why')
'Say' cannot take a noun clause with 'why' (except in direct speech.) The team loses
a point.
More Advanced Exercises
The following exercises are probably more suitable for pupils in the higher forms only.
(a) Combination exercises involving verbs other than those denoting speech and communication.
e.g. He would have to overcome considerable diffculties. He fully realized this. He fully
realized that he would have to overcome considerable difficulties.
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(b)
Substituting noun clauses for phrases and vice versa:
e.g. They attribute his success to his father being such a genius.
e.g. They went out in spite of the fact that it was raining.
(c) Practice with clauses in apposition.
Examples have already been given in the section on noun clause in apposition.
(d) If the passive is being taught in the higher forms, then the following pattern should be
practised:
It is freely admitted that
It is felt that
Verbs fitting this pattern are: think, fear, feel, expect, discover, consider, acknowledge, believe,
suppose, imagine, know, understand, say, reveal, prove, declare, admit.
It is pertinent to point out that pupils should be helped to distinguished between the pattern,
with introductory 'it' and that with personal pronouns as subject, e.g.
SAY
People say that he is a first-class tennis player.
It is said that he is a first-class tennis player.
He is said to be a first-class tennis player.
Notice also the following:
People say that he will be promoted.
It is said that he will be promoted.
But we should say 'He is expected to be promoted.'
Other Problems Involving Introductory 'It'
(i) It x adjective x clause.
A number of adjectives can be used in this construction. A fairly comprehensive list can be
found on p.287 of 'Modern English' by W.E. Rutherford (Harcourt, Brace and World).
A few examples are: certain, possible, likely, important, lucky, essential, interesting, imperative,
sad, good, nice curious, sure, natural.
(ii) It x verb x (pro) noun x that clause.
Verbs: please, delight, satisfy, amaze, impress, disgust, worry, surprise, disappoint,
encourage.
ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES
I shall discuss the problems concerning adjectival clauses under the following heads:
(a) Relatives used in adjectival clauses,
(b) Retrictive and non-restrictive clauses,
(c) The influence of determiners on relative clauses,
(d) The problem of deletion,
(e) Some suggestions on teaching adjectival clauses.
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Relatives Used in Adjectival Clauses
Unlike adverbial clauses with their variety of subordinates, adjectival clauses are associated
with only a number of relative pronouns: who, whom, which, that, where, when, why and (zero).
A very useful diagram on restrictive relative clauses is found on p.867 of 'A Grammar of
Contemporary English' by Quirk et al. In an article in ELT vol. 12 no. 1 1957 'From Descriptive
Prescriptive: An example' Professor Quirk suggests that the dominant pronoun to be taught is
the wh-series. The article discusses in detail the contextual uses of who, whom, which and
that and deserves careful study.
Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Clauses
I shall begin by examing restrictive clauses in some detail. Look at the following sentences:
(i) I bought a second-hand typewriter.
It belonged to Mr. Chan.
If the two sentences are combined, we can have 'I bought a second-hand typewriter that belonged to Mr. Chan.' or we can reverse it and have 'The typewriter that I bought belonged to Mr.
Chan.'
If we teach our pupils to construct adjectival clauses and begin with a combination exercise,
we must make sure that they can select the main clause and produce an acceptable sentence. For
weaker pupils it may be advisable to begin with sentence pairs in which the object of the first
sentence is the subject of the second,
e.g. (ii) I have given it to the boy. The boy came yesterday.
Thus we have: I have given it to the boy that/who came yesterday.
Now let us examine another pair:
(iii) The prisoner was kept in the dungeon. The prisoner/he has escaped.
Combining them with a relative, we have:
The prisoner who was kept in the dungeon has escaped.
On the other hand, if we put the sentences in a different order, the unwary pupil will be trapped. He may produce 'The prisoner has escaped who was kept in the dungeon.' Even the following
might be considered less acceptable by some teachers:
The prisoner who has escaped was kept in the dungeon.
So in addition to selecting the right relative pronoun (who/whom/that/zero), the pupil has
to be able to select the main clause.
The Influence of Determiners on Relative Clauses**
Specified Determiners
When there is an 'unspecified determiner' like any and all, we use restrictive relative clauses
only,
e.g. Any man who does that is a fool.
**See C. S. Smith (1964) for a fuller treatment.
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All members who have paid their subscriptions will be entitled to a free ticket each.
Unspecified Determiners
If the noun phrase which is qualified contains the definite or indefinite article, the adjectival
clause can be either restrictive or non-restrictive. Thus both 'The soldiers who had captured the
city were commended for their bravery' and 'The soldiers, who had captured the city, were commended for their bravery' are grammatically acceptable although there is obviously a difference in
meaning.
Notice also that after indefinite pronouns like: something, all, everything, anywhere,
etc. 'that' rather than 'which' is used After someone, everyone, nobody, etc. 'who' and 'whom'
are normally replaced by 'that'. However, this is not obligatory. We must use 'that' for people and
things after a superlative. The relative can, however, be omitted if it is the object,
e.g. That's the best book on the subject that has appeared on the market for a long time.
John's the most precocious child (that) I have ever met.
Unique Determiners
A proper noun, with or without 'the' (e g John, the United Kingdom) is said to contain a unique determiner. Such determiners go with non-restrictive clauses only. Thus
Paul, who helped to prepare the report, has been recommended for promotion.
Notice that in the following sentence the noun Shakespeare is not a proper noun and the rule
does not apply.
That's not the Shakespeare (that) we've been reading about.
Identifying Non-Restrictive Clauses
Very often textbooks contain exercises which require the pupil to point out whether a clause
is restrictive or non-restrictive. Teachers usually tell pupils that clauses separated by commas are
non-restrictive. This may help them to identify such clauses, it does not help them to develop a
feeling for the language in the sense that they can use both types of clauses freely. Naturally,
the problem is more apparent in writing than in speech, although, even in speech, the pauses between the sense groups are also important.
Another explanation offered by teachers and the traditional textbook is that 'who' or 'which'
in non-restrictive clause means 'and he' or 'and it'.
e.g. (i) I gave it to the boy, who took it home to his father.
Two comments are pertinent. Pupils who are given this explanation will be puzzled when
they come across examples like the following since the 'and he' substitution does not appear to
work.
(ii) John, who saved five people from drowning, has been recommended for a citation.
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Furthermore, even in the case of the illustrative sentence given, most pupils are not sophisticated enough to grasp the point. I well remember the puzzled look on the face of a group of Form
4 pupils when I tried to explain that the relative clause in the following sentence was a non-restrictive one because it did not identify the boy and the action described occurred after that mentioned in the main clause.
(iii) I gave it to the boy, who took it home.
I gave it to the boy. (Then) The boy took it home.
(1st action)
(2nd action)
Obviously the rule-of-thumb explanation did not work.
To teach the difference between the non-restrictive and restrictive clauses, perhaps the following approach may be useful.
(iv) The seven sheep which are in the fold are well protected from the cold wind,
(v) The seven sheep, which are in the fold, are well protected from the cold wind.
The teacher can ask the class, 'Which sentence implies that there are only seven sheep and
which implies that there are probably more than seven?'
I have found that a sketch sometimes helps to illustrate the difference.
The Problem of Deletion
Most textbooks remind pupils that the relative which is an object in the adjectival clause can
be deleted,
e.g. The man (whom) you saw yesterday is my cousin.
There are other types of deletion which should also be brought to the attention of pupils. A
few examples are given below:
(a) Relative clauses containing predicative adjectives,
e.g. (i) They chose a watch. The watch was expensive.
They chose a watch (which was) expensive.
If deletion is possible, the predicative adjective is shifted to the front of the noun.
Thus
They chose an expensive watch.
Naturally an adjective which can only be used predicatively cannot undergo this deletion,
e.g. (ii) Peter pointed to the man. The man was obviously afraid.
Peter pointed to the man who was obviously afraid.
Notice that if the noun phrase is an indefinite pronoun (e.g. anything, everyone, someone,
etc.) the adjective in the deleted sentence remains after the noun phrase,
(iii) I met someone who is famous.
I met someone famous.
(b) Predicative adjectives followed by prepositional or infinitive phrases.
Sometimes the predicative adjective may be followed by a prepositional or an infinitive phrase.
Notice the deletion.
With prepositional phrase
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(iv)
I met an author. The author is well known for his eccentric views.
I met an author who is well known for his eccentric views.
Deleting 'who is' we have 'I met an author well known for his eccentric views.'
With infinitive
The following is an example.
(v) Please give us a composition. The composition is easy to write.
Combining the two, we have 'Please give us a composition which is easy to write.'
Deleting 'which is' we have 'Please give us a composition easy to write.'
Notice also the following:
(vi) This is a problem (which is) not easy to solve.
Changing the position of 'not' in the sentence, we have 'This is not an easy problem to solve.'
Now let us examine the following sentence:
(vii) This is the building which is the New General Post Office. Here we cannot delete
'which is'.
While we can generally say that relative clauses containing which, that, or who followed by a
verb do not undergo the deletion process, we must remember that there are exceptions in the case
of sentences containing the -ing/-en form of the verb.
e.g. (viii) I met some girls. They were playing in the park.
I met some girls playing in the park.
(ix)
The enemy troops were surrounded by our soldiers. They had to surrender.
Surrounded by our soldiers, the enemy troops had to surrender.
Some Suggestions on the Teaching of Adjectival Clauses
The following is offered as a possible approach. Teachers should not follow it rigidly.
Step 1 Using Substitution Tables.
(a) Restrictive clauses (no commas)
For People
The girl
who finished first
(that) he recommended
whose painting you bought
(that) you came across
is my niece.
Notice that the examples cover clauses with who, that, and whose. Notice also that those
with that are in brackets showing the possibility of using the zero form. 'That' as subject is avoided.
For things
The painting
that/which was donated to the museum
(that) you admired so much
whose frame was damaged
cost §100,000.
is not for sale.
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Non-restrictive clauses (commas)
My cousin,
For people
who was champion for five years,
whom you met yesterday,
whose car is outside,
with whom I play tennis every Saturday,
who(m) I play tennis with every Saturday,
has just retired.
Notice that in the non-restrictive clauses, whom cannot be deleted. The teacher should also
point out that 'My cousin, with whom I play tennis every Saturday' is formal while 'My cousin,
who(m) I play tennis with every Saturday', is the more normal form in speech.
John's boat,
Step 2:
For things
which has a fresh coat of paint,
which he has recently bought,
which you made sarcastic remarks about,
about which you made sarcastic remarks,
whose engine doesn't seem to work,
coat §20,0000.
Matching
Complete the following sentences with the most suitable clauses from the group a, b, c, d, etc.
1. The boy
was congratulated by the headmaster.
2. The hunter
received a reward.
3. Please give the letter to the man
4. It's time you cleaned up the room
5. The ship
is arriving tomorrow.
a. which left Honolulu three weeks ago
b. who rescued the drowning girl
c. which has been reserved for our guest of honour
d. who is waiting outside
e. who shot the man-eater.
Step 3:
Filling blanks with suitable relatives.
This is a familiar exercise. The purpose is to enable the pupils to use the various relatives
with ease.
E.g. Give it to the boy (whose) uncle is waiting outside.
Step 4:
Discriminating between restrictive and non-restrictive clauses
A more advanced type is one in which the pupils indicate whether the clause is restrictive
or non-restrictive or whether both are acceptable.
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William Cheng : Teaching English Clause Structure
E.g.
A driver (who) entered the race at the last possible moment won the trophy.
Another type is the following:
E.g. Which sentence implies that some of the climbers did not obtain a good view of Shatin.
(i) The climbers, who got to the top of Lion Rock Hill, had a marvellous panoramic
view of Shatin.
(ii) The climbers who got to the top of Lion Rock Hill had a marvellous panoramic
view of Shatin.
Step 5:
Combination exercise
This too is familiar and one or two examples will suffice.
Combine the following by using clauses beginning with that, who, which, whom or whose.
Indicate whether the clauses are restrictive or non-restrictive and whether it is possible to use a
contact clause.
(i) The officer escaped from the closely guarded prisoner-of-war camp. This was a
remarkable feat.
(ii) The officer was most helpful. John referred the matter to him.
Pupils should be given practice in combining sentences similar to (ii) where the adjectival
clause contains a preposition. This is because pupils often write sentences such as:
* This is the house which I live in it.
Some teachers feel that this is the result of using combination exercises before the pupils
have mastered the structural pattern.
(iii) This is the house.
I live in the house, (in which)
(iv) This is the house in which I live.
Pupils have also to be reminded that the more normal form (especially in speech) is
'This is the house I live in.'
Personally, I feel that the sooner pupils master the normal pattern the better. Perhaps it might
be a good idea to reverse the normal step. After showing the pupils how such a sentence as (iv) is
derived from two sentences the teacher could show a variety of sentences and ask the class for the
full sentences from which they are derived. This could be followed by a combination exercise in
which the intermediate step could be omitted.
Step 6: Completion
This too, is familiar. The difference is that the pupil has an opportunity to exercise his imagination in supplying the relative clauses and is to that extent more creative.
E.g.
You'd better give it to the messenger
or You'd better give it to the messenger who
Step 7: Expansion of phrases given
This is more advanced. The pupil is given a few word groups and asked to expand them into
sentences with relative clauses.
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Education Journal
E.g.
No. 7, 1979
John
father
in England
staying with my cousin
John, whose father is in England, is staying with my cousin.
Policeman
captured
robber
promoted
The policeman who captured the robber was promoted.
The policeman, who captured the robber, was promoted
or
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Most textbooks classify adverbial clauses into the following types:
Clauses
Time
Conjunctions
before, after, when, while, as, since, until, as soon as, once,
now (that)
Place
where, wherever
Manner
as, as if
Comparison
as, than, the... the (comparative)
Reason or cause
because, as, since
Purpose
so that, in order that, for fear that, lest
Result
so that, so x adjective x that, such that
Condition
if, unless, whether, provided that, supposing
Concession
although, though, even though, even if, while, whatever,
wherever, whenever, no matter.
Although some adverbial clauses are introduced very early, e.g. those of time, comparison
and reason, etc. the teacher should be aware of those which pose problems for the average pupil.
A few of these problems are mentioned below.
Time
Although clauses with when are very common, pupils often find it difficult to distinguish between
noun, adjectival and adverbial clauses beginning with this conjunction.
I'll give him a ring when I return, (adverbial clause)
He told us of the time when he was a student, (adjectival clause)
Do you know when he will return? (noun clause)
The best solution is to teach noun clauses in association with Reported Speech and adjectival
clause with when in conjunction with completion exercises. When teaching adverbial clauses of
time, we should remind our pupils that the future tense is not used even when the time clause refers
to the future. This provides an opportunity for the teacher to tell pupils that tense is not synonymous with time. There is also a need to help pupils to distinguish between the simple present and
the present perfect in such sentences as
(i) I'll join you as soon as I have had breakfast.
and
(ii) Please give me a ring as soon as he arrives.
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William Cheng : Teaching English Clause Structure
In the case of (ii) the present perfect could also be used but the simple present cannot be
used in (i)
Another point regarding tenses concerns clauses with when and after.
Look at the following pairs:
(iii) After he had cleared the table he switched on the record player.
(iv) After he cleared the table, he switched on the record player.
Both sentences are acceptable. However, if we substitute when for after the use of the past
perfect is obligatory.
(v) When he had cleared the table he switched on the record player.
One final point. Sometimes adverbial clauses of time are introduced by nouns with or without
that or when.
(vi) The moment he smelled gas, he smashed open the window.
Place
The same problem arises in the case of where
E.g. (i) I'll go where you go.
(ii) I'll go to a place where I can have peace and quiet, (adjective clause of place),
(iii) Do you know where he is going? (Noun clause)
The co-ordinate clause also poses a problem.
(iv) He was driven to the hotel where he was given a good lunch.
However, it is not very important for the pupil to know that the fourth sentence contains a
co-ordinate clause and not an adjectival or adverbial clause of time; the problem is therefore not
so acute. Again systematic practice, properly spaced out, is the answer.
Manner
Sentences like 'They can do as they please.' pose no problem to pupils. Stock similes such as
'He ran as fast as the wind' are also easy. Pupils, however, ought to be reminded that there are
other expressions such as 'how' or 'in any way' which can replace 'as'.
'As if and 'as though' may sometimes pose problems in respect of tenses.
E.g. Stop behaving as if you owned the place.
Comparison
Classes of comparison are not difficult to teach. Some teachers might feel that they have to
pay attention to the case of the pronoun after than;
E.g. I am taller than he.
However, it is only fair to point out that many native speakers see nothing wrong in using
him, especially in speech.
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No. 7, 1979
Reason
Clause of reason beginning with because pose no problem. Those with as and since might
be confused with other clauses such as clauses of time.
He hasn't spoken to her since they quarrelled last week, (adverbial clause of time.)
He doesn't want to speak to her since they quarrelled last week, (adverbial clause of
reason.)
Pupils also find clauses with because and for confusing. An excellent note is found in 'A
Practical English Grammar', Thomson & Martinet, p.54. On balance it would be advisable to
concentrate on teaching pupils to use because.
To give pupils practice in using the clause, a game could be played.
Pupils could pretend to be a suspect being cross-examined.
T.
Why didn't report it to the police? (afraid)
P.
(pretending to be the suspect) Because I was afraid.
T.
How long have you kept the news from your partner? (We quarrelled.)
P.
A month or so, ever since we quarrelled about who should be the senior partner.
(time clause)
Purpose
Pupils do not find it difficult to learn adverbial clauses of purpose. A few expressions like 'for
fear that* might be slightly more difficult. It is advisable to remind pupils of the difference, however
slight, between 'so as to x infinitive' and 'so that x clause of purpose.'
E.g. (i) He ran quickly (so as) to catch the bus.
(Subject of the clause is the same as that of the infinitive).
This is similar to (ii) He ran quickly so that he could catch the bus.
(iii) He decided to turn on the heater so that the children should not
catch cold, (a different subject)
If we use '(so as) to' the sentence will have to be rewritten as
(iv) He decided to turn on the heater so as not to let the children catch cold.
The problem of tense should also be tackled. If the verb in the main clause is in the present
or future tense, can, may or shall/will is normally used in the other clause. If the verb in the
verb in the main clause is in the past tense, could, should or might is often used in the dependent
(bound) clause.
To give pupils practice in using the two types of patterns a completion exercise can be used.
He opened the window so as to let in fresh air.
He opened the window so that the air in the room be kept fresh.
Result
The following are examples of clauses expressing result,
(i) They arrived late, (so) with the result (that) they had to wait for the next ferry.
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William Cheng : Teaching English Clause Structure
(ii)
(•••\
(111)
'
A principal should never be so busy that he can't receive visitors.
so
T> ,.
L
many pupils , , . T
.
.
,
..
I ve taught
1 r
•, v(that) I can t recognize
them all.
&
&
such a lot of pupils
'
Pupils should be given practice in all three types of clauses. The teacher can use either a
combination or a completion drill to help pupils master the pattern.
E.g. Combination
They arrived late. They had to wait for the next ferry.
They arrived late, so that they had to wait for the next ferry.
Completion
They arrived late
They arrived late so that they had to take a taxi.
When asked to combine two sentences which have causal relationaship, pupils sometimes
have difficulty in distinguishing between clauses of reason and clauses of result. The teacher
can easily show them the difference between the two types.
They arrived late.
They had to take the next ferry.
(cause)
(result)
T.
What did they have to do as a result of their arriving late?
P.
They had to take the next ferry.
They arrived late, so (that) they had to take the next ferry.
T.
Why did they have to take the next ferry?
P.
Because they arrived late. Because they arrived late, they had to take the next ferry.
It would also be a good idea to give drills on situations that are both pleasant and unpleasant,
(i) Unpleasant situations
The teacher suggests some unpleasant situations and the pupils make up complaints
using clauses of result.
T.
The ventilation is bad.
P.
The ventilation is so bad that we are almost suffocated.
For the more advanced class, a whole series of complaints can centre round a situation.
For example, the teacher can simply list items: bad ventilation, unreasonable price, rude waiter,
poor service, etc. and let the pupils compose their sentences,
(ii) Pleasant situations
T.
The service is exceptionally good.
P.
The service is so good that even John cannot find fault with it.
Again the complimentary remarks can be organized round a theme.
Condition
Quite a number of articles have been written on the conditional since it has long been recognised as a major stumbling block to foreign learners of English. Many teachers give an oversimplified description of conditional clauses, perhaps along the following lines:
(i) Open condition
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Education Journal
No. 7,~ 1979
If he prefers to wait in the office, I'll keep him company.
Tense
(present)
(future)
(ii) Unlikely condition
If I had a million, I would buy a Rolls Royce.
Tense
(past)
(would/should x bare infinitive)
(iii) Rejected condition (contrary-to-fact condition)
If you had told me about this, I would not have given it to him.
Tense
(past perfect)
(wouldn't) have x past participle)
They would do well to read L. A. Hill's article' 'The Sequence of Tenses with 'If- Clauses." Hill
worked out a total of 328 (18 x 18) combinations, all of which would be acceptable to native speakers.
Coming to the question of teaching techniques, I would like to mention a series of three
articles on teaching the conditional in 'The Art of TESOL, Part 1' (English Teaching Form
Special Issue).
Notes on Teaching the Conditional
Virginia F. Allen
Contrasts in Conditional Sequences
W.J. Edmondson
Real or Unreal - Teaching the Conditional
Phyllis Tezer
Virginia Allen's article, written in 1967, shows clearly the influence of the structural approach
and the main emphasis is on structural progression and pattern practice. The article by Edmondson
is a more recent one and focuses attention on context and meaning and the exploitation of situations. The three articles complement one another and are well worth reading. There are also
two language teaching films** which show techniques of teaching the conditional.
The first one 'Basic Methodology: An Introduction' is oriented to pattern drills and dialogue
practice and may appear to some to be slightly dated. The second film 'Developing Communication Skills: English as a Foreign Language' deals with the more advanced type of conditional
and shows how the teacher can move from the more traditional kind of pattern drill to the practice
of communication skills. Both films are recommended.
Whatever methods the teacher uses, he should remember that it is only when the pupil
has mastered the form, function and meaning of the conditional that he can use it with accuracy
and confidence. The following examples will make this clear.
Suppose we come across the following mistakes made by pupils A and B respectively:
*(i) If he tried to force his way in, I would cried out loudly.
*(ii) If I see him tomorrow, I would give it to him.
We may feel that pupil A is the weaker pupil since he has made a glaring mistake in verb
form. Pupil B has correctly used the bare infinitive after the modal would, but the sentence
is still wrong because he has not used the right tense combination. Both pupils require practice
in mastering the appropriate linguistic forms. It is in such cases that we can find justification for
the more traditional types of pattern drill in which sentences are practised with little attention
to context.
Let us now look at another sentence:
** Available on loan from the U.S.I.S.
84
William Cheng : Teaching English Clause Structure
(iii) If he came here, I would give it to him.
If we are given this sentence in isolation, we shall no doubt say that it is correct. However,
if it is placed in a larger context where the reference is to a situation in the past, then the sentence
is definitely inappropriate. Learning the conditional obviously involves more than the mere
learning of linguistic forms since different situations call for the use of different conditionals.
The presentation of the construction in suitable contexts is therefore of paramount importance.
To teach the type of conditional required in the situation mentioned above, i.e. rejected condition,
the teacher can ask a pupil to leave the classroom and return in one minute's time.While the
pupil is away, he draws a sketch on the board and then rubs it out before the pupil returns. He
then says, 'While you were out, I drew something on the board. Do you know what I drew on the
board? No, you don't. You were not in the room. If you had been in the room, you would have
seen me draw the picture, but you were not in the room and did not see me draw it.'
In the example given above, I have suggested adding 'but you were not in the room and
did not see me draw it' after the initial presentation of the structure. This is because there is a
danger that the pupil may master the construction without being aware of the implications such
a structure carries. Meaning is just as important as function and form. After drilling a construction like the following: 'I would not have mentioned it to John if Joan had given me the note
yesterday', the teacher should ask, 'Did the speaker mention it to John? Did Joan give him the
note?' This kind of teaching can often be used in the reading comprehension lesson where the
construction is placed in a larger context - a complete passage.
One final word about the conditional. The ordinary grammar lesson is often sterile because
form is emphasized at the expense of function. I suspect that the various uses of the conditional
are best taught in a diversity of situations. The following examples illustrates some of the many
possibilities. It must be pointed out that the whole structure is being considered and not the adverbial clause alone.
Conditional
Function
I wouldn't do that if I were you.
If you persist in doing that, I'll report you to the principal.
If you pour liquid on the substance, it will dissolve.
Warning/advice
Threat
Description of
process
Speculation
Request
Suggestion/advice
Explanation/offering
excuse
Expressing doubt
Expressing regret/
mild censure
What would he do if I sprung this on him?
If he comes home before seven, please ask him to give me a ring.
If you apply the right pressure, the door will open.
If I offended him, it was entirely unintentional.
If he is so clever, why doesn't he do it himself?
If you had warned me in time, I would not have agreed to the proposal.
It can readily be seen that conditionals can be taught in association with various activities
and situations. The enterprising teacher should devise his own techniques for presenting the
conditionals so that both function and form are given equal emphasis.
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No. 7, 1979
Concession
Concessional clauses are useful in developing arguments.
E.g. Although he is, as you say, on the soft side, he is absolutely trustworthy and I prefer him
to Jack, firm and decisive though the latter might be.
To give practice in using concessional clauses, the teacher can use either a combination or
completion drill. For advanced classes, a brief discussion about a controversial figure could be
used as a convenient way of practising the structure.
E.g.
Al
Alexander the Great
Team A
For
Alexander was a great conqueror.
A2 Even though he was cruel he was loyal
to his friends.
Team B
Against
Bl Although he was a mighty conqueror, he
was too cruel to be called great.
B2 Even if this were true, you must remember he killed his best friend.
Bx
No matter how much you praise him, I
cannot in all conscience agree with you.
The last sentence 'No matter how much you praise him
'raises an interesting point.
Chinese pupils have great difficulty in mastering this structure. A drill like the following may
be useful:
Instruction: Respond with a clause with no matter
T.
John is absolutely scrupulous. Jack wants to offer him $1000.
P.
No matter how much Jack offers him, he will not give in.
T.
Paul is a good jumper. They are using a higher hurdle.
P.
No matter how high the hurdle is, you can depend on it, Paul will clear it without
difficulty.
Condensing Adverbial Clauses
Very often clauses with when can be condensed.
E.g. When you are in difficulties, remember to ring up your uncle.
The sentence can be rewritten as 'When in difficulties, remember to ring up your uncle.
Another example is 'When crossing the river, he inadvertently dropped his notebook.'
Clauses with before or so that can often be condensed.
'Remember you must recharge your battery before you start your trip.'
This becomes 'Remember you must recharge your battery before starting your trip.'
Useful information on this topic is given in Section 16 of R.A. Closes's 'The New English
Grammar'
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William Cheng : Teaching English Clause Structure
Some suggestions on drills or games for practising subordinate clauses
Step 1: Matching
Complete sentences with the most suitable clauses from the groups a, b, c, etc.
1. You can't come in yet
a. if you have finished your work.
2. The driver stepped on the gas
b. as the floor is still wet.
3. You can go home
c. as soon as he saw the green light.
Step 2: Completion
A completion exercise can be use as follow-up work. Pupils can be asked to supply their
own clauses to replace those in 1, 2, 3, etc.
Step 3: Practice in Switching Clauses
Since adverbial clauses are often mobile the pupils can be asked to practise switching clauses.
E.g. The orchestra played a march the day the tunnel was opened.
This becomes 'The day the tunnel was opened, the orchestra played a march.'
But notice that such switching is not possible with until and for.
Wait for her until she has finished mending the sleeve.
Not* Until she has finished mending the sleeve, wait for her.
Step 4: Writing sentences using different connectives. This is a familiar exercise and needs no
elaboration.
Step 5: Combining sentences in different ways using different clauses. This is a more advanced
type of exercise and careful preparation is needed. However, it serves a useful purpose in that
pupils are encouraged to express their ideas in different ways.
E.g. He was late. He had to take a taxi.
(as/because) Since he was late, he had to take a taxi.
He was late, so he had to take a taxi.
Being late, he had to take a taxi.
Step 6: Expanding a skeleton outline through the use of different clauses. This can be done on
a cooperative basis, with different pupils supplying different clauses until a complete paragraph
or passage is built up.
Sometimes a competition can enliven an otherwise dull lesson. The following is one possibility.
Divide the class into two teams A and B. Ask Team A to start with a clause.
A member from Team B has to add an adverbial clause.
E.g. A
We will let you through.
B
Provided you let us examine your luggage.
Then a member from Team B gives a sentence. Each team has 10 seconds to make a sentence
with a clause. If a mistake is made and a member of the opposing team detects it he gets an extra
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Education Journal
No. 7,
1979
point for his team.
A more advanced competition is one in which a topic is given.
Studies
He worked hard in his studies, so (that) he had no time for relaxations.
Picnic
I am not going on any picnic unless you promise to accompany me.
Beyond the Sentence
I have concentrated on the various clause structures and suggested some methods of teaching
them. It must, however, be pointed out that clauses are normally embedded in sentences; but
sentences rarely occur in isolation. They are related to other sentences, especially in a text. If
we accept the view that understanding conjunctions and clause structure facilitates reading comprehension, we must go one step further and teach clause structures as they appear in authentic texts. This will prevent us from concentrating merely on linguistic forms and isolated
sentences. At the same time teachers should be aware of the different devices available in English
for achieving cohesion. A good description of such devices is found in chapter 10 of 'A Grammar
of Contemporary English' but an exhaustive treatment is given in 'Cohesion in English' (1976)
by Halliday and Hasan. The latter is strong meat, but the teacher who is willing to spend time
on it will be amply rewarded.
The teaching of reading comprehension is outside the scope of the present article. I would,
however, recommend that teachers should read the following books on ELT: 'A Practical Guide
to the Teaching of English as a Second or Foreign Language' by Rivers and Temperley (1978)
and 'Teaching Language as Communication' by Widdowson (1978). Both books offer new and
exciting ideas on teaching comprehension. The sections on writing (including sentence combining
exercises) are geared to the development of communicative skills and provide a useful alternative
to some of the sterile and mechanical exercises found in many course books.
The clause structure of English sentences is a field for research. I have merely covered the
bare essentials. It is for the enterprising teacher to experiment and discover for himself the best
method of teaching the various clause structures in a creative and effective way.
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William Cheng : Teaching English Clause Structure
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