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 A Farmer’s Friend | Foreword Foreword The purpose of A Farmers Friend: A Growing Guide to West Africa is usefulness. The target audience for this compilation ranges from the agricultural development worker that finds themselves in the West African “bush” for an extended period to the local farmer that is simply seeking information. Having been the former, I have included the types of information that I feel would have been useful were I to find myself in a similar situation again. It is important for the user to understand that this piece of work has been compiled from a variety of sources and that the contents are not meant to provide new information, rather accurate information that has been distilled into a new format that is user‐friendly for use in the field. In some instances the information contained within this work are translated verbatim from the original source. In other instances, I have added my own insight gained from the time that I spent in this region working with the rural farmers. Due to the reliance on other sources, I have tried to capture them as accurately as possible, both within the document and in the references section. The sources used for the crop and tree sections were many and, as such, I have listed them both by section and by species in the references section. As we now find ourselves in an age where the amount of information on a given subject that is available may be suffocating, to narrow down such a broad topic as this one has required a considerable amount of discernment; both in the quality of the sources and the applicability to those working in the field. The following will provide a brief description of the sections that are contained within this compilation and my intent. Introduction to West African Farming Systems: This section is meant to provide users of the guide with a thorough understanding of the physical, environmental, and vegetative characteristics of the region. It goes on to describe how the combination of these has brought about the farming systems that are currently in place and the methods that are utilized within these systems. The bulk of this section has been extracted from Integrating Crops and Livestock in West Africa (FAO, 1983). I have edited and reorganized the various sections that are included to suit the user‐needs of this manual. The final portion of this section focuses specifically on agroforestry, in an attempt to familiarize the users with some of the basic concepts and show the applicability of implementing these in the field. Soils: After contemplating the various soil classification systems that exist, I opted to incorporate that of the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). This system is recognized globally and I felt it likely that it would be the familiar classification system for the users of A Farmer’s Friend. While there is obviously a plethora of information pertaining to soils and their characteristics, the goal is to provide the necessary information without being overly scientific. I have included the detailed information only for the main soil Orders that are found in West Africa. While the introduction of each Order is drawn from a variety of sources, the specific descriptions have been extracted from Soil Morphology, Classification, and Mapping (McSweeney, 1998). This source provided the information that I was looking to include, in a format that fit the spirit of the guide. Crops: In the early stages of development for this project, one of my main objectives was to gain a better understanding of the characteristics of specific crop species. With a prior academic background in the environmental sciences, I felt that this part of my education needed further development. It was with this in mind that I developed the layout for the Crops section of this guide. The inclusion of the various species was based on a combination of the import/export data from West African countries and my personal i A Farmer’s Friend | Foreword experiences of what the major crops of the region are. Each crop species is identified by its Scientific Name, followed by its more common (English) name. For each species, I have provided a combination of pictures, sketches, and distribution maps to aid in the identification of the species and where they may be commonly found. The text for each species consists of the following: Description ‐ Details the physical and reproductive characteristics of the individual species; Environment – Identifies the species requirements for suitable growing conditions; Cultural – Outlines the practices that are necessary to bring the crops from planting to harvest and beyond.; Damaging Agents ‐ Provides a brief overview for some of the pests and diseases that the species may be susceptible to; Uses – Distinguishes the various uses for the differing parts of the plants; and Nutrition – Discusses the nutritional values of the foodstuffs that may be obtained from the crop. The goal of this section is to provide concise information to field users that are at least somewhat familiar with the basic agronomic principles. There is a lot of information available for the majority of the crops presented in this section. As such, distilling the information into a useable format proved the largest challenge. The sources that were utilized in the creation of this section were many and varied, ranging from web‐based databases to out‐of‐print texts on West African agriculture. The photos and drawings were selected from the web, based on their usefulness and the reliability of the source. Individual sources are listed next to each sub‐title by number and listed in the references portion of the document. I utilized this approach to aid in the flow of the guide and to reduce the intrusiveness of including the references after their specific use in the text. Agricultural Commodities: The inclusion of this section into the guide is to assist the users in gaining an insight into the different types of production that occur in the countries of West Africa. The information contained in this section reflects the import/export data of 2006. While it may be of limited use for site‐
specific application, it is meant to show the general trends of the types of commodities that are produced in excess for export in a particular country. Likewise, it may be used to show which commodities may be lacking, based on what the countries must import. It is also useful to show how the different countries compare with each other in overall agricultural production for this year. Cover Crops: As important as it is in agricultural production in West Africa, I am unable to include an entire section on livestock production due to time constraints; however, I think that a section that at least introduces the users to the concepts of managing forages is necessary. That is what this section is meant to do. Consistent with the format of the Crops section, this section is distilled to include the most basic information for the management of the perennial grass systems in this environment. Trees: As with Crops and Cover Crops, the difficulty in compiling this section has consisted more of species and information selection than in finding the desired information. Based on a text I utilized in my Peace Corps service (Trees Grown in Ghana), I have developed this section tiered toward those working in a nursery setting. The text for each species consists of the following: Description ‐ Details the physical and reproductive characteristics of the individual species; ii A Farmer’s Friend | Foreword Environment – Identifies the species requirements for suitable growing conditions; Nursery Specifics – Outlines the specifics on practices related to successful production of the species in a nursery setting; Management – Describes the practices that may assist growers in successful establishment outside of the nursery; Uses/Benefits – Provides a quick overview of some of the more common uses of the species; and Conservation – Discusses the benefits that the trees may provide in an integrated agro‐ecosystem. The sources used for each species are detailed in the references portion of the guide.For each species, I have tried to select a photo or sketch that shows the main identifying features of the tree (i.e. form, leaves, and fruit). At the end of this section, there is a brief synopsis on the major pests and diseases that are known to affect each tree species. This list is by no means exhaustive, rather it is meant to serve as a starting point for those engaged in the art of field scouting. Maps: The NRCS has developed a series of global land‐use maps. It is from these that I have created the maps that are included in this section of the guide. This intention of this section is to show some of the trends that exist in this region. Site‐specific variations will occur. While some of the maps focus on the physical characteristics of West Africa, other maps show the impacts that are related to human activities. Country Statistics: This section provides a broad socio‐economic backdrop for West Africa. This data was from 2006 and is included to show generalities for comparisons between the countries. For each item considered, I have also included the value for the United States. This is meant to serve as a baseline of comparison for users of the guide. I have also ranked the countries for each item, where applicable. Site Assessment: The Site Assessment is meant to serve as the capstone of the guide. All of the other information within A Farmer’s Friend has been developed to assist those in the field with conducting an accurate assessment. The purpose of the assessment is to provide snapshots of the agricultural scene at the local level, obtained through visiting and interviewing individual farmers and their families. It is my hope that through the utilization of the Site Assessment, in conjunction with the supporting material, appropriate recommendations can be made and a more thorough understanding of the local situations can occur. Creating this guide has allowed me to gain a deeper appreciation for the role that agriculture plays throughout West Africa. It is a region where life itself is sometimes at the mercy of the successes or failures that occur within this sector. My hope is that this guide will be able to serve others in the capacity of helping those who live in this region to improve their livelihoods. If, in the end, a lone copy of A Farmer’s Friend sits on a shelf somewhere unopened and collecting dust, then I will have failed. iii A Farmer’s Friend | Table of Contents Table of Contents Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i Introduction to West African Farming Systems The Environment of West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . West African Farming Systems West African Farming Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Agroforestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil Resources Alfisols Aridisols Entisols Inceptisols Oxisols Ultisols 1 9 15 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Crops Allium cepa (onion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Ananas comosus (pineapple) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Arachis hypogaea (groundnut) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Capsicum frutescens (red pepper) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Citrullus lanatus (egusi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Citrullus vulgaris (watermelon) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Cola acuminate (kola nut) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Digitaria exilis (hungry rice) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Dioscorea spp. (yams) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Glycine max (soybean) Gossypium spp. (cotton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Hevea brasiliensis (para rubber) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Hibiscus esculentus (okra) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Lycopersicum escultentum (tomato) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Manihot utilissima (cassava) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Oryza glaberrima (African rice) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Oryza sativa (polished rice) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Saccharum oficinale (sugar cane) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Sesamum indicum (sesame) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Solanum aethiopicum (eggplant) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Solenostemon rotundifolius (native potatoes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Sorghum guineense (Guinea corn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Vigna subterranean (Bambara bean) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Vigna unguiculata (cowpea) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 A Farmer’s Friend | Table of Contents Table of Contents (continued) Xanthosoma spp. (cocoyam) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Zea mays (maize) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Zingiber officinale (ginger) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Agricultural Commodities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Cover Crops Andropogon gayanus (Northern Gamba) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Axonopus compressus (blanket grass) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Cenchrus ciliaris (buffel grass) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Chloris gayana (Rhodes grass) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Cynodon plectostachyon (giant star grass) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Eragrostis curvula (weeping love grass) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Melinis minutiflorae (molasses grass) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Panicum maximum (Guinea grass) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Pennisetum clandestinum (kikuyu grass) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Pennisetum purpureum (elephant grass) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Setaria sphacelata (broadleaf Setaria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Trees Acacia albida (winterthorn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Acacia auriculiformis (Northern black wattle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Acacia nilotica (Egyptian thorn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Adansonia digitata (baobob) Albizia lebbeck (Indian siris) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Anacardium occidentale (cashew nut) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Annona muricata (soursop) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Azadirachta indica (neem) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Balanites aegyptica (desert date) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Bauhinia rufescens (Bauhinia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Butyrospermum parkii (sheanut) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Calotropis procera (rubber tree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Carica papaya (papaya) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Cassia siamea (Cassia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Casuarina equisetifolia (Casuarina) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Ceiba pentandra (kapok) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Citrus spp. (lime, lemon, grapefruit, orange) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Cocos nucifera (coconut) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Coffea Arabica (coffee) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Diospyros mespiliformis (ebony) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Elaeis guineensis (oil palm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Eucalyptus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Eucalyptus microtheca (coolibah) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Gliricidia sepium (quick‐stick) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 A Farmer’s Friend | Table of Contents Trees (continued) Gmelina arborea (Melina) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Khaya senegalensis (mahogany) Leucaena leucocephala (Leucaena) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Mangifera indica (mango) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Moringa oleifera (horseradish tree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Musa spp. (banana/plantain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Parkia biglobosa (dawa dawa) Parkinsonia aculeate (Jerusalem thorn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Persea Americana (avocado) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Pithecellobium dulce (Madras thorn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Prosopis Africana (iron wood) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Psidium guajava (guava) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Samanea saman (raintree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Sesbania grandiflora (grandiflora) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Sesbania sesban (common sesban) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Tamarindus indica (Tamarind) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Tectona grandis (teak) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Terminalia catappa (tropical almond) Theobroma cacao (cocoa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Tree Pests, Diseases, and Biotic Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Incorporated Maps Map 1 – African Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Map 2 – African Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Map 3 – West Africa: Climatic Zones and Growing Seasons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Map 4 – African Vegetation Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Map 5 – West Africa: Main Agricultural or Farming Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Map 7 – Soils of West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Map Section (Following Tree Pests, Diseases, and Biotic Factors) Anthropic Landscapes of West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 9 Anthropic System Tension Zones of West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 10 Biomes of West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 11 Vulnerability to Desertification in West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 12 Water Erosion Vulnerability of West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 13 Inherent Land Quality of West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 15 Major Stresses of West Africa Phosphorus Levels in West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 16 Population Density of West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 17 Average Annual Temperature (Africa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 18 Annual Total Precipitation (Africa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 19 Elevation (Africa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 20 Risk of Human‐Induced Desertification in West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 21 Risk of Human‐Induced Water Erosion in West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 22 Risk of Human‐Induced Wind Erosion in West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 23 A Farmer’s Friend | Table of Contents Soil Inorganic Carbon of West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 24 Soil Moisture Regimes of West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 25 Soil Organic Carbon of West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 26 Soil Temperature Regimes of West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 27 Water Holding Capacity of Soils in West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 28 Wetlands of West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 29 Wind Erosion Vulnerability of West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map 30 Country Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Site Assessment (Following Country Statistics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SA 1‐11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Introduction to West African Farming Systems The Environment of West Africa Integrating Crops and Livestock in West Africa (FAO, 1983) Location West Africa lies between latitudes 4°N and 28°N and longitudes 15°E and 16°W. The Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean) is the southern boundary, while that to the north is the northern boundary of Mauritania, Mali and Niger; the Mount Cameroon/Adamawa Highlands and the Atlantic Ocean form the eastern and western limits, respectively. West Africa includes 15 countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea‐Bissau, Cote d’Ivoire, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. With an area of 6 million km², West Africa makes up one fifth of the land mass of continental Africa. Relief and Drainage The majority of West Africa consists of a rolling low plateau that is <500m above sea level, fringed on the west and south by a coastal plain. This plain is widest in Senegal, the southern Ivory Coast, the Niger delta and the lower valleys of the Volta and Niger rivers. There are some isolated highland areas above 500m and some peaks that exceed 1,000m. The highlands of note are: Fouta Djallon (1,537m), Guinea Highlands (1,656m), Sierra Leone Mountains (1,948m), Nimba Mountains (1,752m), Jos Plateau (1,690m), Mandara Mountains (1,142m), Adamawa Highlands (2,042m), the Saharan Uplands of Air (1,850m) and the Plateau of Djado (1,120m) in northern Niger. Rivers flowing west, inland, and south dissect the low plateau and form into five major river systems. 1. A group of short rivers which rise in the Fouta Djallon/Nimba Mountains and flow westwards into the Atlantic; 2. Formed by longer rivers (the Bandama, the Oueme and several Nigerian rivers) that flow southwards into the Gulf of Guinea; 3. Comprises the Senegal and Volta rivers; 4. Formed by rivers which flow inland into areas of internal drainage like Lake Chad; and 5. The Niger, which rises in Guinea 240km from the sea, flows north‐east between Segou and Timbuktu in Mali, then southeast past rapids at Bussa in Nigeria and, after receiving a number of tributaries, enters the sea 4,160km from its source. Rapids and a large variation in volume between dry and wet seasons limit the value of these rivers for irrigation and navigation. Dams have been built to produce hydro‐electric power in Guinea (Kindia and Konkoure), Cote d’Ivoire (Ayame), Liberia (Mount Coffee and Buchanan), Ghana (Akosombo) and Nigeria (Kainji). 1 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Map 1: African Countries (Lombardi etal, 1995) 2 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Climate West Africa has wet and dry seasons resulting from the interaction of two migrating air masses. The first is the hot, dry tropical continental air mass of the northern high pressure system. This mass gives rise to the dry, dusty, Harmattan winds which blow from the Sahara over most of West Africa from November to February. The maximum southern extension of this air mass occurs in January between latitudes 5° and 7°N. The second is the moisture‐laden, tropical maritime or equatorial air mass which produces southwest winds. The maximum northern penetration of this wet air mass is in July between latitudes 18° and 21°N. Where these two air masses meet is a belt of variable width and stability. The northern and southern migration of these air masses follows the movement of the sun and controls the climate of the region. The lowland climates of West Africa are characterized by uniformly high sunshine and high temperatures throughout the year, with mean annual temperatures that are usually above 18°C. Areas within 10° of the equator have a mean annual temperature of ~26°C. Between the latitude of 10°N and the southern part of the Sahara, mean monthly temperatures can reach 30°C. In the central Sahara, temperatures (in the shade in July) may reach 58°C during the day and as low as 4°C at night, with mean annual temperature ranges of 10‐35°C. The skies in the higher latitudes in inland areas are usually cloudless. This compares to areas close to the coast, where the skies are cloudier and the night temperatures are higher. Temperatures are greatly modified by altitude. The general rainfall patterns are influenced by both ocean currents and physiographic features. A coastal savanna with ~730mm of annual rainfall extends from the middle of the coast of Ghana to the extreme southwestern corner of Nigeria. This is because the coastline runs parallel to the direction of the rain‐
bearing southeasterly winds and the cold Benguella ocean current, which impinges on the coast and reduces the rainfall in amount and duration. The cold Canary current has the same effect on coastal Senegal, with Dakar having an average annual rainfall of 585mm. Rainfall is also affected by altitude, resulting in highland areas receiving more rain than the surrounding lowlands. Dabundja, south of the Adamawa ranges in southern Cameroon, has over 10,000mm of annual rainfall. Other characteristics of the rainfall of West Africa include: 1. Frequent heavy rainstorms of short duration which cause severe soil erosion, particularly on cleared, bare cultivated land; 2. Occurrence of a belt of bimodal rainfall some distance inland from the coast eastwards from Sierra Leone to Nigeria; and 3. Variability in amount, time of onset, duration and cessation which increases from the wetter areas to the drier areas. In the coastal areas, the percentage of annual variability ranges from 10 to 20 percent, while close to the Sahara in the Sahel it may exceed 40 percent. 3 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Map 2: Map of African Climate (Lombardi etal, 1995) 4 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Vegetation The vegetation under the uniformly high temperatures in the tropics is determined to a largely by the quantity of rainfall, with the vegetation zones run parallel to each other from north to south. Prior to human‐induced changes to the landscape, the climax vegetation of West Africa moving from southwest to northeast consisted of: (1) tropical rain forest; (2) tropical deciduous forest, and (3) tropical xerophytic woodland. Various studies, however, indicate that human activities (such as clearing and farming, grazing, burning, etc.) have had a significantly altered the vegetation. The tropical rain forest has become modified into: (1) mangrove tidal swamps and marshlands next to the coast, followed by freshwater swamps which extend along river valleys and streams; (2) rain or moist forest re‐growth which retains some characteristics of the multistoried structure and species diversity of tropical rain forest where it has not been drastically modified, and (3) the derived savanna or forest/savanna consisting of open bushland, isolated trees and oil palms. Next to the derived savanna, the deciduous forest has become modified into southern Guinea and northern Guinea savannas consisting of woodland and tall grasses which decrease in size with increasing distances inland. North of the Guinea savannas are found the Sudan savanna, the Sahel savanna and then tropical steppe and desert. The vegetation of the Sudan savanna is dominated by fire and drought resistant species. The number of dwarf thorny shrubs, acacias and drought resistant species increases with proximity to the desert in areas with less than 200mm of annual rainfall. The Arid Zone ‐ This includes the Sahel or Sahelian zone and receives ≤ 750mm of rain in a single, short rainy season of ~90 days, with an extended dry season that may last up to 10 months. The dry season may sometimes extend into years, causing severe droughts. This zone includes northern parts of Senegal, parts of Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Cameroon. The vegetation is mostly grassland and large numbers of zebu cattle, sheep, and goats are raised by pastoralists. The main food crops are millet, sorghum, and groundnuts. Cotton is the principal cash crop. The main species of trees include kapok, mango, and acacia. The Semi­Arid Zone ‐ This roughly includes the Sahel‐Sudan zone which covers the southern parts of Senegal , The Gambia, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad and upper parts of Guinea‐Bissau, Guinea, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon and the Central African Republic. The average annual rainfall of 750‐1,250mm falls in one season. This is followed by a long dry season. The vegetation is mainly grassland with some shrubs and acacia trees. The zone supports large numbers of livestock, mostly zebu cattle, sheep, goats and a few pigs. The main crops are millet, sorghum, groundnuts, cotton, beans, and rice. Tree plantation crops include the mango, cashew and kapok. The Sub­humid Zone ‐ This zone includes Guinea‐Bissau, upper parts of Guinea, the southernmost parts of Mali and Burkina Faso and the northern parts of Ghana, Cote d’Ivoire, Cameroon, Sierra Leone, Benin and the central parts of Nigeria. The average annual rainfall is between 1,250‐1,500mm in one season, with 180–270 Days Growing Period (DGP). This supports grass and shrub vegetation. 5 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Map 3: West Africa: Climatic Zones and Growing Seasons. (Source: Jahnke, 1982) Sahel‐Sudanian: Semi‐Arid (90–
100 DGP) Sudan‐Guinean: Sub‐Humid ( 180–270 DGP) Guinean } Humid ( 270–365 DGP) Forest High‐altitude zones 6 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Cattle, as well as sheep and goats, are raised in this zone, but crop farming is the main agricultural occupation. Crops include maize, sorghum, rice, millet, yam, cotton, groundnuts, and pulses. Tree plantation crops are similar to what may be found in the semi‐arid zone, with forests in the southern part of the zone that are mainly confined to the river valleys. The Humid Zone ‐ This zone consists of two parts: 1. The Guinea or derived savanna zone has an annual rainfall of between 1,500mm and 1,800mm divided into two seasons which alternate with two dry seasons. The natural vegetation is generally grassland and woody transitional forests. The crops are mostly maize, yam, rice, millet, sorghum, groundnuts and cotton; sugar cane is grown in the wetter parts. Livestock, mostly trypanotolerant cattle, sheep and goats are few. This sub‐zone includes parts of southeast Guinea, northern Liberia, parts of Cote d’Ivoire, middle Ghana, the middle belt of Nigeria and southern Cameroon. 2. In the forest zone, the annual rainfall is between 1,500mm and 2,000mm which falls in two wet seasons alternating with two dry seasons. The vegetation is dense tropical forest, which can be cleared to grow oil palms, coconuts, rubber and cocoa. The main food crops are maize, yam, cassava, cocoyam plantain, banana and beans, but coffee, mango, citrus and sugar cane are also grown. A dam­site in the Sahel­Sudan Zone created to supply water for agriculture and livestock during the dry season (Frederick). 7 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Map 4: African Vegetation Zones (Lombardi etal, 1995) 8 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems West African Farming Systems In West Africa, like other places across the globe, the art and practice of agriculture began thousands of years ago as a means of subsistence. More recently, the colonial era brought with it a shift from pure subsistence farming to increased levels of cash cropping systems. These systems focused primarily on the production of raw materials (rubber, cotton, palm nuts, etc.) that could then be processed as export products. The growth associated with the industrialization and urbanization that has since taken place, has lent itself to the development of a well‐established market economy in this region. In many areas, agricultural commodities serve as one of the main drivers of this economy. While subsistence farming is still widespread across this region, increased agricultural improvements and inputs (i.e. education, technology, fertilizer, varieties, etc.) have allowed for a fundamental shift in agriculture. While food crops are still the most important priority of the local farmers, many now also have the capability of producing crops specifically for sale. Where these crops are produced and the way in which they are utilized is largely dependent on the farming systems that are being used. Farming systems vary by geographic location and are closely linked to variations in the ecological zones. Table 2: The Evolution of Crop‐Based Farming Systems in West Africa Stages Description
1. Collecting, Hunting, and Fishing No permanent settlements were in place, but some common camping places existed. No cultivation or rearing of stock occurred. 2. Shifting Cultivation Homesteads move as fields shift. Cultivation practiced. Domesticated animals (especially the dog) kept. Hunting and fishing still substantial. 3. Recurrent Cultivation, Bush/Fallow Rotation Homesteads permanent and associated with fields and temporary huts in new plots. Fields shift or rotate and may be in secondary forest, bush, thicket, woodland, or grassland fallow. Homestead or compound garden present with some livestock and cultivated trees and shrubs. Projected and semi‐cultivated trees and shrubs present in fields. 4. Permanent Cultivation Most widespread permanent farming system. Arable crops, spices, tree crops, etc. with livestock present (cattle mainly in the savanna zone). Typically found in areas of high population density or confined sites. A. Lowlands (compound gardens, short‐term fallows and rotations, wet rice cultivation, flood plain cultivation, valley bottoms) B. Highlands (terrace and mixed farming) In defensive positions. 9 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems 5. Specialized Cash Cropping These cropping systems grow cash crops such as cocoa, groundnuts, or cotton in almost pure culture and in rotation with other crops. 6. Non‐Agricultural Work Some peoples whose ancestors were cultivators often move to other professions and some farmers engage in multiple occupations. 10 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Map 5: West Africa: Main Agricultural or Farming Systems Pastoralism and sabel fringe cultivation Shifting cultivation Rotational woody bush fallow Rotational bush/grass land fallow Permanent cultivation Floodland cultivation Mixed farming 11 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Traditional and Transitional Agricultural Systems Most agricultural systems in West Africa belong to this group. They are comprised mainly of extensive systems and range from shifting cultivation and nomadic herding to more permanent and specialized types, such as compound farms and terrace farming. Shifting cultivation incorporates broadcast burning of the land with a period of fallow. Clearing of the land is typically accomplished through the use of hand tools and includes mainly herbaceous and small woody plants. After allowing the cleared material to dry, the land is burned and then (re)planted with crops that are suitable for that particular zone. After 1‐4 years of cultivation, the land may be returned to fallow to promote nutrient cycling, litter accumulation, and weed suppression. Ideally, the fallow phase may last between 10‐20 years; however, due to the land pressures that associated with an expanding human population, this period is usually shorter. Currently, it is not uncommon for the entire fallow portion of this system to be left out. In its purest form, farmers practicing shifting cultivation would relocate their homesteads to be in closer proximity to their cultivated fields. While this may have been possible in the early historical periods of agriculture, this practice is becoming increasingly rare. Nomadic herding is the extensive animal rearing counterpart of shifting cultivation in the savanna and more arid areas. The nomadic herders and stationary cultivators have historically had a symbiotic relationship. For the herders, these interactions may serve as a source of wood, food, water, fodder, grazing land, and even cash. The herders of West Africa are comprised mainly of individuals from the following ethnic backgrounds: 1. Fulani ‐ Rear and tend cattle and sheep in the Sudan/Sahel from Senegal to Ethiopia; 2. Tauregs ‐ Rear and tend cattle and camels in Mali and Niger; 3. Toubou ‐ Rear and tend cattle and camels in Mali and Niger; 4. Moors – A northern group that rear and tend herds of camels and a southern group rear and tend cattle and camels in the Sahara;, and 5. Shuwa Arab ‐ Rear and tend cattle near Lake Chad. With animal manure serving as not only a source of soil nutrients, but also a source of fuel, it is not uncommon for the herders to exchange manure with local farmers for grazing rights of stubbles or crop residue. It is also not uncommon for local farmers to “contract” with the herders during the dry season. In these situations, herders may manage the livestock from several to many farmers at one time. In addition, the local farmers serve as a readily available market for the products associated with livestock (milk, cheese, leather, transportation, and manure). While there are many cultural differences that exist between the herders and the local farmers, these differences are often overlooked as a result of the need for one another. These relationships are reduced, if not non‐existent, in the southern regions of West Africa. Historically, shifting cultivation was an efficient and reliable production system in situations where population density was low. As population density increased, however, fallow periods became shorter and more intensive and semi‐sedentary agricultural production systems replaced shifting cultivation. Sedentary agriculture involved settlement in villages and communities in which the homestead became a 12 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems permanent feature associated with a homestead‐garden. The outlying fields associated with each homestead were subjected to different periods of cropping, but when population became very dense, these fields were permanently cropped. In almost all parts of the world, traditional farming systems were based on a homestead‐garden and the keeping of livestock. The continued intensification of production has often resulted in more specialized production systems which require increased inputs, capital, and specialized practices. The livestock component of traditional farms plays a crucial role in the maintenance of soil fertility, without which the permanent farming system used on the homestead‐garden and adjacent areas would be impossible. Livestock provide meat and other animal products and economic gain, while utilizing household waste and fulfilling social and cultural obligations. In almost all the ecological zones of West Africa livestock make a significant contribution to farm income. Traditional West African farming systems consist of several fields in more or less concentric circles surrounding a compound or homestead‐garden (Figure 1). The homestead‐garden is typically under intensive, permanent production and contains a mix of perennial and annual crops grown in a complex agro‐ecosystem. In the tropical rain forest zone, this may attain a multi‐storied structure that approaches that of the tropical rain forest. In the savanna, it is not so complex due to lower rainfall; however, the diversity index usually exceeds that of the surrounding woodlands. Fertility in these systems is increased through the application of household refuse, crop residues and animal manure. The fields are located at varying distances from the homestead and have fallow periods which increase with the distance from the homestead. The designs of these systems vary based on the timing of operations, the species grown, and the rainfall regime. Although there is some traditional use of water to supplement crop growth, very limited use is made of irrigation. There are also specialized cropping systems that take advantage of variations which may occur within the farm. The homestead‐garden is usually sited in a dry, upland situation. Nearby may be lowland or valley bottoms where rice, vegetables, yams, sugar cane, bananas, taro, etc. may be grown, depending on the ecological zone. Crops which require high levels of fertility or greater care are grown nearest to the homestead. The homestead‐garden system includes varying numbers of small ruminants, pigs and poultry. Cattle, donkeys, camels, and horses are kept in tsetse‐free savanna areas. Livestock are a feature of the homestead and adjacent areas and they graze on fallows and the residues that are left on the harvested fields. Throughout time, the farming systems in West Africa have reacted to changing circumstances. These changes have been as a result of many things, including: (1) the introduction of Asian and New World Crops; (2) population expansion; (3) European colonization of Africa and the need for spices and agricultural raw materials for industry; (4) improved means of transportation and communication; (5) the expansion of cassava production into marginal areas where other crops often fail, and (6) the introduction of mechanization into farming and adoption of new techniques. 13 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Figure 1: Traditional Farming Systems of the Humid Tropics of West Africa 14 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems West African Farming Methods While the farms that are in the savanna zones are typically larger than those in the forested zones, the majority of all farms in West Africa are less than 2 hectares in size. The agricultural pressure on the land is significant for a variety of reasons. Arable land is a valuable commodity in West Africa that is typically passed down from father to son(s) in equal allotments. This may vary somewhat, based on how many sons stay on the farm, local customs, etc. With this system, the arable land that is available per family unit is reduced every generation and the amount of production that is needed per unit of land is increased. This scenario obviously promotes agricultural practices that are based on current human needs rather than sustainable production over a period of time. Tools are simple and hand operated. There is very limited mechanization, although since the early 1930s the use of animal power for cultivation, planting, and transportation on the farm has been increasing in areas that are free from the tsetse fly. Currently, the use of tractors (and tractor‐drawn implements) is increasing, but is not yet common. Land is almost always universally cleared through a combination of manual cutting and broadcast burning. Subsequently, there is little or no tillage and crops are grown on the flat, or on mounds or ridges which are manually constructed. Weeding is also usually carried out manually. Farming in West Africa is characterized by a division of labor between the sexes; with women specializing in some operations and the men in others. There is often a shortage of labor on farms due to seasonal demand peaks for farm operations and the division of labor between sexes and age groups. This shortage is aggravated by rural‐urban migration, children attending schools, and competition from the non‐
agricultural sector. Traditional farmers, their wives, and family members in rural areas usually engage in many paid non‐farm activities. Earnings from these activities serve to contribute to family income. While the productivity per unit of energy may be high, yields per unit of area are low in traditional farming systems. There is not only a wide gap between attainable yields on farms as compared to experimental stations, but also as compared to average and recorded yields in other parts of the world. Crops are usually grown as mixtures, intercrops, or associated sequences. In some areas, crop rotations and sole crops are rare, apart from rice and cash crops (i.e. groundnuts, cotton, sugar cane, etc.). The more a crop is grown for resale, the greater the likelihood of that it will be grown in pure culture. Apart from organic and animal manures, very little use is made of chemical fertilizers. Physical and cultural methods are commonly used in the control of pests and diseases, although pesticides are used on some cash crops (e.g. cocoa). 15 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Agroforestry In the wetter areas of West Africa, tree crop plantations are important. There are estimated to be 3,500,000 ha of cocoa, 2,800,000 ha of oil palm, 457,000 ha of rubber, and 121,000 ha of coconuts. There are unknown acreages of citrus, coffee and kola. There are some 335,500 ha of established forest trees, mostly hardwoods in the West African subregion. Plantations vary in age from 1 to 60 years, and in size from smallholdings to large estates. The most important use for wood is fuel. It is the exclusive household fuel of most inhabitants, and is estimated to provide 95 percent of energy needs in rural areas and 50–60 percent in urban areas. Apart from cooking, it is also used for cottage industries and semi‐industrial needs like the processing of agricultural products. Fuelwood is already in short supply and the rapid population increase will only make the current situation worse. In the sub‐Saharan countries the southward spread of the Sahara (estimated at 7 km/annum) poses serious problems. Faced with this situation, the countries in the region are establishing fast‐growing forests in areas where land pressure is not acute to provide much‐needed wood resources, reduce rates of evaporation, slow the continued loss of topsoil, and to hold the spreading Sahara at bay. At the village level, there is a strong inter‐relationship that occurs between humans and the land that they have under their management. As the land pressures continue to increase, it becomes increasingly important that land resources are utilized in a way to provide multiple outputs from the same piece of ground. Recognizing this, there has been increased emphasis from development agencies and host‐
country governments on the benefits that may be realized through incorporating the management of trees with crops. This incorporation is termed as agroforestry. A History of Agroforestry Agroforestry combines the growth of woody and non‐woody plants on the same unit of land to provide multiple benefits (Huxley, 1999). The concept of growing trees and shrubs, in conjunction with agricultural commodities, is not new. It is believed that the practice came about by necessity as the transitions in human livelihood occurred which brought about the changes from hunter/gatherer societies to primitive agricultural societies. Then, as well as now, woody species provided an array of wild foodstuffs and wood for fuel and construction. While yet undefined, the concepts of agroforestry have been applied for centuries in the tropical and subtropical parts of the world. More recently, these rudimentary concepts were employed in North America, as European settlers immigrated and brought with them traditional farming techniques. As the immigrant farmers expanded westward they removed much of the native forested cover types in favor of landscape plants and fruit and nut trees, which they planted on their new homesteads (UNL Extension Forestry, 2007). With the onset of the scientific advances in the Western countries, there coincided an increase in industrialization and urbanization. In these countries, this promoted the concept of specialization in agriculture, separating the integrated disciplines and eventually lending itself to widespread monocultures. Utilizing mechanized agricultural technology, these systems have proven extremely productive through the use of high external inputs in the processes of tillage, harvesting, fertilizing, irrigating, and chemical pest control (Huxley, 1999). 16 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Meanwhile, in the United States the same industrial revolution that was redefining agricultural was also changing the face of forestry. Improved harvesting and milling methods significantly increased the amount of timber that could be harvested and processed. These methods increased the speed with which the growing nation could utilize the then‐vast timber resources. The overall strategies of both of these systems was to provide self‐sufficiency in the production of both agricultural and timber products. Successful though it was, it did not come without an environmental price tag. The “environmental transgressions” which occurred during this phase of the United States’ agricultural and forestry history, led to new concepts of strategic goals. In the late 1980s terms such as “sustainability”, “stability”, and “equability” began to emerge as land management catch phrases, in both agriculture and forestry throughout the developed world. As the developed world was making these full‐circle shifts in production strategies, the developing world was continuing to rely on integrated approaches for the production of food, fiber, and forage. In the early 1980s, agroforestry was deemed by international scientists as “a practice in search of a science”. Since this time, significant efforts have been made to better understand the indigenous agroforestry practices occurring in the developing nations, and to incorporate this understanding to improve on these practices in the developing countries while applying them in the developed (Lassoie etal, 2000). Guiding Concepts of Tropical Agroforestry While the general principles guiding agroforestry are basic, they may vary considerably between different geographic areas, ecological zones, societal variances, and agricultural objectives. This first step is to identify some of the key components that may be included in any agroforestry system, regardless of the location. The following table illustrates the principles that most agroforestry programs consider as viable alternatives for consideration into a system. The concept of simultaneous implies a relationship of direct competition or mutualism between tree crop species and plant crops. The concept of sequential use of the land implies that there is no direct competition between trees and crops. A lone sheanut tree surrounded by a field of maize. (Frederick) 17 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Table 3: Common Agroforestry Systems and Practices Trees with Crops (Agrisilviculture) Rotated in Time (sequential) Shifting cultivation: This form of cultivation consists of clearing and burning a part of a naturally vegetated area, cultivating it, and then allowing it to regenerate. The process of revegetation restores the fertility of the top soil horizons. Until recently, such practices have successfully provided for farmers in many parts of the world. Currently, the relative durations of the fallow to cultivation are being drastically reduced due to population pressures on the available land resources. When the cultivation intervals are reduced, soil fertility declines. The effective durations between cultivation depends on climate, soil type, past land use, etc (Huxley, 1999). This form of cultivation is presumed to be the oldest human land use activity (Kumar etal, 2004). Tree fallow: Tree fallow is a phase of a rotational woodlot during which cropping is discontinued and the established trees are left to grow to the desirable size for harvest. Fuel wood may be obtained during this phase if tree branches are pruned periodically or the trees are selectively thinned to widen the spacing between trees. Undergrowth of palatable herbaceous grasses and shrubby species can be encouraged and utilized for feeding livestock. During the tree fallow phase, the rotational woodlot may be managed for secondary agricultural products. These may include such products as honey, beeswax, and mushrooms. The length of time that a woodlot remains in the fallow phase is not set and is correlated to the tree species, local and regional environmental variables, and the intended use of the trees. (World Agroforestry Centre, 2007). Taungya: This combines the establishment of tree plantations with the intercropping of agricultural crop species. Intercropping with young tree seedlings may occur for at least one cropping season, but often continues for several. Competition for sunlight between tree seedlings and crop plants is the main limiting factor in the discontinuation of this practice in a system. Once this occurs, trees are left as pure stands with no additional depleting uses of the land until after tree harvest. This system is used by the national forest departments in developing nations as an efficient method for the establishment of tree plantations (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, 2006). In utilizing this system, a common practice is to allow local farmers to grow crops in newly planted government plantations. When properly implemented, these systems provide mutual benefits to the tree seedlings and the local farmers. The seedlings benefit from the agronomic practices related to growing crops. These may include tillage, weeding, fertilizer, and protection. These practices encourage improved survival and early growth of the tree seedlings. The farmer benefits from an increased operation on land that would likely otherwise by unavailable for cultivation. Farmers typically get to keep all crop products that are grown under such an arrangement. The concept may also be applied to other types of tree planting systems, such as woodlots, improved fallow, and land rehabilitation. The spacing of trees in these systems depends on the tree species, environmental conditions, and the established goals of the tree planting. (Winrock (2), 2007). 18 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Spatially Mixed (simultaneous practices) Multiple uses of trees on cropped land: This concept refers to the deliberate practice of randomly incorporating trees into an agricultural system. The trees that are selected to be incorporated into these systems may provide economic or nutritional supplements to the owners in the form of nuts or fruits that can be sold or eaten. In addition, trees may hold religious or cultural significance to the local population. Trees in these systems are often randomly and widely spaced across the agricultural landscape. While those trees that are valued for their religious or cultural significance are primarily left without maintenance, those that are grown for their economic or nutritional value may be actively managed to increase the production of the desired products. Regardless of use, the trees in these systems are encouraged to reach full maturity. Mixed multistory tree and crop arrangements (i.e. tropical home gardens): This form of land use likely evolved through a historical growth of cropping that emerged as a result of increased human population pressures in combination with a decrease in locally available arable land. It is usually specific to the private land that surrounds individual houses with a definite fence. Several tree species may be cultivated together with annual and perennial crops; often with the inclusion of small livestock. In developing nations, these systems play an important role in farming systems. These systems vary substantially depending on geographic location, but most require low inputs while providing both aesthetic and ecological benefits to the landowner (Kumar etal, 2004). There are many forms of such gardens, varying in how intensively they are cultivated and their location with regard to the home, for example, village forest gardens, ‘compound gardens’, and ‘kitchen gardens’ (Huxley etal, 2006). Spatially Zoned (simultaneous practices) Intercropping: This is the simultaneous cultivation of two or more crops on the same field. This may occur with or without a row arrangement. The systems with row arrangements are referred to as row intercropping, while those without are referred to as mixed intercropping systems. Relay cropping may also be incorporated into these systems. This is the when a second crop is sewn after a first one has already completed development. Another form of intercropping is alleycropping. This is when selected species of shrubs or trees are planted at relatively close spacing within rows and wide spacing between rows. This tree planting scheme leaves room for herbaceous cropping to occur in between the rows (Huxley etal, 2006). Another form of intercropping is barrier planting. With barrier planting, plants are cultivated in closely spaced rows across slopes. These rows are at adequate intervals to promote effective protection against soil erosion. For barrier plantings to be effective, consideration needs to be given to the species selected, the in‐row tree spacing, the between‐row hedge spacing, the climate, the soil type, and the slope. In a well‐designed barrier planting, the benefits of terrace formation will be realized. (Huxley, 1999). Boundary planting: This is the use of trees or shrubs to define property lines or breaks between differing land owners or sociological barriers. The vegetation that is used for this type of planting ideally contains hedge species that may have secondary uses for fodder or fruit or species that are socially neutral. A disadvantage of using species that are socially neutral is that, in an attempt to avoid controversy, only species with no secondary uses are planted (Raintree, 2007). Living fences 19 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems are a way of establishing a boundary by planting a line of trees and/or shrubs (the latter usually from large stem cuttings or stumps), at relatively close spacing and by fixing wires to them. If animals are to be kept in or out, more uprights (dead sticks) can be tied to the wires. (Huxley etal, 2006). Similar to living fences are hedges. These typically involve higher density plantings of multiple species and lack the incorporation of barbed wire (Cherry, 2007). Strip cropping: ‐ The growing of two or more crops at the same time in different bands that are wide enough to permit independent cultivation, but narrow enough for the crops to interact agronomically is termed strip cropping. In this system, planned vegetative plantings can serve one another in reducing the negative effects of wind and water erosion. In addition, the planting of strips in consideration of natural contours may serve to reduce run‐off and conserve moisture (Huxley etal, 2006). Windbreaks, windstrips, and shelterbelts: Windbreaks are any group of trees or shrubs that afford protection from high winds to animals or crops or both. In addition to protection from the wind, these breaks typically have localized effects on radiation, air temperatures, soil temperatures, frost, levels of precipitation, humidity, evaporation, erosion, snow management, integrated pest management, crop yields, and livestock health (Brandle etal, 2004). The species composition and windbreak design varies with the climatic patterns of an area and the intended use of the adjacent land. If an associated reason for planting and maintaining a windbreak is to harvest timber at some future date, it is sometimes referred to as a ‘timberbelt’ (Huxley etal, 2006). Windstrips consist of natural, low‐lying vegetation that is left between cultivated areas. These may or may not be intentionally planted with shrubs to increase the effectiveness. Due to a lack of height, strips offer less protection than taller windbreaks that utilize trees (Huxley, 1999). Larger planning efforts may incorporate the use of shelterbelts. These are an extended windbreak of living trees and shrubs established and maintained for the protection of farmlands over an area larger than a single farm (Huxley etal, 2006). Wild animal habitat planting: The added “benefit” of providing wild animal habitat in an agroforestry system is viewed differently depending on the location and needs of the producer. While many in the developed nations view this characteristic as a side‐benefit to the intended use of the designed system, those living in the developing nation may hold a different perspective. In many areas of the developing world, rural producers are operating on profit margins that are slim to non‐
existent, land holdings are limited, and the viability of the family may rely on the ability to produce. In these same areas, the types of wildlife (elephants and browsing ungulates) that are present have the ability of causing significant damage to cropping systems in a relatively short timespan (Huxley, 1999). As a result, agroforestry systems in these areas would be more likely to be designed to deter wildlife populations as a part of the system. On the other hand, the presence of wildlife in these systems in developed nations is often viewed as a benefit and steps are taken to promote the presence of such species. The development of an agroforestry system that promotes wildlife considers the horizontal and vertical structure of the vegetation, the presence of reliable food sources for the target species, the juxtaposition of the agroforestry practices in the larger landscape, the width of the tree and shrub planting, placement of wildlife travel corridors, the diversity of the vegetation, and the amount and frequency of disturbance (USDA/NAC – Working Trees for Wildlife). 20 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Riparian forest buffers: Similar to wild animal habitat plantings, the development and maintenance of riparian forest buffers is reduced in developing nations. In these areas, agricultural activities are directly related to the sources of water. During the months of adequate precipitation surface water may be used as a communal water source for community members and their livestock. During times of drought or as the surface water recedes, these same areas may be used for “dry‐season gardens”, in which stream beds are used for cultivation of vegetables. These gardens provide farmers with the opportunity for income generation during the “lean” season. While some trees do exist along these waterways as a result of being in close proximity to scarce water supplies, little is done in these areas to actively manage for riparian forest buffers along these corridors. Though there is a high demand on these water systems for subsistence and food production, there is often not a consolidated approach to the management of the vegetation which is so important to their long‐term productivity. As a result of having experienced the results of such management of aquatic systems, the developed nations have developed the concepts related to riparian forest buffers. Ideally, these are three‐zoned systems that incorporate an unmanaged woody zone adjacent to the water body followed upslope by a woody zone and bordered by a zone of grasses with or without forbs. The objectives of riparian buffers are: 1. To remove nutrients, sediment, organic matter, pesticides, and other pollutants from surface runoff and groundwater by deposition, absorption, plant uptake, denitrification, and other processes, and thereby reduce pollution and protect surface water and subsurface water quality, while enhancing the ecosystem of the water body. 2. To create shade to lower water temperature to improve habitat for aquatic organisms, and 3. To provide a source of detritus and large woody debris for aquatic organisms and habitat for wildlife. Trees with Grass and Animals (silvopastoral)
Spatially mixed (simultaneous practices) Silvipasture: This form of management incorporates forested land with livestock production for the benefit of both. In developed countries, this practice typically includes the planting of forage plant species, either in the understory of existing trees or simultaneously with tree seedlings. In the later, the spacing of the trees being planted depends on the long‐term goals of the producers. Closer tree spacing allows for the slow conversion of the land to a plantation, while wider spacing is used to promote long‐term forage production. Adding a tree crop to a forage system can increase the economic performance of a system through diversification. Additional benefits of this system can include: maintained or increased tree growth, improved cool‐season grass production, warm season grass production, shade for livestock, aid in erosion control, and improved water quality. (USDA/NAC Working Trees for Livestock). Due to the differences in agricultural practices and land tenure, these systems take different forms depending on the location. In many areas of West Africa, livestock grazing is free‐range, with animals being tethered only during the time of year when crops are growing. This, in conjunction with local economic and land pressures, reduces or eliminates the practice of planting forage crops and increases the mortality of tree seedlings. 21 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Managed tree plots Fodder banks: This is an area of planted palatable shrubs and/or trees that can be exposed to controlled browsing or used for cut‐and‐carry (Huxley, 1999). Similar to a hedgerow, the vegetation is intensively planted and spaced to maximize the production of leaves. Trees with nutritious fodder can either be planted alone, or intercropped with other fodder plants, such as grasses (Winrock (1), 2007). Fuelwood lots: These are designated areas that are reserved for the purposes of growing and gathering wood to be used to meet energy demands. Emphasis has increased in incorporating short‐
rotation woody crops into fuelwood lots. These are typically hardwood tree species that can be planted at close spacing for rotations of 10 years or less (Rockwood etal, 2004). Mixed orchards: In the right climates, fruit and/or nut producing orchards can serve as an alternative source of income generation to farmers. These orchards have proven as viable options on land that is not suited to typical annual crop production. Degraded or steep sloped land that is not arable is planted with the tree crops. As the trees mature they produce fruit or nuts, which are often of locally high value. As they mature, the root systems of the trees aid in soil stabilization, while the shed leaves increase fertility. Integrated orchards may also incorporate beekeeping.. The bees serve to pollinate the orchard trees and produce honey as a by‐product, which may also then be sold locally or consumed (Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, 2007). Over time, forage production may occur in the understory of the trees or livestock may be incorporated for weed control and enhanced soil fertility. Agroforestry Systems: While each of the above practices has individual and distinct characteristics, the combination of different practices at a specified level represents an agroforestry system. For distinction from other systems, each complete system needs to be physically and/or conceptually separate from other systems; however, it is not uncommon for agroforestry systems with common purposes to be grouped together. This grouping not only allows for a basis of comparison between similar systems, but also serves to guide for management among the systems. Depending on what type of information is trying to be obtained, individuals may split or group systems differently. A commonality among agroforestry systems is that they can be identified by coherent and unique circumstances. These could include practices, environments, species composition, management objectives, social variances, economic circumstances, or any combination of each. Statements related to the outputs of these systems will not be as simple or concise as the output that can be gained from traditional production‐based agriculture (yield). This is due to the constant cycling that occurs within a system and also because the nature of an agroforestry system is constantly in flux (either through nature or design) (Huxley, 1999). Based on the circumstances of the producer, different practices may be adopted to achieve different goals. These will most certainly vary by, and be dependent on, the local environment and cultural practices. While practices may be adopted readily in one part of the world, they may not be relevant or applicable somewhere else. The choice of which practices a producer adopts may be partially or wholly based on economics and on whether the gains that are realized by the practice are short‐term or long‐term. These gains may occur either economically or in terms of an improved resource base. Due to the similarity of growing requirement between crops and trees, an interface will occur in systems which contain both. 22 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems This interface includes the interaction between species and the related competition for soil nutrients, water, and sunlight. Tree­Crop Interaction: The interactions that occur between agricultural crops and trees in an agroforestry system may serve to benefit both, benefit one or the other, or be detrimental to both. This is dependent on the design of the system. It is imperative that producers take into consideration the environmental conditions of the planting area and the species selection. In general, the characteristics of trees give them advantage in an agroecosystem. This advantage is due to their increased levels of biomass, height, and root system in comparison to agricultural crops. Mature trees in an agroforestry system may offer the following positive effects to crops: 1. The addition of organic matter to the soil; the reduction in decomposition rates of organic matter; improved soil fertility and physical structure; 2. Increase the potential water‐holding capacity of the soil; 3. Reduce crop leaf temperatures, while increasing water productivity; 4. Protection of fields from wind and runoff. They may also offer the following negative effects to crops: 1. Canopy interception of light and rainfall 2. Compete for nutrients and water; 3. Produce a net increase in the total water used by the system; 4. Promote increased presence of pests. In successful agroforestry systems, competition that occurs between trees and crops is reduced. To accomplish this, producers need to consider that the roots of some trees can reach below the root zone of some crops. This allows the trees to use water that may be inaccessible to the crop species. In addition, tree roots may extend laterally beyond the root zone of the crop. To further reduce competition, the phenology of both the crop species and the tree species is also considered. It is possible to combine plantings in such a way that the season of resource demand for the crops are opposite of the trees (i.e. trees that leaf out during the dry season). Consideration is also given to planting nitrogen fixing tree species in areas where the limiting nutrient is nitrogen. This practice can reduce the competition between the trees and crops for this nutrient. Finally, the leaf area index of the selected species is taken into consideration to adequately meet the sunlight requirements of the species (Garcia‐Barrios etal, 2004). Table 4 (Huxley, 1999) serves as a good comparison for some of the competitive factors that may be present in tropical agroforestry systems. 23 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems Livelihoods in West Africa depend upon the same land meeting multiple needs. (Frederick) Table 4: Competitve Factors of Agroforestry Systems Rainfall (mm) Crops Trees
Comments <500 Cropping is risky, so animals are often kept. Shrubs may predominate and supply fodder. Presence of trees may depend on there being an accessible water table (this is not uncommon) 500‐1,000 Many farmers have to attempt cropping in these conditions. Yields will depend on season and be highly variable. Trees can grow well, although ‘out of season’ growth is not so efficient. The main problem is to limit competition for water from the trees. Cannell et al (1998) suggest that below 800mm, production of useful biomass per unit of land will not be increased by tree‐
crop mixtures even, perhaps, above this. However, despite any limit to biological potential, the farmer may well see advantages in growing trees. 24 A Farmer’s Friend | Introduction to West African Farming Systems 1,100‐2,000 Potentially high crop yields. C4 cereal crops risk being shaded too much if tree cover s too dense. Up to 1500mm, tree productivity may be water‐limited if leaf area index is high (trees are densely planted). Site biomass is likely to be increased by tree‐crop mixtures compared with sole cropping. Care needs to be taken over how many trees are planted. >2,000 Generally cloudy climates in lowland areas. So crops may be energy (light) limited unless shade tolerant. Trees also may be energy limited. As above. Tree‐crop mixtures should increase total biomass. Choosing a system: Selecting the appropriate system to use in a specific area is not easy and requires a broad understanding of many things. West Africa is an extremely culturally diverse region of the world. This culture carries over into the agricultural practices that are in use and how they have evolved differently in different areas. Without doubt, many of these practices have incorporated agroforestry techniques without formal recognition as such. In identifying a particular system that may take hold in a specific area, it is imperative to thoughtfully consider the systems that are already informally in place. To do this, requires spending time with the farmers in conversation and in looking at the land that they manage. The information that is obtained through such interactions (in conjunction with the species‐
specific information for the various trees and crops of the area) can then be used to select or develop the appropriate system for that area or farmer. 25 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Soil Resources Historically, soils have played an integral role in the development of the civilizations of West Africa. The distribution of the various soil types that are dispersed throughout the region have determined how these civilizations have subsisted. The development and distribution of native flora and fauna has been, and is, closely linked to the type of soil found in a given area. In hunter/gatherer societies this directly related to the local resources that people had available to utilize for both food and shelter. Slowly, these societies began to transition to agriculture as a means of providing a reliable food source. It was during this time that the seasonal migration of people following food sources diminished and stationary groups formed. Based on the location of the group, crop specialization occurred. The staple diets of these people then became a blend of locally obtained food stuffs and crops that were either selected for, or that were naturalized. Both of which were based upon the local climate and the soils. Though many population changes are occurring in West Africa through the migration of young people from the more rural areas to urban centers, the rural areas continue to serve as the primary agricultural areas. In these areas, local farmers cultivate the land in hopes of: 1) providing enough staple food to allow their families to subsist, and 2) producing extra quantities of “high‐value” crops to sell. Sale of these crops may occur in the local market place, in the nearest urban center, or at the international level. As the majority of people living in the rural areas rely on some form of agriculture to provide for their needs, important consideration needs to be made of the common soil types that are found in these areas, the characteristics related to these soils, and how these relate to the management practices that are employed. The soils of West Africa are composed primarily of ancient crystalline rocks that are resistant to weathering and erosion. In addition, there are older sedimentary rocks (primarily sandstones) which are the primarily components of upland areas and escarpments. According to the USDA taxonomic system, there are twelve orders used for the classification of soils throughout the world. These include Alfisols, Andisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Gelisols, Histosols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, Oxisols, Spodisols, Ultisols, and Vertisols. Of these, the common soil orders present in West Africa include Alfisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Inseptisols, Oxisols, and Ultisols. The remaining portion of this section will describe the properties of only the soil types that are prevalent in this region. 26 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Soils of West Africa United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Classification (http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/metadata/maps/afrorder.gif) 27 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Alfisols Example of Alfisol Soil Order Profile (Photo: NRCS, 2008) Without the assistance of irrigation or fertilizer, these soils are considered to be one of the most productive soils used for crops (Miller and Donahue, 1990). They are medium to coarse textured soils that are considered to be moderately weathered and undergo formation in cool to hot humid areas. Development of these soils typically occurs under deciduous forestland, but in parts of Africa, grass savannah is the native vegetation. Alfisols occupy approximately 10% of the land area globally. Depending on the location, irrigation and/or fertilization are used to increase soil productivity relative to tree growth capacity and crop yields. This is due to medium‐ to high‐base saturation levels, favorable texture, and location. Alfisols with higher sand contents are susceptible to erosion. This is especially true in areas that experience heavy rain events or the removal of natural surface litter (Brady and Weil, 2002). The Alfisols, which have high to moderate fertility, cover only a small area of the humid tropics. In West
Africa, they are found in Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon. They are, however, the most
abundant soils in Africa's subhumid and semi-arid zones, covering about one third of these regions. The Alfisols
are less leached and have lower acidity than either Ultisols or Oxisols, but they exhibit high base saturation and
their fertility is low to moderate. The Alfisols (and associated soils) support a wide variety of cereal crops
(maize, rice, sorghum, millet), root and tuber crops (yam, cassava, cocoyam, sweet potato), and grain legumes
(soybean, cowpeas, groundnuts, pigeon peas, chick peas). The following adapted from Soil Morphology, Classification, and Mapping (McSweeney, 1998). The productivity of the Alfisols is limited mainly by their physical characteristics: •
They have low structural stability and are susceptible to surface crusting, soil compaction and erosion. •
They have low water retention capacity and are subject to drought. •
Deficiencies of nitrogen and phosphorus are common while deficiencies of potassium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, and zinc occur under intensive cultivation. 28 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources •
Because of their low buffering capacity, Alfisols acidify rapidly under continuous cultivation, particularly with the use of high rates of nitrogenous fertilizers. Benefits from nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium application for continuous crop production on the Alfisols have been well documented. With intensive cropping, nitrogen is the primary limiting nutrient, followed by phosphorus. Potassium is generally needed with long‐term continuous cropping, particularly on soils derived from sedimentary rocks. The Alfisols (and associated soils) have low phosphorus‐fixation and high residual effects from applied phosphorus. In addition, mycorrhiza symbiosis is common and effective on these soils particularly with root crops, resulting in a low phosphorus requirement for crop production. Continuous cultivation and fertilizer application can significantly affect the properties of Alfisols.. Cropping, and in particular fertilizer application, reduces soil pH, soil organic matter, and extractable cations. Lowering of the soil pH on the Alfisols can result in increased toxic levels of aluminum and manganese. Environmental Conditions Climate: Most Alfisols are found in temperate regions, but these soils are also extensive in tropical and subtropical zones. Alfisols can occur generally in zones with a temperature range from below 0oC to above 22oC. Important for the development of Alfisols is the change between periods of high moisture content and high soil temperature, to break down the primary mineral components and to leach the weathered products, and low moisture content and low soil temperatures, which permit the precipitation or accumulation of the weathered products. Representative Alfisol Landscape (Nigeria) (Photo: Smyth, 2001) Vegetation: Most Alfisols are formed under broadleaf deciduous forest, but they occur also under grassland and prairie vegetation. In forested ecosystems, the trees deliver the bulk of their annual production of organic matter aboveground, which is different from grassland soils. In those ecosystems the organic matter is enriched by the huge root systems of the grass or prairie cover. While present vegetation may be deciduous forest, earlier vegetation may have been grass or conifers. 29 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Relief: Alfisols develop under several drainage conditions ranging from excessive on hill crest and steep slopes to poorly drained footslopes and level plains. Alfisols do not develop on very steep slopes, alluvial floodplains, and very poorly drained depressions. High elevations combined with limited rainfall favor Alfisol formation in the tropics. Parent Material: The parent material has a major impact on the formation of clay minerals within soil. The resistance to weathering and the composition of primary minerals determine in combination with the other soil forming factors which clay minerals are formed. Generally, a wide variety of clay minerals can occur. It should be stressed that several clay minerals do have a potential to adsorb exchangeable bases (high cation exchange capacity), which is a critera that should be met to qualify for an Alfisol. Most Alfisols are present on relatively old landscapes, wherever the supply of primary minerals is plentiful. Time: Most Alfisols need a longer period of time for development. Several studies postulated that the time to develop Alfisols may range from 200‐1000 years, depending on the other soil forming factors. Properties A typical Alfisol profile looks like: •
On uncultivated sites: A very thin O horizon is common; on cultivated sites: no O horizon; •
A thin A horizon (less than 15 cm), weakly expressed crumb or granular structure; •
A moderately thin E horizon (15 ‐ 25 cm), platy structure, light‐colored; •
The B horizon usually contains several subdivisions, which are normally between 25‐75 cm thick, and a moderate to strong angular or subangular blocky structure. 30 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Local farmers prepare a lowland area for the planting of rice transplants. (Frederick) 31 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Aridisols Example of Aridisol Soil Order Profile (Photo: NRCS, 2007) These soils are of arid and desert areas (Sahara) and may be saline. The identifying characteristic of these soils is their inability to hold water for prolonged periods. Soil moisture levels cannot support plant growth for longer than 90 consecutive days. Vegetation occurring on these soils may include desert shrubs and bunch grasses. With the exception of areas that contain groundwater, or in areas where irrigation occurs, these soils are typically moist for only limited times during the year. Though these periods may support limited natural vegetation, without the intensive use of irrigation and appropriate fertilizer application crop production is extremely limited. In addition, in areas where groundwater is present near the surface of the soil, accumulated salt may be more than most crops can tolerate (Brady and Weil, 2002). The following adapted from Soil Morphology, Classification, and Mapping (McSweeney, 1998). Environmental Conditions Climate: These soils typically are found in arid regions (including cold polar, cool temperate and warm deserts) and occupy about 36% of the land surface based on climate and about 35% based on vegetation. Aridisols may also occur in semi‐arid areas outside of zones broadly classified as arid. Aridisols are classified on the basis of their soil moisture regime, which is dry in all parts >50% of the time in most years, and not moist for as much as 90 consecutive days when the soil is warm enough (>80°C) for plant growth. In an aridic soil moisture regime, potential evapo‐transpiration greatly exceeds precipitation during most of the year. In most years, little or no water percolates through the soil. This hydrologic regime has a distinctive influence on the development of such soils. Most deserts have changed back and forth from cooler‐moister, to warmer‐more‐arid climates, therefore, change in climatic conditions have to be considered when talking about Aridisols. 32 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Representative Aridisol Landscape (Idaho) (Photo: University of Idaho, 2007) Vegetation: Present vegetation is made up of species that are adapted to dry climates. Species have to live in an environment with sparse organic matter, low microbial population, and lack of nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorous). Use of Aridisols is limited because of lack of water, low biotic activity and low nutrient status. Irrigation can be used to improve crop growth on Aridisols, but issues of internal permeability, salinization and alkalization arising from the irrigation water should be addressed. Relief: They form on plain terraces and on steep slopes. Parent Material: They occur on land surfaces of Pleistocene or greater age, therefore, they occur on parent material such as crystalline rocks. Aridisols do develop on fluvial and eolian materials, extensively in large deserts such as the Gobi, Namib, or Kalahari desert. Aridisols occur on gypsiferous material formed from marine sedimentary rocks, on unconsolidated sediments, or limestone. Time: Most Arisisols are found on landscapes that are relatively old and stable (up to more than million years). Properties There are several soil features associated with dry climate and Aridisols: •
Crusts ‐ Surficial layers generally less than 10‐ to 20‐cm thick that are dominated by fine material composed of compound polygonally prismatic and platy fragments that are coherent when dry. •
Desert pavement ‐ A surface pebble layer, formed from a variety of processes which probably take place over tens of thousands of years, accounting for the same end product. •
Cambic horizons – Have a texture of loamy very fine sand or finer and contain some weatherable minerals. These are characterized by the alteration or removal of mineral material as indicated by mottling or gray colors, stronger chromas or redder hues than in underlying horizons. 33 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources •
Argillic horizons ‐ Enriched by clay, these may form due to the weathering or illuviation of clay in the Bt horizon. •
Duripans ‐ Subsurface soil horizons cemented by illuvial silica, usually opal or microcrystalline forms. •
Salic and gypsic horizons ‐ Enriched with secondary salts more soluble than gypsum. Most Aridisols show a low permeability because of the presence of accumulated or cemented layers. Though the nutrient status of often low, supplies of micronutrients are usually abundant. They may not be available because of the high pH. 34 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Entisols Example of Entisol Soil Order Profile (Photo: NRCS, 2007) These soils are developed in valley bottoms and areas associated with the presence of water. They are considered to be relatively weak soils that have minimal profile development. This group of soils can be extremely diverse, sharing only the lack of all but the earliest stages of formation. Productivity can vary greatly by location, with some recent developments being extremely productive to areas of extremely low productivity in sand or on rocky terrain. The cause of reduced soil formation may be due to a reduced number of years (i.e. fresh lava flow) or it may be related to a reduced reaction with formation factors (i.e. reduced water or vegetation). Rates of soil erosion may also occur faster than the rate of formation. While entisols may support rangeland in drier regions, forested land is more common in areas of higher humidity. Due to the variations in formations and characteristics, the productivity of these soils can vary greatly by location. Those located on floodplains are considered to be among the world’s most productive and have been attributed to the rise of agricultural civilizations (Brady and Weil, 2002). These soils may be found in various locations throughout West Africa, but are most commonly associated with areas adjacent to the Niger River and parts of the Sahara Desert. The following adapted from Soil Morphology, Classification, and Mapping (McSweeney, 1998). Environmental Conditions Climate: Entisols may form in a variety of climates. For example, an arid climate may limit the amount of soil development to inhibit the formation of other soil orders. A pronounced saturation of the soil profile or even submergence for long enough periods inhibit soil development and soils persist in the Entisol order. 35 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Representative Entisol Landscape (Peru) (Photo: Smyth, 2001) Vegetation: Harsh environments may limit root and plant growth due to consolidated highly resistant bedrock, infertility or toxicity of initial material, submergence, or high erosion rates. With adequate fertilizer and water, some Entisols can be used in agriculture (rangeland, grazing land); however, restrictions on their depth, clay content, or water balance limit intensive use of large areas of these soils. Some Entisols are intensively farmed, for example, river alluvium Entisols. Relief: Entisols may be present on very steep slopes over hard bedrock where soil formation is inhibited. Mass movement may remove material from such an area as fast, or faster, than soil horizon formation. Other Entisols form on level to gently sloping relief in deposited material such as alluvium or colluvium. Parent Material: Entisols are on land surfaces that are very young (i.e. mudflows), extremely hard rocks, or on disturbed sites (e.g. mined land, highly compacted soils, etc.). They also occur on deep bodies of water, glaciers, the shifting sands of the Sahara Desert, bedrock outcrops, and salt flats. Time: Shortness of time since exposure of initial materials to the active factors of soil formation limits soil development. Fresh lava flows, marine or lacustrine deposits newly exposed by uplift of land or by lake drainage, provide sites for very young soils. Human activity may force the formation of Entisols. Deforestation may induce soil erosion where highly eroded, shallow Entisols remain. Properties Entisols are soils without properties that are diagnostic of the other orders. They may have some fragments of horizons that are not arranged in any discernible order. Entisols are transitions between the other soil orders and non‐soils. Non‐soils are very unstable areas either because of water erosion (e.g. badlands, beaches, riverwash), wind erosion (e.g. dunes), areas impenetrable to roots (e.g. rock outcrops), areas that restrict plant growth (e.g. salt flats, slickens, toxic areas), or areas that are too cold to support plant growth. 36 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Inceptisols Example of Inceptisol Soil Order Profile (Photo: NRCS, 2007) These are considered to be young soils that show limited to no profile development. They are widely dispersed across the globe and occur in varied climatic areas. This soil order is prominent in the tropical mountainous areas (Brady and Weil, 2002). The lack of profile development in this order may be due to the recentness of the deposition, resistant parent material, susceptibility to erosion, and climatic conditions (i.e. wetness, temperature fluctuations). On a global scale, some locations where these soils are found may prove to be extremely productive. Most notable are the rice producing areas of Asia and the Pacific Islands. In these areas, such activities as tillage and the addition of organic material have helped to increase the productivity of Inceptisols (Miller and Donahue, 1990). The following adapted from Soil Morphology, Classification, and Mapping (McSweeney, 1998). Environmental Conditions Climate: With the exception of aridic conditions, Inceptisols form under a variety of climates. Soil moisture regimes can be variable, ranging from poorly drained soils to well‐drained soils on steep slopes. Climate which inhibits soil development such as low temperatures or low precipitation favors the development of Inceptisols. 37 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Representative Inceptisol Landscape (Idaho) (Photo: University of Idaho, 2007) Vegetation: Inceptisols occur under forested ecosystems, grasslands, or agricultural land. Although Inceptisols are not limited to forest environments, most of the soils classified into this order occur under forest ecosystems. Some probably developed under prairie vegetation. Present use may be restricted by its presence on steep slopes or by poor drainage. Those Inceptisols are suited only to forestry and/or wildlife habitat. Relief: Most Inceptisols develop on steep slopes where soil erosion removes parts of the topsoil continuously. Other Inceptisols are formed on areas where the slope is level to gently rolling. These Inceptisols develop where sediment has been or is being deposited. Parent Material: Inceptisols are extensive in areas of glacial deposits or on recent deposits in valleys or deltas. Where they occupy upland positions on young geomorphic surfaces, both primary and secondary minerals are present. Most Inceptisols are present on geologically young sediments. Time: Most Inceptisols are formed on young landscapes, where time has limited the development of soil diagnostic features. There are Inceptisols permanently altered by the loss of soil particles. This may be due to erosion or by the deposition of soil particles. In tropical zones, the speed of the development of Inceptisols into other soil orders is greater than in temperate or cold zones. Properties Shallow Inceptisols show only few horizons, for example AC, AR or ABC. Due to erosion the development of soil structure is weak. Inceptisols include soils that have some subsoil development but lack features of other soil orders. In temperate climate and increased precipitation Mollisols or Alfisols are formed. In tropical and subtropical climate Ultisols or Oxisols are formed. 38 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Communal labor plays an important role in many aspects of agriculture in West Africa. (Frederick) 39 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Oxisols Example of Oxisol Soil Order Profile (Photo: USDA­NRCS) This order is represented by soils that are strongly weathered and consist of fine to coarse textures with little to no variation with depth. In West Africa, they may be found in the southern portions of Ghana, Benin, and Nigeria (FAO, 1988). Formation of this order occurs in climates that are hot and moist year‐
round. Native vegetation consists of tropical rain forest. There is a high content of low‐activity clay in these soils. These naturally low‐fertility clays are typically of moderate acidity. Characteristics related to the cation‐exchange capacity of the soil contribute to limited vegetative growth on these soils once the native vegetation has been disturbed. The high level of clay content in these soils makes them relatively resistant to problems associated with erosion (Brady and Weil, 2002). Soils of this order that become exposed may experience hardening and become impossible to cultivate. Crops that are cultivated on these soil types require the use of fertilizer to optimize yields. With these, common crops grown on these soils (i.e. bananas, sugarcane, coffee, rice, and pineapples) are productive. Oxisols may be relatively productive in the cultivation of carbohydrate and oil crops, since these derive carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from the air and water (compared to protein crops that derive these from the soil) (Miller and Donahue, 1990). The following adapted from Soil Morphology, Classification, and Mapping (McSweeney, 1998). Environmental Conditions Climate: Oxisols occur within a range of areas, but most develop in iso‐tropical soil temperature regimes. Generally, they develop in climatic zones with small seasonal variation in soil temperature and no seasonal soil freezing. Oxisols occurring under aridic moisture regimes are often considered relicts. It is assumed that Oxisols develop under climatic conditions where precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration for some periods of the year to favor the removal of soluble weathering products. 40 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Representative Oxisol Landscape (Rwanda) (Photo Courtesy of the University of Idaho) Vegetation: Oxisols may occur under a wide range of vegetational zones. These may include: tropical rainforest, scrub and thorn forest, deciduous forest, and savannah. The use of Oxisols is often limited to shifting cultivation, subsidence farming, and low‐intensity grazing. With soil amendments, Oxisols can also be used for intense plantation agriculture such as: soybeans, wheat, corn, and coffee. Relief: Most Oxisols are found on relatively stable upland summit positions, relicts from a previous regional erosion surface, or on preserved remnants of an old alluvial terrace, which are nearly level topography. They are not likely to occur on steep slopes. Parent Material: Oxisols occur on highly weathered transported material, old fluvial terraces, or on high‐lying old erosion surfaces. The most extensive areas of Oxisols are in sediments that have been re‐worked during several erosional and depositional cycles, some extending to the earliest geologic eras, although they may also form in materials which weather rapidly. Time: Most of the Oxisols are formed on materials transported via erosion where the loss of soil silica and intense weathering has taken place over vast expanses of times (~50,000 ‐ 100,000 y or even longer). Properties Although the clay content in Oxisols is often high, the cation exchange capacity is low. This is due to the almost complete weathering of primary minerals. A fluctuating water table (alternating oxidation ‐ reduction) in Oxisols may form plinthite consisting of red‐and‐gray mottled material. In the past this material has been designated as 'laterite' or 'lateritic iron oxide crust'. If subjected to repeated wetting and drying, as in exposure by erosion of overlying material, it becomes ironstone, which may be subsequently erode and be deposited as ironstone gravel layers in alluvial fans. Infiltration and percolation rates in Oxisols are rapid. Many Oxisols behave like sandy textured soils with respect to their water holding capacity. Oxisols may include many soils which are formed in tropical or subtropical regions. 41 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Ultisols Example of Ultisol Soil Order Profile (Photo: NRCS, 2007) These acidic soils are coarse to medium textured with clayey subsoil (FAO, 1988). Development of these soils typically occurs in humid climates containing tropical to subtropical temperatures under forest or savanna vegetation. In order to be a highly productive soil, Ultisols require high levels of management. Due to a decreased nutrient‐reserve, they require both fertilization and liming to produce moderate to high yields. Without adequate fertilization, these soils may tend to become easily “worn out”. Other considerations with this order are insect and fungus abundance that may be prevalent in these climates (Miller and Donahue, 1990). In locations where the soil has formed under fluctuations in wetness, iron‐rich horizon development has occurred. While the material is considered to be virtually useless for agricultural production, it can be utilized to make bricks to meet local building needs (Brady and Weil, 2002). The following adapted from Soil Morphology, Classification, and Mapping (McSweeney, 1998). Environmental Conditions Climate: Ultisols are formed in climatic regions where precipitation exceeds the potential evapo‐transpiration during some periods each year. Also, the precipitation amount has to exceed the water storage capacity of the soil for some time of the year to allow water to percolate through the soil. This is essential in maintaining the low base status. Ultisols are found in tropical areas, where they tend to have somewhat finer textured E horizons, containing more organic matter and iron, than do the majority of Ultisols formed in temperate climate. Ultisols also may form in frigid soil temperature regimes. 42 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Representative Ultisol Landscape (North Carolina) (Photo Courtesy of the University of Idaho) Vegetation: Many Ultisols are formed under forest vegetation, although savannah or even swamp vegetation is possible. Because of their low base status most Ultisols are used for timber production, but they are also of limited use in agriculture, where liming and fertilization is important to decrease acidity and increase soil fertility. Where adequate agricultural management occurs, these Ultisols may be quite productive. Relief: There are no limitations for relief where Ultisols might form. They may occupy hillslopes or level upland areas. The position they occupy is controlled by the relationship between geomorphology and other factors of formation. Parent Material: Common parent materials for the development of Ultisols contain few basic cations such as siliceous crystalline rocks (e.g. granite) or sedimentary material that is relatively poor in bases (e.g. highly weathered coastal plain sediment). Most of the geologically old landscapes are covered by parent material rich in silica but poor in bases. There are some Ultisols formed in parent material with higher base status and less weathered material (e.g. volcanic ash, basic ignenous or metamorphic rocks). Rapid leaching of bases can occur where precipitation amounts are high to form Ultisols. Time: Time periods involved in development of Ultisols depend on other factors of soil formation and the rate of specific pedogenic processes. A Pleistocene or older age is assigned most parent materials where Ultisols occur. The geologic age of parent materials, however, serves only to fix an absolute maximum on possible periods of time involved in soil formation. The actual time periods involved may be, and generally are, much less. 43 A Farmer’s Friend | Soil Resources Properties A major characteristic of Ultisols is low base saturation throughout the soil profile with slightly higher base contents in the upper soil horizon due to biocycling. Typically, the cation exchange capacity is low. In many Ultisols there are continuous losses of bases through leaching and erosion. Abrupt decreases in base saturation are frequently associated with zones that are saturated for prolonged periods. Associated with low base (low nutrient) content is a high soil acidity. Surface horizons rarely have pH values less than 5.0 or greater 5.8. In most Ultisols, restricted organic matter can be attributed to the high decomposition rates by aerobic micro‐organisms under warm climates and free soil‐drainage. Most of the annual increments of added organic residues are on the surface, where the oxygen and nutrient status of Ultisols are most suitable for high populations of micro‐organisms. The low base status of Ultisols is the primary characteristic differentiating them from most Alfisols. Most Ultisols are more highly weathered and acidic than Alfisols. 44 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Allium cepa Common Name: Onion 1) Common Onion Group: flowering plant 2) Common Onion Group: Basal part of the plant with mature bulb 3) Aggregatum Group: mature bulbs. Redrawn and adapted by Isak Syamsudin Distribution in Africa (planted) Likely originating in Western Asia, the onion is considered to be a significant dry‐season crop in the northern areas of West Africa. The production of this crop is spreading, as it provides much‐needed income during a time that has is historically lean. The production of onions is relatively intensive, requiring a secure water source, fertilizer, and daily maintenance. Most of the production occurs along dry river beds, in which “walk‐in” wells are dug out to provide the necessary water. Adequate land is the limiting factor in the amount of onions that can be produced in an area. Limited production has also been noted in the southern zones; however, the humidity in these areas limits success. While shallot (Allium ascalonicum) has historically been grown in West Africa, it is Allium cepa that is favored. The main difference being that the former is capable of tolerating wetter areas and produces a series of small bulbs around the parent bulb, while the later prefers a drier environment and forms one, large bulb. The red‐
skinned is the most common and is generally mild. Description (1,2,3,4,6) Type: Grown as an annual in West Africa. Habit: Bulb‐forming vegetable crop. Height: Up to 100cm tall. Pollination: Onion is a cross‐pollinator, the percentage of selfing amounting to 10–20%. Pollination is by bees, bumble‐bees, or flies. When mature, the fruits 45 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops allow shedding of the seeds. Stems: Made up of hollow, green leaves composed of a blade and a sheath. The sheath develops to encircle the growing point, forming a hollow tube that encloses the younger leaves and the apex of the shoots. Young blades then arise, growing from the tip of the blade and sheath of the older leaves. As new growth emerges, older leaves are pushed farther away from the apex. Flowers: Form on an elongated stem, which arises from the center of the bulb. Length of day affects the rate of seed stalk development. There are many, white flowers per stalk which form a loose cluster. Each flower contains six stamens and three‐celled pistils, which produce small, black, spherical seeds. Fruits: A large (7‐15cm), single bulb which may range in color from white‐ to red‐ to purple skinned. The bulb consists of enlarged, fleshy leaf bases which thicken as the bulbs develop. The outer‐covering of the onion dries and becomes scaly. Seeds: The fruit splits and is up to 6‐seeded. The seeds are 6×4 mm and black. Environment (1,4) Rainfall: Onion production in West Africa is mainly irrigation dependent. In small‐scale operations, irrigation is typically carried out manually, once a day (mornings). Irrigation is halted when plants reach maturity to avoid the rotting of the bulbs. Temperature: Optimum temperatures for plant growth range from 13‐24°C. Seedlings may emerge from seed in four days at 25°C. Soils: Grow best in rich, well‐drained soil. Depending on the existing fertility levels, well‐rotted animal or poultry manure may be added. Soils should be trampled to form a firm seedbed. This will allow beds to better withstand heavy rains, if they occur during the initial development. Tolerance: Onions are slightly tolerant of acidic soils, but not at all tolerant of salinity. Yields may be severely reduced when subjected to saline soils. This is an important consideration as, over time, irrigation may have this affect on soils. Onions are also not tolerant of drought and do not compete well with weeds. Cultural (1,2,6) Planting: The planting practices of onions vary by location. They may be propagated by seed, which require approximately 4 months to mature. They may also be propagated by bulbs, which are sliced across the top, producing 6‐
10 shoots. These mature in approximately 3 months. Seeds may be sown in rows that are 15‐23cm apart. Seeds may also be broadcasted in beds and transplanted into rows. Whatever the local planting method may be, the final bed should consist of evenly‐spaced individual plants that are approximately 15‐23cm apart. Thinning and Weeding: Seeds that are planted in rows or broadcast into beds will require thinning, to promote stands consisting of the best plants. Ideally, 46 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops thinned plants could be transplanted into prepared areas. As onions do not compete well with weeds, it is important to keep sites free from weeds. In most areas of West Africa, this is accomplished manually. Nutrient Additives: The best onion yields in African experiment stations were obtained under high fertilizing with 120–60–150 kg/ha NPK. The fertilizers should also contain sulphates. The strong mycorrhization of onion roots by Endogonaceae allows them to exploit the phosphorus reserves of the soil. Nitrate‐N is more favorable for onion than ammonium‐N, which should not be used alone. Organic matter is useful if fully decomposed, but not when it releases ammonia. Bulbs obtained with excessive N fertilization do not store well, so ideally the N supply should be adequate for the young and bulbing plants but be exhausted by harvest time. Harvesting: The bulbs are removed from the soil manually, spread out, and allowed to dry for several days in the sun. The dirt is then removed and the onion is ready for storage. Storage: Onions are typically stored and transported in jute sacks. Most of the onions that are grown in the northern regions are shipped to the coastal areas for consumption. Due to the environmental conditions and the lack of adequate storage facilities, long‐term storage of onions in large quantities is not typically practiced. Of more importance (at least in the north) is the storage of onion seeds for the next planting. Seeds are stored in a variety of ways which reduce air and moisture contact to the seeds. When it is time to plant onions, viable seeds may sell for a premium. Damaging Agents (3,4) Fungus are the are the most common disease to affect onion; however, if the bulbs are properly ripened prior to storage, there is not likely to be excessive damage. Field disease may include: smut, downy mildew, pink root, smudge, leaf blight, and several basal rots. Storage diseases may include: common field rots, botrytis neck rot, and bacterial soft rot. The combination of plant selection and seed treatment reduces the likelihood of problems from any of these diseases. Uses Bulbs: Onions serve as dependable and frequent addition to soups used with the main carbohydrate staples. They are also commonly served with eggs, rice, beans, and grilled meat. Nutrition Onions serve as a valuable source for dietary fiber, vitamin C, vitamin B6, folate, potassium, and manganese. Proteins and amino acids include (among others): leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, arginine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and glycine. With the calories from onions coming primarily from sugars, they are very low in saturated fat, cholesterol, and sodium. Onions are also ranked high, relative to their anti‐inflammatory properties. (5) 47 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Bullock play an important role in cultivation in the Sahel. (Frederick) 48 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Ananas comosus Common Name: Pineapple The pineapple, originally of South American origin, may have introduced into West Africa by early Portugese traders. It has since become well established in the wetter areas of the region where it is now grown extensively. Pineapples are grown both for local consumption and for export. The infrastructure now exists to allow for processing and packaging to occur within the region. The most popular varieties to grown include the red and the white or yellow, with the latter being the most common. Other introduced varieties include the Smooth Cayenne, Queen, Sugar Loaf, and Brazil. Differences between varieties may include size, sweetness, ease of cultivation, shape, and the presence or absence of thorns. The most popular introduced variety is the Smooth Cayenne, due to the ease of cultivation and the absence of thorns. Description (3) Type: Semi‐permanent crop, taking ~18 months to produce and producing for up to four years. Habit: May reach a height slightly greater than 1m. Erect, short, stout stem. Characteristics: The leaves are coarse, spiny‐edged, thick, closely crowded, and sword‐shaped. Plants contain crowns, which are leaves that come from the top of the fruit. Slips, or small plants, form just below the fruit. Suckers develop from the axils of leaves close to the ground. Plants also contain rattoons, which are buds that develop underground. Fruit: The pineapple is made up of a series of individual berries that are produced from individual flowers. These berries come together to from a multiple fruit. 49 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Seeds: Seldom collected or used for establishing new plants, due to the length of time it takes to obtain fruit from plants grown in this fashion (10‐12 years). Growth and Development Propagation: Propagation is by suckers. There are four types of suckers. (4) 1. Stem suckers which form from the base of the stem. 2. Crowns (i.e., the portion found at the end of the fruit). 3. Slips. The small suckers produced on the fruit stem. 4. Stumps. The main stems from plants which have fruited. Stem suckers are most commonly used, varying in length from 25‐75cm in length. Maturity: The longer the suckers, the quicker they fruit. The time to fruiting depends on the type of suckers used, with the length of time ranging from nine months to two years. Yield: Pineapple yields are extremely variable by variety and by the plant spacing. Environment (2) Climate: Pineapples grow best in low altitudes and on low hills and may be grown near in coastal areas if the soils and rainfall are suitable. They do well in dry climates or with moderate rainfall. Soils: Pineapples prefer soils of rich, sandy loam or well‐drained loam; however, if manured, they are adaptable to most soil conditions. In clay soils, it may be necessary to improve drainage and add lime to the soil. Cultural (2,3,4) Planting: Planting is done in double rows with ~6m between the rows and ~1m between the plants. The basal leaves of the suckers should be removed prior to planting. The spacing may vary, depending on whether the cultivation is manual or mechanical. Plants are set ~15cm in deep, during the early rains. Cultivation: During dry weather, the soil should be kept thoroughly mixed and mulched. Mulching aids in reducing weed competition, conserving soil moisture, and adding humus to the soil. It is essential in the later stages of fruit development. Weeds are one of the biggest problems in pineapple cultivation. Proper spacing and mulching assist in reducing the labor that may be required. Nutrient Additives: Single superphosphate and ammonium sulphate have been shown good results. Harvesting: The main harvesting seasons are from January to March and from May to July. Fruit are detached using a sharp knife. Two or three suckers should be left to fruit later. Over time, the fruits become increasing smaller and of poorer quality. Once this has reached the economic threshold, the plants should be dug up and the fields covered with mulch to prevent an increased build up of weeds. 50 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Damaging Agents (2) Uses (2) Of major concern are black rot (Ceratocystis paradoxa), brown fruit rot, leaf blight (Pithomyces chararum), and rodents. Black rot only attacks the suckers that are planted prior to the arrival of the main rains. Brown fruit rot affects fruits when they are yet small. With leaf blight, sunken, gray‐brown areas appear on the upper surface of the leaf tips. For all of these, the best defense seems to be in variety selection and with the proper timing of planting. Occasionally, individual plants may be damaged by rodents. Control may include trapping and in making sure that the ground is kept free of weeds. Fruit: Local markets for pineapple are increasing, especially near major population centers. This is important, as transport of the fruits tends to bruise them, reducing their economic value. The fruit may be sold whole or in pieces (after the skin has been removed). The commercial prospects of pineapple are increasing, as the processing facilities expand. This is especially true in Ghana and Nigeria. Leaves: Fiber from the leaves may be made into textiles, with the wild plants typically yielding better fiber than the cultivated ones. Young shoots may also be used in salads. Nutrition (5) Pineapple contains very high water content (86%). Of what remains, the majority consists of carbohydrates, in the form of sucrose, fructose and glucose, respectively. It also serves as an excellent source of vitamin C and manganese and contributes fiber, thiamin, vitamin B6, and Copper. 51 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Arachis hypogaea Common Name: Groundnut 1) Branch with flowers and fruit; 2) inflorescence; 3) fruit; 4) seeds Source: PROSEA Seeds for sale roadside Distribution in Africa A native of South America, the groundnut is believed to have been brought to West Africa by the Portuguese. It is currently one of the most important cash crops grown in West Africa and is particularly important in the agricultural export programs of Nigeria and Gambia. A considerable quantity of the nut, and its derivatives, is also consumed at the local level. Being a legume that is suited to the environmental conditions of this region, it offers much in the way of soil improvement and has a high potential for increased use in intercropping systems. Description (1,2,3,4,6) Type: There are two main types: 1) erect or upright growth with the nuts located close to the main stem, and 2) spreading with trailing branches and nut that are not necessarily located close to the main stem. Habit: Erect types may grow 30‐45cm in height and do not spread. Spreading types are shorter and may spread along the ground for 30‐60cm or more. Pollination: Groundnut is self‐pollinating, but outcrossing can occur when bees pollinate the flowers. Only one of the flowers in an inflorescence opens at a given time. Flowers wither within 24 hours after anthesis. Fertilization usually occurs within 6 hours after pollination. Stems: Branched, slightly hairy. Leaves: Of four leaflets, each up to 6cm in length, blunt or short‐pointed, entire, without tendrils, rather smooth and green. 52 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Flowers: Yellow, in close spikes of one to three flowers, which appear above the ground at first, where immature fruit is enclosed in a calyx. The flowers are then thrust underground by the plant, where the seeds mature. Flowers typically appear 6‐7 weeks from the time of planting. Fruits: The edible portions of the groundnut are the seeds, which typically consist of two oblong seeds enclosed by two dry shells. Growth and Development (3) Germination: With the shells surrounding the seeds at the time of planting, germination takes 6‐10 days. Without the shells, germination takes 4‐5 days. Maturity: The nuts mature in 4‐5 months from the time of planting. Yield: Native farmers typically obtain yields of 340‐565 kg/ha of shelled seed. This can vary considerably, depending on the location and the cultural practices that are used. In the southern regions, yields of up to 2,250 kg/ha have been obtained with early planting. Environment (1,2,6) Rainfall: Groundnuts perform the best in regions with rainfall in a range of 75‐
125cm/annum. They are capable of producing in regions receiving as low as 50cm/annum, providing that the rainfall is evenly distributed. They are mainly grown in the northern (savanna) regions, especially near population centers, where labor is readily available. Altitude: Groundnut can be grown up to 1500 m altitude. Temperature: The optimum mean daily temperature for groundnut growth is 27–30°C; growth ceases when temperature drops below 15°C. Soils: Thrives in rich, sandy soil. It does best when there is lime in the soil. It is considered to be a gross feeder, but the roots do add nitrogen to the soil. Tolerance: Groundnuts can resist considerable drought if the rainfall is evenly distributed. They are not tolerant of heavy clay or compacted soils, as the nuts may have difficulty in penetrating the soil. Cultural (2,3) Planting: In the southern regions, the planting of unshelled seeds typically occurs from mid‐March to early April. In the northern regions, the planting of shelled seeds typically occurs in June. Spacing of 0.3m^2 per stand is allowed for the spreading types, but closer spacing may occur for upright varieties. Seeds are typically planted at a rate of 2 seeds/stand. This equates to 125‐170 kg/ha for seeds in the shell and 36‐90 kg/ha for seeds not in the shell. The seed germinates in 5‐10 days. Weeding: Weeding is continued throughout the growing season, typically with the use of native hoes. When plants are fully developed, weeding by hand is the preferred method. Weeding should cease once the plants begin to flower (~6‐7 weeks after planting). 53 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Nutrient Additives: The application of 2‐7 mton/ha of animal manure will give increased yields. In addition, the placement of phosphate powder or pellets next to seeds (no closer than 4‐5cm) at a rate of 57 kg/ha has proven to be very beneficial in most soils. Care must be taken not to place the fertilizer too close to the seeds, less germination is reduced. Harvesting: Groundnuts typically take 4‐5 months to reach maturity. This is evident when the lower leaves of the plants turn brown and begin to fall. In the southern region, this usually occurs in August. In the northern regions, this usually occurs in November. Harvesting may be carried out with the use of native hoes or through uprooting the plants by hand. Upon harvesting, the nuts are spread out for drying. When dry, the seeds are then removed from their shells by pounding them with mortars or sticks. In some areas, machines may be used for this process. Storage: Seeds are then placed in jute sacks for local storage or export. Damaging Agents (2,3) Fungus: Tikka Disease (Cercospora personata) – This fungus causes spotting of the leaves followed by yellowing of the plant and leaf fall. It is generally not serious, unless it occurs early in the life cycle of the plant. It is more pronounced in seasons of increased moisture. Crop rotation and early planting give adequate control. Virus: Rosette Disease – Transmitted from plant to plant by aphids. Affected plants become stunted and yellow. Control through planting early and close planting. Use clean seed stock and uproot and burn affected plant material. The disease is capable of spreading very rapidly, destroying a large proportion of the crop, if left unchecked. Insects: Most damage caused by insects occurs during the storage process. Damaging agents may include: groundnut beetles, Trogoderma beetles, flour beetles, groundnut bruchids, and moths. Fumigation of stored goods may reduce the impact of the insects. Uses (1) Seeds: Groundnuts may be eaten raw, lightly roasted, or boiled. They are sometimes salted or made into paste. This paste may be eaten alone or used as a base for local soups. Meal is also made from the seeds. Leaves/Stems: The leaves may be used as vegetable in soups. Post‐harvest, the leaves and stems may be incorporated back into the soil as a green manure to improve the soil. Oil: The oil is perhaps the most important product obtained from the groundnut. The roasted kernals are ground, made into a paste, and boiled, the oil rises to the surface and can be skimmed off. The oil content of the kernel averages 40‐50%. The finest oil may be used as a substitute for olive oil. It is equivalent to sesame seed oil, though less likely to turn rancid. Groundnut oil may also be used to make margarine or certain Dutch cheeses. It has also 54 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops proven to have value for industrial purposes and the residue can be an important supplement to livestock feed. Nutrition (5) Groundnuts are high in fat (73%), in comparison to carbohydrates (11%) and protein (16%). They are considered to be low in cholesterol and sodium. They also contain anti‐inflammatory nutrients in the form of monosaturated fat and zinc. In addition, they serve as excellent sources of dietary fiber, Vitamin E, Thiamin, Niacin, Folate, and Magnesium, Phosphorus, Copper, and Manganese. Women play a vital role in many aspects of agriculture. (Frederick) 55 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Capsicum frutescens Common Name: Red Pepper 1) Habit of chili plant; 2) shoot of bird pepper plant; 3) fruit of sweet pepper; 4) fruit of aromatic pepper Source: PROSEA Distribution in Africa (planted) Red peppers, native to Central and South America, are grown in many parts of West Africa. Usually produced in gardens and small plots near large cities, they are commonly intercropped with other plantings. There are primarily two types grown in West Africa. Capsicum annuum is an annual and produces and fairly large fruits that are raised mostly for commercial export. Capsicum frutescens is a perennial with small pointed fruits that are more pungent than the annual peppers. The historical use in West Africa has primarily been of Capsicum frutescens. While these peppers are typically raised for home use as an additive to soups and foods, there is an increasing market demand to raise them for commercial export. Description (1,2,5,7) Type: Typically annual; however, they may hold over for more than one season if cared for and in the right climate. Habit: Woody shrub with a trunk having a diameter of 1‐3cm. Height: Common heights of 1‐1.5m. Pollination: Although normally self‐pollinated, cross‐pollination may occur, depending on the activity of bees and thrips collecting nectar and pollen; on average, cross‐pollination is about 15%. Stems: Irregularly angular, up to 1cm in diameter, green to brown‐green, often softly hairy and with purplish spots near nodes. 56 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Leaves: The leaves may be up to 12cm long, usually pointed at the end. Highly variable in shape, with some being small and less than 3cm long. Flowers: Produced in the axils of the leaves, with multiple fruits being produced per flower. Fruits: Thick‐rinded and variable‐shaped, the red to red‐orange berries are typically elongated with a pointed or rounded tip; 1.5‐3.5cm long and 0.5‐1.2cm thick. The strong taste that is associated with the peppers is due to the presence of capsicine. The presence of this is reduced in the young fruits making them milder, and increasing as the fruit ages. Seeds: Seeds orbicular, flattened, 3–5.5mm in diameter, pale yellow. Growth and Development (7) Germination: Seeds germinate 6–21 days after sowing. Flowering: Continuous flowering starts 60–90 days after sowing. Flowers open 3 hours after sunrise and are open for 1–3 days. Maturity: Fruits begin to mature 4–5 weeks after flowering, and can be picked every 5–7 days. Yield: Hot pepper yields vary widely from 1.5–18 t/ha fresh product. Sweet pepper may yield up to 30 t/ha in the field and up to 100 t/ha in protected cultivation. The yield level in African countries is generally very low as a consequence of extensive cultivation technology. The drying percentage is ~33%. Environment (1,3,4,7) Rainfall: A rainfall of 600‐1,250mm is desirable; occurring throughout the growing season, but not necessary as the fruits ripen. Heavy rain during flowering may adversely affect pollination and wetness, as it encourages fungal spoilage. Altitude: Grows at a wide range of altitudes, from lowland up to 2000 m. Temperature: Flourish in warm, sunny conditions, requiring 3‐5 months with a temperature in the range of 18‐30ºC. Below 5ºC, retards growth, and frost kills at any stage. Seedbed temperatures of 20‐28ºC are ideal for germination. Soils: Grow well on well‐drained loamy soils. Soil additive (phosphate) may be necessary in the seedbeds, prior to broadcasting seeds. Tolerance: Tolerant to a variety of environmental conditions and pests; however, exposure to prolonged cool temperatures may reduce yields and excess moisture may promote the onset of fungal diseases on fruits. Cultural (1,2,3,7) Planting: Seeds may be broadcast in nursery beds or drilled 15‐20cm apart and covered lightly with good soil. Seedlings are ready for outplanting at 10‐15cm tall at a spacing of 50‐80cm apart. Planting may occur on ridges or on the flat, and is variable by location. 57 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Nutrient Additives: Thrives best if supplied with liberal quantities of organic matter supplemented with balanced mineral fertilizers. Nutrient availability is subject to soil type and environmental conditions, so local recommendations for fertilizer application vary greatly. A reasonable recommendation is to supply 10–20 t/ha of organic fertilizer (e.g. manure). Capsicum is very sensitive to blossom‐end rot caused by calcium deficiency and irregular irrigation. Pruning: Larger fruits may be produced by pinching off the growing tips of the plants. Harvesting: After 3 months of growth, the plants begin to bear fruit and will continue to bear for up to 6 months. In southern areas, harvesting typically occurs from October through January. The best fruits are picked with their stalks to prevent fruit rot at the calyx end. Harvesting is done through hand‐picking the peppers, with growth stage dependent on the market. Some people may be allergic to red pepper, and a skin irritation will develop is exposed. Storage: The pods are spread out thinly and dried in the sun for 1‐2 weeks. The pods should be red, clean, and uninjured. They may be gently trodden with bare feet to flatten them. If stored, they lose their color and are useless for export. Damaging Agents (1,3) Insects: Grasshoppers, cut‐worms, and crickets may attack young plants. Handpicking may prove to be an effective treatment, or it may be necessary to apply an appropriate insecticide. Nematodes: Eelworms are the main pest of peppers. The leaves of affected plants turn yellow and the plants become stunted and die. Crop rotation will effectively prevent an accumulation of these in the soil. Fungus: With mildew (Leveillula taurica), the leaves become yellow and show a white, powdery fungus on the undersurface of the leaves. Damping off may also occur if the seedlings are planted too close together, which prevents adequate light and air flow within the pepper stands. Virus: Mosaic is a virus that may harm individual plants. The yield is usually unaffected by this and control is best achieved through selecting seeds for resistance Leaf curl is also a viral disease in which the leaves wrinkle and the plants look poor and stunted. Affected plants should be destroyed and burnt. Uses Fruits: Throughout West Africa, red pepper is a preferred (and sometimes necessary) spice. It serves not only as an appetite stimulant, but also as a local medicine for a variety of ailments and an ingredient in locally made insecticides. Fresh and ground red pepper is commonplace in local markets. Nutrition The fruits are an excellent source of vitamins A and C. There are approximately 100 calories per 13 ounces of pepper. (2,5) 58 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Fertilizer is a valuable commodity and is often applied manually. (Frederick) 59 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Citrullus lanatus Common Name: Egusi 1) part of stem with female flower; 2) part of stem with male flower; 3) egusi melon fruit; 4) seeds of egusi; 5) watermelon fruit Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin Distribution in Africa (wild and planted) Similar in outside appearance to the watermelon, this native plant of West Africa is grown in home gardens for its seeds, which may be used in a variety of ways. While relatively unheard of outside of the region, almost all of the big markets in Benin, Cameroon, Ghana, Nigeria, and Togo sell the seed, with the current market demand outside of the region also increasing. It is easy to grow and serves to suppress weeds. Description (1,3) Type: An annual, trailing vine. Habit: A non‐climbing, creeping habit. Height (length): Up to 4m long. Pollination: Pollination occurs in the morning and is done by insects, predominantly bees. Ample deposition of pollen on all three stigmas is necessary for regular fruit development. Stems: Ridged, rather softly and containing long hairs. Leaves: Deeply lobed and blue‐gray in color. The pinnate leaves arranged alternately and may reach 24cm in length. Flowers: Monoecious, occurring solitary in axils with a yellow color; measure 13‐20cm in diameter. 60 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Fruits: The yellow‐green fruits appear similar to a melon, reaching a length of 18cm. They have a shiny skin with a white flesh. Seeds: The numerous seeds are contained within the fruit and are white, smooth, flattened, and narrow. While they may vary in size and thickness, most are larger than watermelon seeds. Seed coats may vary in texture and thickness, with approximately half of the weight of the seed contained in the hull. Growth and Development (1,3) Germination: Emergence typically occurs within a week of planting. Flowering: Peaks 50–80 days after germination. Flowers open shortly after sunrise and remain open only one day. Maturity: Time to maturity may range from 120‐150 days up to 180‐200, depending on the environment. Yield: In West Africa egusi seed yields vary from 225 kg/ha in Senegal to 1,100 kg/ha in Nigeria. Environment (1) Climate: Plants require consistent rainfall for improved fruit production. It needs only a small amount of rainfall to survive (250‐500mm), since deep roots are efficient at exploiting the soil resources. Excessive rainfall and humidity limit flowering and encourage the development of diseases. Egusi is likely to have similar altitude requirements as watermelon, growing well up to 1,000m. Though the plants are capable of withstanding extremely high temperatures for short durations, optimal growth occurs in the range of 23‐27°C. Soils: Preferring fertile soils that are rich in humus, egusi may also be successfully grown on soils of low fertility. Soil depth should be at least 10cm. Tolerance: Egusi is extremely drought tolerant, but is not tolerant of waterlogging. Cultural (1) Planting: Exclusively by seed, with the exact planting method varying by site. Sowing occurs with the onset of the first seasonal rains. Two or three seeds are placed into a hole that is ~2cm in depth. Typical spacing in 1x1m and two plants are allowed to grow in each hole if the conditions are suitable. Egusi may be grown in pure stands in some areas; however, in the Guinea and Sudan savanna zones, the plant is typically intercropped with sorghum or grown on a small scale in home gardens. Weeding: This is not usually necessary after the initial land preparation, as the nature of plant growth shades out competing vegetation. Nutrient Additives: A pre‐planting application of complete fertilizer followed by side‐dressings of nitrogen has been recommended. Harvesting/Storage: Harvesting may occur once the fruits have stopped enlarging; however, the timing of harvest is not critical and does not seem to 61 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops seriously affect yields. It is common for plants to produce five fruits per plant, with drier areas typically producing fewer and smaller fruits. They keep well and may be stored for several months without decaying. The following are local means of extracting the seeds from the fruit: 1. After breaking open the fruits with a stick, the pieces are laid on the soil pulp‐side down. Within several days, the pulp has decayed and the seeds are freed. 2. Fruits are buried whole to decompose for a month or so in the ground. 3. The shells are cracked and the fruits are heaped into a big pile to promote decomposition. After any of these means, the seeds may be easily removed, washed, and allowed to dry in the sun. The dried seeds are best stored in containers to prevent losses to insects. Before consumption, the seeds are shelled by hand. Damaging Agents (1) Uses (1) Plants seem susceptible to root‐knot nematodes. The plant is also very poorly adapted to mechanized operations. Despite its historical importance as a food source in the region, egusi receives little support for developmental improvements. Seeds: The seeds are shelled and the kernels are ground into a flour. This flour serves as an additive in soups for enrichment and thickening. The whole seeds may be dry‐roasted and consumed as a snack. Pounded, roasted seeds produce a paste with may be used similarly to that of groundnuts. Oil: Extracted oil is currently carried out only a small scale. This oil may be used in cooking or as a salad oil. Meal is produced after squeezing the oil. This meal may be ground to be used as a flour or meat substitute. Leaves: It is believed that the young and tender leaves may be cooked and eaten as a potherb. Nutrition (2,5) In general, the kernel contains ~50% oil, 30% protein, 10% carbohydrate, 4% ash, and 3% fiber. The protein content is comparable to most renowned leguminous seeds. The seeds also contain exceptional levels of essential amino acids (arginine, methionine, and tryptophan), micronutrients, and vitamins (B1, B2, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, manganese, sulfur, calcium, iron, zinc, and niacin). The carbohydrates mainly consist of soluble sugars and starch. 62 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Citrullus vulgaris Common Name: Watermelon A native of tropical Africa, watermelon has been under cultivation for centuries in India and Egypt. Of the four known species, three have origins in Africa and the other is Asiatic. While the value of the fruit is well‐known outside of West Africa, what is not so well known is the value of the seed. They contain extremely high oil content and are, therefore, a readily available source of protein. Description (1,2) Type: Creeping annual. Stem: A long, running vine with branched, hairy tendrils. Leaves: The leaves have three to four pairs of lobes, heart‐shaped bases, are smooth or hairy (not rough), and may reach a length of 18cm. Flowers: For the size of the fruit, the flowers are relatively small (~4cm in diameter). They contain five, evenly‐divided lobes, typically occur in the leaf axils, are yellow in color. Fruits: Large, with a circular cross‐section, these fruits typically range between 45‐60cm in length. Colorization varies, but light and dark green markings are usually present. Growth and Development (3) Germination: Under good conditions, 3‐4 days are required for germination of the seeds. Maturity: Fruits mature in 12‐15 weeks. Yield: A good yield of dry seed is in the range of 112‐225 kg/ha. The proportion of dry seed to fresh fruit is 2‐3%. Environment (2) Watermelon thrives in regions which contain light soil and can provide hot temperatures and water at the beginning of the growing season. It may be cultivated in areas with low rainfall; however, irrigation may be necessary to get the plants firmly established. In desert areas, watermelons may provide a valued source of water, for both humans and livestock. 63 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Cultural (1,3) Planting: A common addition to the home garden, sowing takes place with the early rains of March and April. Four to ten seeds are planted per mound, 2‐3m apart, with a planting depth of 2‐3cm. When used as an interplanting, the spacing may be much wider. Seeds typically germinate within 3‐4 days. Thinning/Weeding: Upon successful emergence, seedlings should be thinned to two or three plants per stand. Due to the creeping vine growth form of watermelons, competition from weeds is naturally reduced and usually not necessary during the growing season. Harvesting: The fruits are picked from the vines by hand. Seeds may then be harvested from the fruits. Storage: The fruits are typically taken immediately to market for sale; however, the seeds may be extracted from the fruit, washed, and then dried in the sun for later use. Damaging Agents (1) Uses (2) Nutrition (4) Outside of its natural range, the watermelon is often attacked by such agents as anthracnose, powdery mildew, and various insects; however, as a native of Africa, there are few identified agents that cause significant damage within its home range. While the fruit serves as the obvious use, the seeds are actually considered to have higher value as a significant food source. They contain high levels of oil (~25%) which are easily refined and suitable for cooking and soap‐making. Most commonly they are dried in the sun, ground into a powder, mixed with spinach, and eaten in soup. The fruit of the watermelon consists mainly of carbohydrates (89%). It serves a good source of Potassium, Vitamin A, and Vitamin C. As a food source, the seeds consist of 71% fat and serve as a good source for Phosphorus, Zinc, Manganese, and Magnesium. Other vitamins and minerals contained within the seed include Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Iron, Calcium, and Copper. 64 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Protecting seedlings from livestock is a never­ending battle. (Frederick) 65 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Cola acuminata Common Name: Kola Nut Kola is indigenous to West Africa and has emerged as an important export commodity crop. While historically most of the trees that produced nut crops were self‐sown, cultivation is now common practice in the countries with forested zones, such as Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Ghana, and the Cameroons. Valued for their stimulating properties, the nuts are exported to Europe, America, and to some central and northern African countries. The two varieties commonly cultivated are Cola acuminate and Cola nitida. Description (1,2,3) Type: Tree. Habit: May reach up to 20m in height, with dense crowns and branches and leaves that almost touch the ground. Flowers: Yellowish‐white, sometimes with red stripes or blotches. August‐
September is the main flowering season. Seeds: The seeds of Cola nitida have two cotyledons and a higher proportion of the stimulating constituents. These seeds are most commonly red or pink. The seeds of Cola acuminate may have three or more cotyledons and are typically white or brown in color. In both species, the seeds are contained within pods that hold 6‐10 nuts. These pods have an outer‐covering that is thick, green, and wrinkled. Growth and Development (3) Germination: Establishment from the seeds is usual, but budding is also possible. Seed germination is very slow. Though 2‐3 months is typical, it may take much longer. 66 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Maturity: Trees may flower at 5‐6 years, but give little yield until 8‐10 years of age. Pods are ripe 4 months from flowering. Yield: Varies by location, age of the trees, and the cultural practices employed. Recorded ranges have been from 50‐2,000 nuts per tree, with 25,000 nuts/ha being a fair annual average for native owned plantation. The trees may bear for up to 50 years; however, after 25‐30 years, tree mortality begins to play a role in the yields. Environment (1,2) Climate: Kola grows the best in forested regions of high rainfall. The rainfall must be at least 125cm spread out over 7 or 8 months. Soils: The ideal soils for kola are well‐drained, loamy, and rich in humus. Tolerance: Kola is not tolerant of drought and does best if cultivated in shaded conditions. Cultural (1,2) Planting: Kola seeds are typically planted in long, cylindrical basket, about 45cm deep. These baskets are filled with topsoil and are used to allow for outplanting of the seedlings, which develop very long tap roots. Seeds are sown on their side at a depth of 7.5cm. Seedlings require regular watering and must be kept in the shade. Transplanting of the seedlings to the permanent site occurs at 30cm in height and should be done at a time of wet weather. The transplanting hole should be dug to a depth of 80‐100cm. Shade trees should be used to protect the seedlings during the first two year of growth. Interplanting with cassava is also a viable option. Spacing of the trees at the permanent site should be in the range of 6x6m. Weeding: Weeding should be carried out on a regular basis to prevent competition. It is a common practice to establish a cover crop (i.e. cowpea) prior to outplanting, to prevent the soil from losing water and nutrients through leaching. Using a nitrogen‐fixing crop may also provide the trees with additional nutrients. Nutrient Additives: Due to the length of the life cycle of the trees, additives beyond the cover crops are seldom used to increase yields. Harvesting: Fruits are ready for harvesting when the bright green coats of the pods darken and turn black in places. The pods are cracked open using cutlasses (or some other sharp object). Any damaged parts of the nuts are cut away and the white, pulpy outer‐coverings are removed. The nuts are piled under wet leaves and left to ferment for approximately one week. At this point, any remaining pulp is easily removed. The nuts are then sorted, with the pink and red nuts going for export and the white nuts being used for local consumption. 67 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Storage: The hardest nuts of the best form are packed in baskets and covered with wet leaves in preparation for export. It is also necessary to keep them cool during this period. If the nuts are to be exported to Europe or America, they are sliced, soaked for 2 or 3 hours, with the juice poured off. They are then sun‐
dried, with the small fragments being removed, and the chips bagged. Damaging Agents Fungus: Canker is the most economically important disease and is caused by Calonectria. Another (Botryodiplidia theobromae) attacks the nuts, making them worthless. Both may be controlled using copper fungicides. (1) Insects: Kola weevils (Balanogastris kolae and Sophrorhinus sp.) attack the kola fruits, with larvae eating their way through the pods and into the nuts. These leave the attacked areas brown. Affected nuts should be culled off of the trees by hand. Borer insects (Phosphorus genus) may also cause economic damage to the trees. These insects bore into the shoots of both young and mature trees. These may cause serious injury to individual trees and open them up to attack from secondary pathogens. Uses (1) Nuts: Kola nuts contain caffeine and theobromine, slight stimulants found in coffee and cocoa, respectively. Locally, the nuts are eaten fresh. In this form the nuts have an extremely bitter taste. As an export, the nuts are commonly ground into a powder and used as an additive in the making of a wide variety of soft drinks. 68 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Digitara exilis Common Name(s): Fonio, Acha, or Hungry Rice 1) Plant habit; 2) spikelet; 3) grain. Redrawn and adapted by Achmad Satiri Nurhaman Distribution in Africa (planted) Fonio is likely to be one of Africa’s oldest cereals. It has been cultivated across the dry savannas of West Africa for thousands of years and was once the major food of the people populating this area. It is currently estimated to occupy over 300,000 hectares in West Africa, contributing to the diets of 3‐4 million people. It is a fast‐maturing, nutritious, and palatable grain that is capable of occupying sites that are unsuitable for the production of crops that are better known. Beyond local selection, there have been few improvements made to fonio. Description (1,2,4) Type: Erect, free‐tillering annuals. Habit: White fonio has finger‐shaped panicles with 2‐5 slender racemes that may reach up to 15cm in length. Height: Commonly in the range of 30‐75cm tall. Stems: Delicate kneed stems. Leaves: Alternate and simple; blade linear and tapering gradually; 5–15cm × 0.3–
0.9cm. Flowers: Two‐flowered, with flowering usually occurring 6–8 weeks after emergence. 69 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Seeds: Seeds range from extraordinarily white to fawn‐yellow or purplish. The small seeds are generally considered to be non‐shattering and hold viability for up to 2 years. There is estimated to be ~53,000 seeds to the ounce. Growth and Development Germination: Usually occurs within 3 to 5 days, covering the ground quickly. (1,2) Flowering: Flowering is apparently insensitive to daylength. Maturity: Most mature in 3 to 4 months, but some are quick‐maturing and produce grain in 6 to 8 weeks. This makes the crop critical in years of potential famine. Yield: Good yields may range from 600‐800 kg/ha; however, poor soils may produce yields as low as 150‐200 kg/ha. Environment Rainfall: Is tolerant of excessive rainfall, but typically not of excessive dryness. Limits of cultivation are generally from 250‐1,500mm. Primarily grown in areas where rainfall exceeds 400mm. Altitude: Cultivation frequently occurs above 600m. Temperature: The average temperature in the growing season ranges from 20°C at higher altitudes to 25–30°C near sea level. Soils: It is mainly grown on sandy, infertile soils. Most varieties do poorly on heavy soils. Fonio is capable of being grown on acidic soils with high aluminum concentrations that would be toxic to other crops. Tolerance: Intolerant of extreme drought, but adapted to variable and sporadic precipitation. Cultural (1,2,3) Planting: The crop is broadcast in the first rains (May‐June) and hoed in lightly. Seeding rate may range from 10‐45 kg/ha. Weeding: Seeding, germination, and the growth rates of this crop, prevent weed competition from becoming a problem. Nutrient Additives: Where nutrient additives have been used (manure or fertilizers), it has proven to add too much weight to the seed heads, causing increased lodging prior to maturity. Harvesting: The harvesting process is the same for the late variety (3‐4 months) as it is for the early variety (6‐8 weeks). It is cut in handfuls with knives or curved sticks and tied into small sheaves, which are dried for storage. The grains are removed by beating or trampling. The husks are removed after sun‐drying and the grain is winnowed. Proper winnowing may prove difficult because of the small size of the grain and many rinses may be required prior to preparation to remove debris. Storage: The seed is reported to store well. 70 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Damaging Agents (1) Uses (1,2) It is likely that this crop would be susceptible to attack by fungal and bacterial agents if attempts were made to produce it in humid areas. In dry areas, shows resilience to these agents, but is susceptible to damage from birds. Seeds: Made into flour and boiled. Typically eaten with fish, meat, or spinach, or is used in soups. It is also commonly used in the brewing of local beer. It is most comparable in substance to semolina (the wheat product used to make spaghetti and other pastas. The grain is also easily digested by livestock, including both ruminants and monogastric (pigs and chickens). Straw: Commonly chopped and mixed with clay to reinforce locally made structures and serves as fuel for heat and cooking. Nutrition In gross nutritional value, fonio is very similar to wheat. The difference lies in the high levels of amino acids that fonio contains (especially valine, tryptophan, threonine, phenylalanine, leucine, sulfur,and methionine. Fonio has important potential, not only as survival food, but as a complement for standard diets. 71 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Dioscorea spp. Common Name(s): Yams Typical Storage 1) tuber; 2) part of stem with male inflorescences Redrawn and adapted by W. Wessel­Brant Distribution in Africa (planted) Yams are among the most important root crops of West Africa, with some believed to have originated there (1). Common varieties include: white yam (D. rotundata), water yam (D. alata), yellow yam (D. cayanensis), trifoliate yam (D. dumetorum), and the aerial yam (D. bulbifera). The white yam is the preferred eating yam in West Africa. In areas where yams are cultivated for subsistence, they are decreasing in importance. This is due mainly to the high amount of labor that is involved in preparing the “hills” and “holes”, weeding, and erecting poles. Conditions for the cultivation of yams are similar for the cultivation of cassava, only they yield less. This has brought about a shift from yam production to the production of cassava. Description (1,2) The white yam matures early and produces tubers of various shapes and sizes. The flesh of this yam is white, with vines having long, narrow leaves. It is considered to be the yam of the highest quality. The yellow yams have leaves that are more rounded than that of the white yam, shorter at the apex, and more deeply indented at the stalk; they are a darker green and glossier, with a smooth surface and less distinct vein grooves. These yams tend to be grown in closed forest areas and are not widely popular. With white yams, the leaves are usually larger and broader than those of the white yam and the tubers are more fibrous and less firm. The water yam does not tend to keep so well as either the white or 72 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops yellow yam. The outer skin of this tuber is generally darker than that of any other yam and, if scratched, a bright yellow or purple layer may be revealed. These yams are also grown as a closed forest crop and are considered as a supplement to the white yam, rather than as a staple. The trifoliate yam has prickly leaves that climb clockwise, with three leaflets. Tubers are often large, coarse, and comparatively bitter tasting. While not particularly popular, it may be eaten after prolonged boiling. The leaves of the aerial yam are pale green (similar to those of the water yam), buy lacking in petioles and with twisted tips. This yam produces swellings from the stems which are like small yams and are essentially above‐ground storage organs. This yam is considered to be of poor quality and is not generally cultivated. Growth and Development Germination: Typically begins in 20‐60 days, depending on the timing of the rains. (2,3,5) Flowering: Flowering is irregular and fruit and seed production are uncommon. Maturity: Most varieties mature within 8‐10 months. In some locations, the yams are unearthed at 6 months, with the bulk of the tuber being cut off for consumption. The top is then covered, eventually forming an irregularly shaped seed‐yam that may be broken into two or more sets. Yield: Varieties may yield from 5‐16 mtons/ha. Seed yam yields range from 2‐6 mtons/ha. Environment (1,2) Climate: Rainfall must exceed 100cm per annum, most of which should occur during the 5 months of the growing season. Yams require medium rainfall during growing season, but 3‐4 months of drought does not stop growth providing there is rain during the remaining 8‐9 months. The white yam grows well in riverine areas, with production being the highest in areas where there are few competing export crops. The main growing areas lie within the Guinea savanna areas and the northern portion of the rain forest belt. Soils: Yams require rich, well‐prepared loamy soils. They do not do well on stiff clay, waterlogged, or sandy soil types. If it is available, they will often do well on virgin land or land that has remained fallow for long periods. Fresh soil from newly cleared bush is preferably for making mounds, which may be relatively large. Tolerance: Yams are not tolerant of compacted soils, which limit the ability of the tuber to grow and develop. 73 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Cultural (2,3) Planting: Farmers may use either small seed yams or cut pieces of larger yams. The seed yams are from early types, with sets taken from either early or late varieties. Most farmers cut their yams into two or three pieces (top, middle, and bottom). Whole seed yams and yam tops sprout at approximately the same time, with the seed yams known to yield heavier. The middle and bottoms of the yams may sprout poorly, if at all. The timing and method of planting varies by locality. Typically, the seed yams or the cuttings are placed in narrow trenches and covered lightly with soil until sprouting occurs. A few weeks after sprouting, the yams may be removed from these trenches and sorted according to quality and potential. All yams may be planted early or late, with farmers throughout the region making distinctions between the two. In most parts of West Africa, planting commonly occurs after the long dry season has ended and the rains have started. Holes ~15cm deep are dug in the tops of soil heaps or ridges. One set is placed in each hole, usually with the cut surface facing upwards and at a slope of 45°. The set is then covered with 8‐15cm of soil. It is important not to place the set in a sun‐baked hole or to use hot soil as a cover. Mulching: After planting, the hills should have a thick layer of dried grass or weeds (~30cm in diameter) placed on top of them. A thin layer of soil should be placed on top of this mulch to maintain a steady growth temperature for the yams. This mulch should be kept in place throughout the growing season and be replaced and “freshened up” as necessary. Nutrient Additives: Yams have shown positive growth response to a 1:2 mixture of ammonium sulphate and single superphosphate. Staking: Yam poles should be 2‐3m in length and be made out of strong hardwoods (i.e teak) to avoid insect damage or deterioration. As the young yam shoots appear, poles should be put into the ground 1‐2m deep on the windward side of the hills. Poles should be placed as near to the yam stalk as possible without interfering with the actively growing leaves. The vines must be trained up the stakes. Weeding: Competing weeds should be removed throughout the growing season. Oftentimes, farmers will interplant other crops (i.e. maize and beans) with yams and cassava to reduce labor and increase the productivity of the limited land resources. Harvesting: Within 8‐10 months, the stems begin to die and harvesting begins. Yams which grow the slowest and are harvested late have the hardest flesh, keep the longest, and are of the best quality. Yams must be dug up carefully to avoid damage. There is an increasing tendency for farmers to sell yams in the ground to contractors who harvest and transport the yams to market. Storage: After harvest, the quality of the yams is graded. Successful storage techniques must ensure that air can circulate through the yams and that exposure to soil is limited and controlled. This may be accomplished several 74 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops ways, with the methods varying by locality. Methods include: 1) piling under a thatched roof with a raised floor, 2) packing tubers in ash and covering them with soil, 3) covering them with a few centimeters of soil and a grass mulch, 3) piling tubers in a pyramid that has a hole in the center to promote air flow, 4) suspending individual yams from branches in shade, and 5) tying them to a framework of pole. Damaging Agents Pests: Yam Tuber Beetle – The most destructive pest to yams, this beetle emerges quickly every few years and then disappears just as quickly. The beetle is ~1cm long and appears almost black. At times, most of the crop is destroyed. Reproduction does not occur at the yam site. Hand picking in the nymph stage is effective, but laborious. (2) Yam Eelworm – A small, thread‐shaped worm which bores into the roots of the crops, irritating the tissues so that they become swollen. Crop rotation minimizes the damages from this pest. Yam Scale – Common on yams, both when growing and in storage, especially in dry weather. Ptyelus grossus – Attacks cause the leaves and stems of the yam plants to turn yellow and distorted. Insects should be picked off by hand. Crioceris livida – The larvae and adults of this beetle attack the leaves soon after the rains begin. Other – Yam tubers may also be damaged by rats and other wild animals. These should be trapped and relocated to avoid excessive damages. Fungus: The most common fungal pathogen is witch broom (Phylleutypa dioscorea). This affects the stems of white yams, causing them to become stunted and the leaves to become pale and sickly. Brown streaks of fungus are evident of the stems. Infected stems should be burnt prior to this stage. Other leaf spots may also affect yam plants; however, these rarely impact plant yields. Uses (1) Nutrition (4) Yams are grown mainly for food in the form of chips. They may also be boiled, pounded, and eaten with stew. The white yam can also be cut into pieces, dried, and processed into yam flour. Local, domestic livestock may be fed the skin and pieces that are discarded during the preparation process. Yams are also useful in tropical intercropping systems, as they are capable of providing a dappled shade to younger plants. Common intercropping occurs with garden vegetables, maize, and beans. By weight, yams are composed primarily of water (~70%), with the remainder consisting primarily of carbohydrates (~27). It serves as an excellent source of potassium and is rich in Vitamin A and beta carotene. 75 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Most of the harvesting is done manually and can be very time consuming. (Frederick) 76 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Glycine max Common Name: Soybean 1) flowering branch; 2) fruiting branch; 3) seeds. Source: PROSEA Distribution in Africa (planted) A native of China, India, and Japan, this crop is gaining popularity as a cultivated crop is West Africa. It is a good candidate for intercropping with sorghum or cowpeas and is capable of withstanding poor site conditions. Though it may offer a wide variety of uses and benefits to the people of this region, it has not yet been widely adopted. This is mainly due to cultural barriers and the lack of available processing technology. Description (1,2,5) Type: Annual. Habit: Stems are erect, stiff, and hairy, with the side shoots having vine‐like characteristics. The leaves are compound, having three leaflets that are up to 15cm long. Plants may form a dense tangle of considerable depth. Height: May reach a height of 2m, though usually much shorter 1m. Pollination: This species is normally self‐pollinated and completely self‐fertile with less than 1% cross‐pollination. The pollen is normally shed in the morning, before the flowers have completely expanded. Stems: Brownish or grayish pubescent. Leaves: Alternate; leaflets are egg‐shaped, tapering to a point, 3–15cm × 2–6cm. Flowers: The flowers are inconspicuous with a color of white, yellow, or purple and occur in clusters at the axils of the leaves. Calyx is hairy and the stamens are usually fastened together. 77 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Seeds: The seeds occur in oblong hairy pods that contain 2‐5 black, brown, green, or yellow seeds/pod. The pods are brown and hang from a short stalk. Growth and Development Germination: Seedlings emerge within 5–15 days after sowing; a seedbed temperature of 25–33°C is optimal. (5) Flowering: Flowering starts from 25 days to more than 150 days after sowing, depending on daylength, temperature and cultivar. Flowering can take 1–15 days. Maturity: The total crop cycle from sowing to maturity is 65–200 days. Yield: Under smallholder farming conditions in tropical Africa yields are often as low as 0.5 t/ha due to a combination of poor soil conditions and poor management. However, in Nigeria and most of West Africa the yield potential of soybean is about 3 t/ha. Environment (5) Rainfall: Soybeans requires at least 500mm water during the growing season for a good crop; water consumption under optimal conditions is 850mm. Altitude: May be grown from close to sea level up to 2000m. Temperature: The optimum temperature for growth and development is around 30°C. Both excessively high (32°C) and low (<20°C) temperatures can reduce floral initiation and pod set. Soils: Soybeans grow well on most soils, except very coarse sands. The optimum pH is 5.5–7.5. Where soybeans have not been grown previously, or where P is limiting, symbiotic N2‐fixation may be inadequate to meet the N requirement of the plants. Tolerance: They are sensitive to soil acidity, in particular to aluminum toxicity. While drought stress during flowering reduces pod‐set, drought during pod‐
filling reduces yield even more. Soybeans can tolerate brief waterlogging, but the weathering of seed is a serious problem under humid conditions. Cultural (2,3,5) Planting: Seeds may be broadcast in rows that are 0.5m apart. Successful planting occur in areas which contain a rich, loamy soil, moderate rainfall, good drainage, and basic soil conditions. Planting typically occurs in June and July in the north and September in the south. A seed rate of 35‐55 kg/ha is required. Thinning and Weeding: When intercropped with other crops, the soybeans should be thinned so as not to compete with the primary crop. Thorough cultivation should occur throughout the growing season to prevent weed competition. Nutrient Additives: If available, lime may be applied to raise the pH of the soil. Harvesting: Harvesting should occur before the seeds are fully ripe or the pods may split open and the seeds will be lost. Depending on whether the soybeans are intercropped or planted as the sole crop, harvests may yield 350‐1,100 kg/ha. 78 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Storage: The whole plants are dried in the sun. They are then threshed by beating with sticks. The seeds are winnowed, cleaned and prepared for store or market. For on‐farm storage a seed moisture content of 10–12% must be maintained. Deterioration of seed in storage is a major problem in the humid tropics and is attributable to poor storage conditions and pests. In the savanna region of West Africa producers have developed appropriate seed handling methods that ensure good seed germination when they save their own seeds. Damaging Agents Fungus: Various fungal diseases affect soybeans. Soybean rust is a devastating disease that can reduce yields by as much as 90%. It is widespread; in West Africa it has been recorded in Sierra Leone, Ghana, and Nigeria. Other pathogens to note include: red leaf blotch, frogeye leaf spot, purple seed stain, and leaf blight. Control measures may include seed treatment, deep‐plowing of crop residues, crop rotation, and application of fungicides. In some areas, resistant cultivars are available. (5) Virus: Diseases of soybeans include soybean mosaic virus, cowpea mild mottle virus and bean yellow mosaic virus, but these are of little importance in tropical Africa. Nematodes: Soybean cyst nematode and root‐knot nematodes can cause severe damage, especially on sandy soils. Therefore, soybeans should not be grown continuously or in rotation with other susceptible crops, such as tobacco. Soya bean cultivars resistant to nematodes are available. Insects: The most widespread and probably most serious pest of soybeans in tropical Africa is the southern green stink bug or soybean green stink bug, of which the nymphs and adults feed on the seeds. Control is by using insecticides. The most important leaf‐eating pest is probably the soybean looper. Bean flies can also cause complete yield loss. Soybean seedlings are occasionally damaged by cutworms. No major storage pests are recorded from Africa, except rodents. Uses (1) Seeds: The seeds may be crushed into a meal or made into a thin paste (known as soymilk). In addition, the oil may be extracted and made into a cattle cake. Extracting the oil from the seeds is not something that is easily accomplished on a “local” level and the food that may be prepared from the meal is not traditional to the palates of West Africans. The combination of these has reduced the widespread use of soybeans in this region. Plants: Soybeans may also be grown as green manures and cover crops; however, these practices are uncommon due to the scarcity of land and the importance of securing a food source. Nutrition (4) Raw soybeans contain 30% carbohydrates, 40% fats, and 30% proteins. They are very low in sodium and Cholesterol and serve as good sources of Vitamin K, Thiamin, Riboflavin, Magnesium, Phosphorus, Potassium, and Copper. They are also good sources of Folate, Iron, and Manganese. As a food, they contain known anti‐inflammatory nutrients, including mono‐saturated fats, Vitamin C, Zinc, and Selenium. They also serve as a good source of dietary fiber. 79 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Local sources of water are invaluable in many areas for both humans and livestock. (Frederick) 80 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Gossypium spp. Common Name: Cotton Cotton is considered to be one of the most important cash crops throughout the drier regions of West Africa. There are several species of cotton that are common throughout the tropics and its origin is uncertain. It was grown, spun, and woven throughout West Africa long before Europeans arrived in the area. The indigenous cottons of this area are relatively short‐fibered and are of little use for export; however, they are used commonly for local weaving. Introduced varieties provide both lint and seed for export. Nigeria, Ghana, and Sierra Leone are the major cotton producers of West Africa. Description (2,3) Type: Annual. Habit: Much‐branched, with one or more central stem(s). The general shape of the plant resembles a cone. Under ideal conditions, cotton may reach a height of 2m; however, 1m is more common in West Africa. Leaves: The leaves are variable and commonly ~15cm in length and ~12cm in width. They are heart‐shaped, coarse‐veined, and have three to seven lobes. Flowers: After 4‐6 weeks (depending on variety), the yellow, dark‐centered flowers emerge. The period of flowering varies by variety to between 4‐8 months. Flowers open during the daytime for pollinators and close at night. They then turn pink or red, wither, and die within 24 hours of pollination. Bolls: The bolls develop from the flowers and are commonly ~6cm across. Under the right circumstances, a single plant may produce 50 bolls/growing season. 81 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Growth and Development (4) Germination: Germination occurs in 4‐6 days, though acid treatments prior to planting may improve the germination of the seed. Maturity: The bolls open and mature over a period of 4‐7 months from the time planting. Yield: Yields vary drastically by variety and depending on whether the crop is interplanted or monocropped. Though the yield of seed cotton may be as high as 2,200 kg/ha, the native farmer is more likely to obtain yields in the range of 170‐
340 kg/ha. Environment (2) Climate: Production is the best in regions which have a distinct wet season for growth and distinct dry season during which the crop may mature. Though it may produce in with intercropping, it is a sun‐loving plant that does best under open conditions. Soils: Cotton is considered to be soil exhausting crop that thrives on rich, deep loams, and clay loams. Tolerance: If the soils are too stiff, they will crack and can injure the root systems during the dry season. Cotton is not tolerant of sandy soil conditions or of prolonged seasons of wetness, which promote waterlogging and attack by pests. Cultural (1,2) Planting: Cotton plants are propagated from seeds, which are sown in early July. The soil should be prepared through deep cultivation to allow for the penetration of the deep tap roots that develop. Typically, mounds are made with native hoes at a spacing of 40‐60cm (depending on variety). It is a common practice to intercrop cotton with maize to allow for the cotton plants to become established. The maize is then harvested, leaving the cotton plants to mature under conditions of full sun. Weeding: Weeding is required during the first 4‐5 weeks, or until the leaves cover the soil surface. Dry season cultivation also serves as a means of reducing moisture loss from evaporation. Nutrient Additives: Cotton yields are increased through the use of fertilizers. Due to the low nutrient levels of the soils in some locations, they are required to obtain any type of yield. In some areas, farmers that are growing cotton are advanced the inputs (seed, fertilizer, and pesticides), which is re‐paid upon harvest. Harvesting: Once enough of the bolls have burst, the cotton is picked by hand and put into large bags. The bushes should be picked over frequently and carefully, to avoid the inclusion of impurities. These impurities may determine the market value of the bolls. Storage: The cleaned bolls are then placed in jute sacks for storage or export. 82 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Damaging Agents (2,4) Bacteria: Angular Leaf Spot (Xanthomonas malvacearum) – This disease affects all parts of the plant. Dark green angular spots appear first on the underside of the leaves. These spots then move to the upper surface of the leaves, turn reddish‐brown, and unite. The spots on the stems and branches are black and small, wet, dark‐green spots appear on the bolls. The disease is spread through wind and water and is encouraged by waterlogged soil conditions. Prevention can occur through the planting of healthy seed and through periodic dusting of the plants with disinfectants. Virus: Leaf Curl – This virus is carried by white flies. The leaves wrinkle and curl with the veins on the underside of the leaves thickening. The plant becomes stunted and dies. Infected plants should be burned. Where possible, resistant varieties should be grown. Fungus: Anthracnose (Glomerella gossypii) – This disease causes red spotting to occur on the bolls, stems, and leaves of affected plants. Affected bolls may become hard, not open, and become useless. Attacks seem more severe under certain climatic conditions (harmattan). Treating seeds with sulphuric acid for 15 minutes prior to planting gives control. Boll Rot – Various fungal pathogens may affect the bolls. These usually occur on bolls that have been previously damaged by insects. Gray Mildew – Causes whitish, angular spots on the underside of the leaves. Does not commonly cause significant economic damage, except on waterlogged soils. Insects: Boll Worms (Diparopsis perditor, Platyedra gossypiella, Eria spp., Argyroploce leucotreta) – These are all caterpillars of moths that eat their way into the flower buds and bolls in search of developing seeds. Damaged bolls fall to the ground before reaching maturity. All affected plants should be burnt. Crop rotation may serve to reduce the presence of these insects. Cotton Stainers (Dysdercus spp.) – These are small, reddish insects that attack opening bolls. In the process, they leave a bright green stain and reduce the value of the lint. They also serve to transport fungus and bacteria from one plant to another. Control through the spraying of pesticides is possible, but expensive. The burning of affected plants and crop rotation is a more realistic approach in most areas. Helopeltis (H. sanguineus) – This insect feeds by sucking plant sap from young shoots, leaves, and bolls. It causes plant distortion and the abortion of bolls from the plant. May be controlled chemically. Uses (2) Lint: Upon harvesting, the lint may be ginned, baled, or spun. The use of the lint depends on the variety and the purity. Improved varieties are commonly prepared for export, while local varieties are used to support the local textile industry. This is especially true in the northern regions, where most of the 83 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops “formal” clothing for men is prepared from handspun, local cotton. Seeds: Oil can be obtained through the crushing of the cottonseed. The use for this oil may include: margarine, soap, cooking oil, and as a substitute for the more expensive olive oil. Nutrition (5) Cottonseed may be eaten in a roasted kernel form; however, it is most often ingested in the oil form. In this form, it consists of 100% fat. While high in saturated fat, it is low in cholesterol and sodium and serves as good source of excellent source of Vitamin E and a good source of Vitamin K. Beyond this, it is lacking in all other vitamins, minerals, proteins, or amino acids. Seed removal is done manually after allowing the cobs to dry. (Frederick) 84 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Hevea brasiliensis Common Name: Para Rubber The Para rubber tree originates from Brazil and was introduced into West Africa in the later half of the 19th century. The tree produces latex, which is used in the commercial production of rubber. While West Africa is not considered to be a leading world producer, it is an important export product to such countries as Nigeria and Liberia. The two main varieties are grown from either clonal seeds or budded clones. The importance of natural rubber has declined somewhat in recent year, due to the development and use of synthetic rubber. Description (3) Type: Deciduous tree, reaching heights of 20‐35m. Bark: Smooth, light gray. Leaves: The palmate leaves are alternate, each with three leaflets up to 0.6m in length. Flowers: Usually monoecious, the tree usually flowers in the dry season (January or February) when the leaves are shed. Fruits: Contain three seeds, which quickly lose their viability. Growth and Development (1,2,3) Germination: Seeds are usually broadcast in beds prior to outplanting and germinate within 7‐10 days. It is common for 90‐95% of the broadcast seed to germinate. Maturity: Trees may be tapped when the trees are approximately 45cm in diameter. This typically occurs at 5‐6 years. 85 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Yield: Depending on the variety, the location, the maturity of the trees, and the methods used for tapping the trees, yields are in the range of 225‐550kg of dry rubber per tree per year. Environment Climate: Rubber does well in climates with 200‐250cm of evenly distributed rainfall per year and with temperatures that range between 23‐38°C. It does not do well at elevations that exceed 300m. (2,3) Soils: Optimal conditions provide a sandy loam that is loose, deep, and easily worked. Tolerance: Rubber trees are not tolerant of prolonged waterlogging. Cultural (2) Propagation: New varieties are produced through cross‐pollination and may be propagated by seed or though budding. Much of the propagation occurs by seed, which is collected in August and September. The seeds are broadcast on beds, covered with grass mulch, shaded with local materials to prevent burning, and watered daily. Upon germination, the seedlings are quickly transplanted into nursery beds at a spacing of 0.6m in double rows that are 1.2m apart. Within 6‐8 months, the seedlings are ~0.6m in height and ready for transplanting into the field. Outplanting occurs between April and June and September to early October. Plantation spacing varies, with 3x4.5m and 6x6m being common. Hedgerow planting may also occur to allow for intercropping during the establishment of the plantation. The spacing for this is in the range of 9x2m. Maintenance: Trees should be staked and the side shoots removed during the seedling and sapling phases. Weeds should be removed immediately around the tree, but left inside the rows to enhance soil fertility. Cover crops may also be planted in this area. At 18‐24 months, the trees should have a crown of ~2m. If the crown forms lower than this, the lower branches should be cut off flush with the stem. If the stems grow higher without forming a crown, the removal of the terminal leaves will encourage crown development. Tapping: When a tree reaches approximately 45cm in diameter, an incision is made in the bark of the tree approximately 1m from the from the ground. This incision is usually a half‐spiral from the upper left to the lower right of the trunk at a 20‐30° angle. Only half of the girth of a tree is tapped at one time. The cuts must be deep enough to break the latex vessels, but not deep enough so that the cambium is injured. The cambium serves to renew the bark of the tree, which allows for a second tapping in 7‐12 years. Tapping of the trees typically occurs on alternate days, allowing the trees to rest for a day in between. A small spout is fixed to the base of the cut, so that the latex may run into a cup that is fixed there. Peak flow occurs between 6 and 8 a.m. and the latex is collected about 2 hours after this. A skilled tapper can tap between 200‐300 trees in a morning. The density of the latex is measured and water is added to the required amount of dry rubber. Measures may be taken after straining to prevent coagulation. 86 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Rolling: The rubber is rolled by machine to the desired thickness. It is then put into smoke chambers at 44‐47°C for seven days. After which it is transparent and covered with creosote for preservation. Damaging Agents Fungus: Collar crack or canker (Armillaria sp.) occasionally causes severe damage in areas where land clearing has been poorly done and where drainage is poor. Trees may also be affected by root rots, which are present in the soil or transferred from forest trees. For both, routine inspections should be carried out and infected stock cut out, severing the roots in the process. (3) Uses (1) The latex that is harvesting from the trees may be converted into a multitude of commercial products. These include: tires, tubes, tennis balls, rubber bands, shoes soles, foam mattresses, pillows, and cushions. Because of its insulating properties, it is also used in electrical appliances and industrial articles. The use of natural rubber has recently declined, due to the development and increased use of synthetic rubber. 87 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Hibiscus exculentus Common Name: Okra 1) flowering and fruiting shoot; 2) fruit; 3) seed. Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin planted Distribution in Africa (planted) This plant is easy to cultivate, robust, and seems to be resilient to pests and diseases. It is adaptable under harsh conditions, is extremely high in nutrients, and is capable of producing higher yields and more products than any other vegetable. Description (1,2,3,4) Type: Warm‐season annual. Habit: Erect and spreading; heart‐shaped lobed leaves are attached to the woody stem. Height (length): 1‐2m. Pollination: While the flowers are structured for insect pollination (bees, wasps, flies, beetles, and occasionally birds), self‐pollination usually occurs and hand‐pollination and seed handling are relatively straight forward. Stems: Cylindrical, with scattered, stiff hairs, often red‐blotched; branches are erect to curving downwards. Leaves: Arranged spirally, simple, variable in shape and size; often split to the base, covered with stiff hairs; petiole up to 50 cm long, often red‐tinged, with a line of soft, simple hairs on the upper side, otherwise with scattered, stiff hairs. 88 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Flowers: Yellow; form 7‐9 weeks from sowing; plant flowers throughout the rainy season. Pods: May be long (10‐25cm) and pointed at one end, while others are short with blunt ends; ribbed and varying in color from yellow to red to green. Seeds: Each pod contains numerous oval seeds that are about the size of a peppercorn; immature seeds are white; mature seeds are dark green to gray‐
black. Growth and Development (1) Germination: Occurs 3‐5 days after planting. Flowering: Form in 7‐9 weeks from sowing. Maturity: Begins to mature 2 ½‐3 months from sowing and the harvest is spread over a period of 5‐8 weeks. For preservation, green fruits are sliced across and dried. Yield: Approximately 450 kg/ha harvested of fresh fruit, depending on planting densities. Intercropped yields are much less. Environment (2,4) Rainfall: Tolerant of wide variations of rainfall. Temperature: Requires temperatures above 20°C for normal growth and development. Soils: Tolerant to a wide range of soils, but performs best in well‐drained soils with fertile substrates and adequate organic reserves. Tolerance: Tolerant to consistently high temperatures. For good growth, nighttime temperatures should not fall below 13°C. Cultural (1,2,3) Planting: Sowing typically takes place with the early rains in March and April; soaking seeds overnight may improve germination rates; 2‐3 seeds/stand at a depth of 2.5‐3cm with a spacing of 0.3‐1 meter. Thinning and Weeding: Thinning is required to reduce the stand to one plant per stand. Nutrient Additives: Not typically applied. Harvesting: Single pods develop from each flower; tender and flavorful pods may be harvested 3‐6 days after the flower has formed; continual harvesting may occur for 3‐4 months, or until the fruits become fibrous; regular picking is necessary to improve plant production and increase yields. Storage: Fresh okra pods bruise easily, causing black spots to form within a few hours; pod bleaching may also occur if pods are held longer than 24 hours without cooling. 89 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Damaging Agents (1) Mosaic: This viral disease may cause wrinkling of the leaves and the stunting of plants. Sanitation seems the only control. Nematodes: Root‐knot, caused by an eelworm, may result in dwarfed and pale plants which wilt in hot weather. Control may occur via crop rotation. Uses (2) Pods: The main edible portion, the pods may be steamed, boiled, fried, blanched, pickled canned, and more; typically prepared to add to the “dipping soups” of local staple grain dishes. Seeds: May be squeezed from cooked pods in place of dried peas or beans. Mature, dried seeds may be roasted and ground as a coffee substitute. Seeds also serve as a source of oil and protein. Though it does have a short shelf‐life, the oil contains a high (70%) content of unsaturated fatty acids. Leaves: In some areas, tender okra leaves may be eaten on a daily basis. Most frequently, they are cooked like spinach and added to soups or stews. Biomass: Post‐season, remaining plant material may be used as a supplement for cooking fuel. Forage: Once the seeds have been harvested, the stems, leaves, and haulms may be stored to be fed to livestock during the ‘lean’ season. Agricultural: Serves as a good candidate for intercropping and growing in the home garden. Nutrition (2) Okra pods are low in calories, have practically no fat, and are high in fiber. They do provide vitamin C (30%), folate (10‐20%), and some vitamin A (~5%) The leaves provide protein, calcium, iron, and vitamins A and C. The protein in okra compliments, balances, and fulfills that of cereal grains, legumes, and root crops. 90 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Ipomoea batatas Common Name: Sweet Potato Likely a native of South America, the sweet potato is now widely grown throughout the tropics of the world. It is considered to be dependable crop that can be kept in reserve during times of famine. While only a minor crop throughout most of West Africa, its popularity is spreading. It is an important crop of coastal Cote’de Ivoire, the Northern and Volta Regions of Ghana, and northern Nigeria. In the northern reaches of Senegal and in Guinea, it is second only to rice. Generally, it is more prevalent in the grassland savanna areas than in the closed, forested areas. The three varieties common to West Africa are the “white‐tubered”, “red‐tubered”, and “yellow‐fleshed, with sub‐varieties belonging to each. Description (3) Type: Annual. Habit: The stems of the sweet potato may be many feet long, trailing, with thin hairs, and rooting freely at the joints. Leaves: The leaves may be highly variable, even on the same plant. Generally, they occur as heart‐shaped, oval, or triangular and all are coarse and dark green. Flowers: Appear to be similar to the morning glory, with funnels of rose or blue, with the interior of the flower being darker, rather than lighter. They are typically ~5cm long, with the sepals enclosing the calyx. The seeds are angular, smooth, dark, and enclosed in a round fruit that shatters easily. Fruits: The edible portions are tubers that transcend from the root system. 91 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Growth and Development (3) Germination: Growth may begin 4‐7 days for mature cuttings and 7‐14 days for young cuttings. Maturity: From the time of planting to maturity requires 5‐6 months. Yield: Yield of tubers may range from 7‐14 metric ton/ha. The green tops may be used for fodder. The yield of the tops is in the range of 3 metric ton/ha. Environment (1) Rainfall: Grows best in areas that average 75‐125cm of rain/annum; however, if properly catered to, it is capable of growing in regions of fairly low rainfall. It is sometimes grown in upland farms during the rains and in low‐lying land during the dry season. Plants are typically grown in mounds, in order to keep the tubers above ground level in case of flooding. Soils: Thriving in full sunlight, sweet potatoes prefer well‐drained loam that is rich in humus. It is capable of growing well in lighter sandy soils, providing that adequate water is provided. Tolerance: Sweet potatoes are intolerant to heavy, clay soils and will yield poorly in low‐lying areas. Cultural (1,2) Planting: Sweet potatoes may be planted at any time during the rainy season. Using 22‐30cm stem cuttings, the crop may be grown in large flat‐topped mounds (~1m²), or in small, round‐topped mounds (0.3‐0.6m apart). The type of planting done varies by location; however, throughout the area, the soil is dug deeply and manure is added. Deeply dug soil increases the size of the tubers; however, excess manure may promote rank foliage. Commonly, planting is done by the women, near their homes. Crops may be grown from whole or parts of a tuber, from small shoots or slips growing from the tubers, or from softwood cuttings, with the most mature stems making the best cuttings. Usual depth is 10‐15cm. Weeding: Sweet potatoes are considered to be a “cleaning” crop, as they tend to smoother weeds. As such, they are a good candidate for farmers in areas with historical weed problems. Harvesting: The plants are ready to harvest when flowering occurs. They are best dug on dry days and left lying until evening in an area where the sun is not too hot. Care is needed to avoid damaging the tubers during harvest. It is difficult to remove all of the pieces from the plot and it is likely that “orphans” will remain. Pigs may be used to root these out. Storage: Sweet potatoes are generally dug as required and are rarely stored. When the crop is stored, the small and defective tubers are discarded, leaving the large tubers to be stored “indoors”. If they are to be stored for any period of time, they must first be dried. 92 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Damaging Agents (1) Insects: Sweet potato weevil larvae destroy tubers during storage, making way for fungi. Crop rotation helps to control them. Early harvesting may avoid infestation. Hawk moths lay eggs in the soil and the larvae emerge to destroy plant leaves. Fungus: Black rot and soft and dry rot are fungal diseases that may affect sweet potatoes that can be controlled only through the selection of healthy planting stock and crop rotation Storage or black rot is found in stored potatoes which have been injured in the harvesting or are stored in poorly ventilated areas. Uses (1) Stems and Leaves: Prepared like spinach, the leaves used as a soup additive. Fresh (dried) stems and leaves provide a useful fodder for livestock. Food: Flour, starch, syrup, and a spirit called “tumbo” are made from sweet potato tubers. Nutrition (1) Sweet potatoes are valuable “famine” food. Most varieties contain proteins of high nutritive value and sugar content. Both the tubers and the leaves are rich in calcium (which is commonly lacking in this part of the world). The yellow varieties also serve as consistent sources of vitamins A, B, and C. 93 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Lycopersicum escultentum Common Name: Tomato Tomatoes, native to South America, are grown in many parts of West Africa. Usually produced in gardens and small plots near large cities, West African tomatoes are small, round, and grown in great profusion. Description (2,3,4) Type: Annual. Habit: Spreading, sprawling, or sometimes crawling, the stems and branches may reach up to 2m. As a result, staking is often necessary to “train” the growth of the plants. Pollination: Considered self‐pollinating, but up to 47% natural cross‐
pollination may take place. Bees and bumble bees are the most important pollinators. Height: May reach 1.2m. Stems: Solid, coarsely hairy and glandular. Leaves: The leaves are strongly scented, compound, up to 45cm long, with individual leaflets up to 8cm long and with incurved margins. Flowers: Occur in clusters of 3‐7, each nearly 3cm across. They are borne on jointed stalks and deeply cleft into 5 parts, yellow, with recurving petals. Fruits: Yellow or red spheres, up to 8cm or more in diameter, juicy, and well supplied with seeds. Seeds: Many‐seeded. Seeds flattened and ovoid, 3–5mm × 2–4mm, pale brown and hairy. 94 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Environment (1,2,3,4) Rainfall: Grows best in areas average 500‐750mm of rain/annum; however, irrigation allows for the production of tomatoes during the dry season. As a result, tomatoes are commonly grown near rivers and streams. Temperature: Thrives best in climates that do not go below 15°C. Soils: Grows best in rich, well‐drained loam. Tolerance: Light and water are the limiting factors to tomato growth and development. Cultural (1,4) Planting: Tomatoes are easily propagated from seed. Seed beds should be developed near a consistent water source, with the seeds being broadcast at the end of the dry season. Shading is required during the early stages of growth. After 2‐3 weeks, seedlings can be outplanted to the permanent site. Spacing of plants should be in the range of 50‐70cm. Weeding and Pruning: Weeding around the plants is important during the early stages of development. Careful pruning of lateral branches will improve the size and quality of the tomatoes. It is also important to avoid soil to plant contact on the branches, as this weakens contacted parts and encourages insect attacks. Nutrient Additives: Nutrition plays a major role in increasing productivity. Fertilizer for tomato should be fairly rich in phosphorus. Excess nitrogen is associated with excessive vegetative growth, fruit puffiness and blossom‐end rot. The amount of fertilizer and the timing of its applications vary with soil type and cultivar. In tropical Africa, fertilizer recommendations include 80–180kg N, 80–200kg P, 80–200kg K and 25 tonnes of farmyard manure per ha. The entire doses of farmyard manure and phosphorus are applied before transplanting. The farmyard manure is applied before final ploughing, whereas phosphorus is applied on both sides of the rows and mixed with the top 8–10cm of soil. Nitrogen and potassium are applied in three equally split doses. The first dose is given before transplanting as basal dressing, the second one 3 weeks after transplanting, and the last one 2 weeks later. Harvesting: Fruits will be ready for harvesting ~90 days after moving them to a permanent site. Fruiting may continue over the course of several weeks. Harvesting is done by hand. Storage: In West Africa, tomatoes are typically sold in local markets as fresh produce. While efforts have been made to introduce drying and storage techniques, these methods are not widespread. When “garden” tomatoes are scarce, it is not uncommon for people to supplement with imported canned tomato paste. Damaging Agents (1,2) Insects: Tomato plants may be attacked by the larvae of several insects during the growing period. These eat the leaves and stems of the plants. Control may be 95 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops obtained through “dusting” the plants with insecticides; however fruits should be washed prior to consumption. Nematodes: Root knot is a disease caused by the eelworm (Meloidogyne) causing galls to from on the plant roots. Plants are weak and bear little fruit. Land should be left fallow where present. Fungus: Common fungal pathogens in West Africa may include: leaf mold (Cladosporium fulvum), leaf spot (Septoria lycopersici), blossom‐end rot, and wilt and fruit rot (Sclerotium rolfsii). Timely watering practices and avoiding soil‐to‐
plant contact will reduce the likelihood of these becoming major problems. Virus: Tomatoes are very susceptible to viruses, which attack the leaves and stems and prevent the formation of fruit. Selection of good growing sites and outplanting healthy stock will limit these attacks. Uses (1) Nutrition (3) Fruits: Tomatoes are cut into pieces for “topping” grain dishes and, more commonly, used as a base for soups. Tomatoes are extremely rich in vitamins A, B, and C. There are 206 food calories, 20g of carbohydrates, and 40g of protein in 1.0kg of tomatoes. One plant is capable of yielding 2.7kg of tomatoes. This equates to ~27 metric tons/ha. 96 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Manihot utilissima Common Name: Cassava A) Flowering shoot; B) segment of stem; C) young roots; D) male flower; E) female flower; F) fruit; G) seed Economic importance of cassava Black= economically important Shaded = cassava used as a staple By far, the most popular root crop cultivated in West Africa, the cassava originated in South America (where it is known as manioc). It was likely brought to West Africa by the Portugese and was not known north of the Niger and Benue rivers prior to 1914. It is now widely spread and is replacing yams and cocoyams because it is easier to grow and requires less labor. Though it is considered to be a nutrient demanding crop, it is also capable of growing under poor soil conditions. As cassava is relatively drought tolerant, it is commonly grown in the drier, northern regions of West Africa. Description (1,2) Type: Shrubby, biennial. Habit: Grows 2‐4m high with variously branched stems of green, white, pale, or dark gray. Leaves: The leaves vary in shape, number of lobes, and color of the leaf stalk, with some varieties having broad, overlapping leaves and other varieties haves lobed leaves that appear to be directly attached to the stem. Flowers: Some varieties produce yellowish‐white flowers that are followed by round fruits, which contain three seeds. Fruits: The edible portions are the mature cassava roots. 97 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Growth and Development (3) Germination: Cuttings sprout 7‐14 days from the time of planting. Maturity: From the time of planting to maturity requires 12‐18 months depending on the variety and the needs of cultivator. They may be left in the ground for up to 2 years. Yield: Anything in the range of 11‐22 mton/ha is considered a reasonable harvest. Environment (1,2) Rainfall: Cassava grows best in areas of moderate rainfall, but has considerable resistance to drought. Thrives in coastal areas, where the rainfall may be low, but the humidity is high. Temperature: Is adaptable to most tropical climates and can be found in both the northern and southern regions of West Africa. The crop is not negatively affected by strong winds and does not require shading. Soils: Although cassava prefers a well‐drained loamy or sandy soil with abundant organic matter, it may also be grown in clay‐ or sandy‐loam. Stiff clay, gravel, and stony soils and not suitable and the roots will tend to rot in locations without adequate drainage. In these areas, the soil should be dug over thoroughly to prevent the roots from rotting. Tolerance: Cassava is tolerant to variable rainfall patterns and even drought, but is not capable of sustaining prolonged water logging. Cultural (1,2,3) Planting: Prior to planting, the soil should be prepared in mounds, with each mound being spaced to support one (or possibly two) cassava plants. This ranges from 1x1m to 1.6x1.6m. Cassava is propagated from stem cuttings, which are obtained from healthy, mature plants. The cuttings should be in the range of 20‐30cm in length and be planted in a slanted position (45º), with two‐
thirds of the cutting being buried in the ground. The buds should face upward for increased rates of budding. Two cuttings may be planted together, so that they cross each other. Planting may occur any time from March‐October in the southern regions and June‐August in the north. Weeding: Weeding and good cultivation throughout the growing season encourages the development of good roots, though this should be done with care to avoid damaging the roots. If the cultivation occurs too deep in the early stages, then the roots will tend to form deep in the soil and be difficult to harvest. Nutrient Additives: Cassava tends to exhaust the available soil nutrients. Rotation of crops may encourage sustainable production over time. Leaving stems and leaves on the land may lengthen the amount of time that a plot may be used without rotation. In some areas, potash is a required nutrient for good cassava production. This should be applied in a mixture of 1 part nitrogen, 1 part phosphate, and 2 parts potash, with 270‐340kg applied per hectare. 98 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Harvesting: The length of time the roots are left in the ground varies based on the intended use of the root. Those for eating are dug out prior to becoming fibrous, while those used for starch, flour, etc. may be left longer. Digging the roots out should be done with care to avoid damaging the roots and spreading decay throughout. At harvest, each root is carefully cut, with thin, woody material still attached. Storage: Cassava rots quickly and needs to be consumed within 2 or 3 days of digging. Damaging Agents (1) Virus: Cassava mosaic causes distortion of the plant leaves and stems. The resulting reduction in photosynthetic activity reduced the amount of carbohydrate that may be produced and stored in the roots. Control is impossible once the infection has begun and infected plants should be uprooted and burned. Insects/Mammals: Grasshoppers may occasionally damage young plants, but the attacks are only occasionally serious. Rodents may also cause damage to the tubers in the fields. Trapping may work to reduce damages. Uses (2) * It should be noted that cassava contains cyanine. Proper preparation is required for removal before eating. Roots: The main food prepared from cassava in West Africa is gari. This is prepared through the grating of either sweet or bitter cassava. The pulp is then pressed in a bag for 2‐4 days to remove the poisonous juices. When the pulp is almost dry, it is sieved and cooked in an open pot for a few moments. When it is required for a meal, it is heated with a little palm oil. This prevents burning and turns the gari a little darker. It is a useful food for travelers and is also a common addition to bean dishes. Cassava may also be dried in the sun after peeling and slicing it into thin strips. After drying, it may be stored in boxes, bags, or on racks above cooking areas. In this stage, it is susceptible to attack from boring insects. Perhaps the most popular method of preparation in West Africa is to boil the cassava and pound it in mortars to form a sticky ball (known in many parts as ‘fufu’). The fufu is then pulled apart by hand and dipped into various soups. The root is also used in some areas as a feed for livestock. It may be cut into small pieces and fed to cattle, pigs, or poultry. It is believed to increase the yield of milk and gives a richer color to both milk and butter. Leaves: The leaves of the plant are eaten in West Africa and elsewhere; however, precautions need to be taken to reduce the levels of HCN in the leaves before ingesting. These leaves can serve as a valuable source of Vitamin C. 99 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Nutrition (4) Cassava is very low in Saturated Fat, Cholesterol, and Sodium and serves as a good source for Manganese, Vitamin C, Folate, and Thiamin. Of the calories that may be obtained from cassava, 97% are in the form of carbohydrates. It also serves as a good source of dietary fiber. After harvest, the grains are spread out within a compound to dry before storage (Frederick). 100 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Nicotiana tabacum Common Name: Tobacco A native of South America, tobacco (a member of the Solanaceae family) is now grown widely throughout the world. In West Africa, the majority of cultivation occurs in the northern regions of Sierra Leone, Ghana, and Nigeria. Though mainly grown for local use, there are several large tobacco companies in West Africa that process the dried leaves into cigarettes, cigars, snuff, and pipe tobaccos. This variety commonly yields 2‐4% nicotine. Description (2,3,4) Type: Annual. Habit: Plants may be somewhat woody at the base and may or may not elicit branching. Under ideal conditions, plant may reach a height of up to 2.5m. Leaves: The erect stems bear proportionately large leaves that may reach lengths of 0.6m that are at least half as wide. The edges may be somewhat curled and the texture varies, depending on the anticipated use of the plant. Flowers: Flowers are borne in loose open clusters at the tops of branches, opening in full sunlight to 5cm in length. The corollas are funnel‐shaped with a wooly exterior and a somewhat swollen throat. The limbs are pink to red, varying to white. Inflorescences appear within 5‐7 weeks of transplanting. Topping is done by removing the flowering shoot above the last leaf. Seeds: Wood ashes or sand are sometimes added to the seeds, prior to sowing, to aid in the distribution throughout the bed. If sown too thick, the seeds produce leggy, sickly plants which cannot be outplanted into the field. While properly stored seed will remain viable for some years, improperly stored seed quickly loses its viability. 101 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Growth and Development (3) Germination: Germination should occur within 4‐5 days of sowing in the beds. Maturity: It is necessary to remove side shoots 10 days after topping, and as it is needed thereafter. The lower leaves will be mature 3‐4 weeks later. The usual harvest period is from November‐December. Yield: Average yields are in the range of 2,200‐3,400 kg/ha; however, it should be possible to harvest 9,000 kg/ha. Dry leaves weigh approximately 13% that of green leaves. Environment (1,2) Climate: In West Africa, tobacco is mainly grown for local consumption and, as such, it is commonly grown in compounds and enclosures near villages and (in the dry season) near local water sources. In the northern regions, where there is one main rainy season and less humidity, tobacco is grown as a dry season crop. This is because there is less risk of disease and the tobacco can be air‐dried. In areas of higher humidity and multiple rainy seasons, a different variety of tobacco is grown. The crop requires fairly high moisture content and does not do well in areas of high rainfall. Soils: Though it can be grown on many types of soils, tobacco does the best in rich, sandy, loam soils that are commonly found in the riverine areas. Tolerance: Tobacco is not tolerant of waterlogging and does best in areas of full sun and continuous air flow. Cultural (1,2,3) Planting: Seed (mixed with fine sand or ash) is broadcast in the nursery. A mixture is used to aid in the distribution of the fine seeds. Seed beds are usually partially sterilized by burning a thick layer of grass and manure on the surface. Shade is then placed a few inches above the surface of the seed bed. This is raised as the plants mature. Broadcasting approximately 70g of seed will be enough to outplant a hectare of tobacco seedlings. When transplanting, one or two plants are planted on flattened ridges, allowing for 0.5m² per stand. It may be necessary to shade the transplants as well. Transplanting is done when the seedlings are 4‐8 weeks old, depending on the vigor of the seedlings. Weeding: When grown on a small scale, utilizing mulch will aid in the retention of moisture, reduce the heat stress of the plants, and prevent the need for weeding. Nutrient Additives: Tobacco responds well to manure and mulching; however, when grown on a commercial scale, the use of commercial fertilizers is a common practice. Care should be taken to avoid adding excess amounts of nitrogen, as this may make the plants more susceptible to disease. There is little risk of adding too much phosphorus. This nutrient helps to maintain plant vigor, produce smooth, even leaves, and protect the plant from disease and drought injury. 102 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Topping: This is a common practice with tobacco. The flowers are cut and some of the upper leaves are removed in order to direct the nutrients to the remaining leaves. After topping, suckers appear and should be removed weekly until harvesting. Harvesting: Two to three months after transplanting, the leaves begin to mature. This is evidenced by the leaves turning a lighter shade of green, the edges become brittle, the tips turn downward, and the leaves crack when folded. Leaves are gathered singly from the bottom of the plants (since they mature first). The remaining leaves should be picked as they mature, requiring 4 or 5 pickings. The leaves are then hung on alternate sides of sticks or strings in bundles of three or four until ready for curing. Curing: Tobacco may be sun‐cured, air‐cured, or flue‐cured. Cut leaves contain a high percentage of water, which evaporates during the curing process. The rate of curing is crucial, as curing that is too rapid or too slowly promotes a discoloration of the leaves. Air­curing – Barns may be open‐sided or drop‐sided sheds with some type of cover (thatch or metal). Ideally, they are located on high ground to promote air flow. Curing takes 5‐6 weeks. The leaves may be threaded on strings and hung on racks, with two or three racks per barn. As many as 30‐40 leaves may be threaded back‐to‐back. This prevents curling. Flue­curing – This method increases the speed of the curing process, with the whole process completed in 5‐7 days. Concrete or brick barns must have flues to carry away the fumes or smoke that might harm the quality of the tobacco. It is also necessary to top and bottom ventilation. In short, racks are made within the barn to hold the tobacco, while fires are controlled to regulate the interior temperature of the barns. Temperatures range from 27‐49ºC *(over 3 days) to 54‐77ºC (one day). The ventilators are used to control heat and moisture levels within the barn and moisture is added, as necessary, to prevent the leaves from becoming brittle. Grading: After curing, tobacco is graded according to the shape, color and quality of the leaves. How it grades determines what the use of the tobacco may be. Damaging Agents (2) Fungus: Common fungal pathogens include: black root rot, black shank, and Southern stem rot. The best means of local control is to sterilize the soil at the nursery site (through burning over the planting areas), field scouting, and destroying infected plants immediately. Soil Organisms: Root knot is caused by a nematode (eelworm of the Meloidogyne sp.). Galls form on the roots, which may stunt the plants and cause them to wilt in the heat of the day. Okro, pepper, and tomato crops may also be affected by the eelworm, so they should not grown in proximity to each other or in rotation. Nursery soil sterilization and rotation can reduce damages. 103 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Virus: Viral pathogens include: tobacco mosaic, frog eye leaf spot, and leaf curl. The problems associated with diagnosing the differences between these viruses at the local level, promote the removal and destruction of any infected plants. Uses Leaves: Common manufactured uses are well known and include: cigarettes, cigars, snuff, and chewing tobacco. On a local scale, the leaves can be mixed with water to form a “tobacco tea” which is used as an effective insecticide on other crops. After seeping, the mixture can be directly applied to crops or garden vegetables via a local watering can. Silos may be built from local materials to store grain. (Frederick) 104 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Oryza glaberrima Common Name: African Rice 1) plant habit; 2) inflorescence; 3) spikelet Distribution in Africa (planted) While genetically different than the well‐known relative of Asia (Oryza sativa), African rice has been in production in West Africa for at least 1,500 years. It likely became an established crop in the flood basin of the central Niger before migrating westward to Senegal, southward to the Guinea Coast, and eastward to Lake Chad. Early farmers selected for “floating” varieties (for planting in deep water), photo‐period sensitive varieties (for growing in different latitudes and seasons), swamp and upland varieties (for growing in either irrigated or rainfed conditions), and early and late maturing types. The species is well‐
adapted to varying water depths, excessive iron, low levels of management, infertile soils, harsh climates, and late planting. These characteristics make it an important staple for subsistence farmers. Because of the agronomic similarities between this species and Oryza sativa, some of the following descriptions are shown in a comparative format between the two species. Description (1,2) Type: Annual grass. Habit: Dryland types have smooth, simple culms that can form roots at the lower nodes and are simply branched up to the flower cluster. Floating types can form branches and even roots at the upper nodes. Height: Between 66‐120cm. Pollination: Self‐pollinating; however, some inter‐ and intraspecific pollination does occur. Leaves: Alternate, simple; sheath cylindrical, up to 25cm long, with transverse veinlets. 105 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Flowers: Stiff, smooth, and compact, with less branching than Oryza sativa. Seeds: Red‐skinned, though the grain itself is white with a tendency to break if handled roughly. Growth and Development (1,2) Germination: Similar to Oryza Sativa. Maturity: Known to mature faster than Oryza Sativa, making it a preferred species in years where rains are slow to start or soon to finish. Yield: Provides stable yields that range between 1,500‐1,800 kg/ha. Environment (1) Rainfall: Some upland varieties can produce with precipitation as low as 700 mm/annum. Altitude: From sea level to 1,700m. Temperature: Average temperatures below 25°C retard plant growth and reduce yields. Optimum growth occurs between 30‐35°C. Soils: Some varieties may out‐perform Asian rice on alkaline sites and sites that are deficient in phosphorus. The crop performs best on alluvial soils. Tolerance: Tolerant to a variety of growing conditions, depending on the cultivar. Cultural (2) Planting: African rice is propagated by seed. Soil preparation is rarely practiced. Seed is mostly broadcast and transplanting is rarely practiced. For floating rice, seed is densely sown in soil that has been recently weeded and that may or may not have been ploughed or hoed. Weeding: Weeding of African rice in non‐flooded areas is manual and often late. Nutrient Additives: Fertilizer application is rarely practised. Harvesting: The harvesting season for African rice is October–December. Upland rice is harvested first. Panicles are bundled and stacked in elevated granaries under which a smoking fire is maintained to keep away storage insects. After manual or mechanical threshing, grain can also be stored in bulk in bags. Floating rice is harvested in several rounds mostly from canoes, which leads to considerable losses. Storage: The produce of African rice, whether stored before or after threshing, should be protected against pests, mainly insects and rodents. The paddy should be dried well to reduce the moisture content to a maximum of 14% to achieve good storage and a high milling yield. The grain of African rice is more brittle than that of Oryza sativa, making it more difficult to mill. 106 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Damaging Agents (1,2) Fungus: This species can be more susceptible to multiple fungal pathogens, as compared to Asian rice. Parasitic Plants: African rice is susceptible to attack by the striga plant. In addition, genetic interaction may occur between cultivated races and wild rice species, which may infest the fields and prove to be serious pests. Other: Birds cause serious damage in all rice cropping systems Uses (1,2) Nutrition (1) African rice can be used for all of the same purposes as Asian rice, making it extremely versatile. Specialized local uses in West Africa include: rice beer, sweet bread consisting of rice and honey, and a current project to utilize African rice in baby foods. The finer parts of the bran and broken grains are given as feed to chicken and other livestock. Like Asian rice, African rice is primarily used as a source of carbohydrates. The all‐around nutritional quality of African rice is greater, likely as a result of the difficulties that are associated with the greater polishing that occurs with the Asian rice. 107 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Oryza sativa Common Name: Polished Rice 1) plant habit; 2) inflorescence; 3) spikelet. Redrawn and adapted by W. Wessel­Brand Distribution in Africa (planted) Rice is one of the world’s most important grains, providing nourishment for more people globally than any other grain. Improved varieties of Oryza Sativa are also widely produced across West Africa for commercial sale, subsistence, and animal feeds. Improvements to this species have brought increased yields, along with reduced lodging, shattering, splitting, and an ease in processing and milling compared to its African relative. In West Africa, this crop is commonly grown in the mangrove swamps along the coast, in freshwater swamps inland, along river banks, or in specially prepared rice fields. There are over 2,400 varieties recognized. Description (1,2,3,5) Type: Annual plant of Gramineae family. Habit: Erect, growing from stools. Varieties that are grown in West Africa are distinguished by whether they are adapted to lowland (mangrove or swamp rice) or upland (rainfed). Height: Varieties range between 0.3‐1.8m. Pollination: Self‐pollinating is the most common. Leaves: Alternate, simple; sheath coarsely striate, tight when young, later somewhat loose, often somewhat spongy, green or sometimes tinged with brown or purple, smooth on the lower surface, slightly rough on the upper surface, midrib usually distinct. 108 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Flowers: Green inconspicuous flowers are in compact panicles. Depending on the variety, flowers may emerge 12‐18 weeks from sowing. Seeds: The hull is usually a yellowish‐brown with a white and hard inner‐grain. In hull, rice is known as a paddy. Without hull, it is referred to as “polished”. Most West African rice is brown, yellow, or reddish, even after polishing. Growth and Development (3,5) Germination: Under favorable conditions, seeds may sprout in 4‐5 days. Flowering: Temperatures above 21°C at flowering are needed for anthesis and pollination. Rice is almost 100% self‐pollinating, but small amounts of cross pollination by wind do occur. The period from flowering to full ripeness of all the grains in a panicle is usually about 30 days Maturity: Depending on variety, maturation may range from 4‐7 ½ months. Yield: Upland varieties may yield between 900‐2,200 kg/ha. Lowland varieties may yield between 2,200‐4,350 kg/ha. Yields under 1,000 kg/ha are considered to be poor. Environment (1,2,5) Rainfall: Precipitation is not typically a limiting factor with lowland varieties. Upland varieties may be grown in areas receiving 0.75‐1.3m rain per annum. Altitude: It grows on dry or flooded soil and at elevations ranging from sea level to at least 2400m. Temperature: Requires an average temperature that is above 25° C. Soils: Rice requires a clay soil, or at least one that is capable of holding the necessary water around the plants. In the coastal lowland areas where rice is grown, increased levels of salt may prove problematic; however, it is usually in these areas that rich alluvial soils exist and are replenished regularly by flooding which brings in fresh alluvial soil. Tolerance: In lowland varieties, plants may succumb to high levels of salt. In upland varieties, water may prove a limiting factor. Decreased levels of fertility may negatively impact both. Cultural (1,3,4) Planting: Upland types are typically planted with the early rains in April or May to ripen in August, or in August or September to ripen in the dry season. Lowland types are typically broadcast in outplanting beds in May or June to transplant in July or August. For upland types, the spacing of planting should be approximately 25x25cm with 6 to 9 seeds per stand. Spacing for outplanted swamp types should be slightly closer with only 2‐3 seeds per stand. The nursery seeding rate for swamp types is approximately 215‐270 kg/ha. 0.5 hectares of nursery will provide enough paddy to plant 5 hectares of field. Seeds should be planted at a depth of 1‐2.5cm. Seedlings should be planted at a depth of 5‐7.5cm. 109 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Thinning and Weeding: For seedlings that are transplanted, thinning is not necessary. Thinning in direct sowing cultivation may be necessary, depending on emergence and on the desired stand density. Weed control prior to transplanting or before emergence of the crop is valuable, if difficult and costly. This is especially true if fertilizers are to be used. Nutrient Additives: Marked increases have been obtained through the use nitrogen and, sometimes, phosphate fertilizer. The use of 325kg/ha of sulphate of ammonia has shown economic returns. Harvesting: Harvesting typically occurs in August for the early sown crop or November to January for the later sown crop. The heads of the rice are cut off at a distance of 15cm from the top and these are then tied in bundles. The bundles are then dried in the sun for 3‐4 days. It is extremely labor intensive and, in subsistence settings, often involves the time of entire families or other community members. Seeds are removed from the heads by beating them with sticks. Stems are removed from the heap during threshing. Pre‐mature cracking may be a problem, which can be reduced by first “parboiling” the seeds prior to threshing. After threshing, the rice is winnowed (usually by hand) to remove debris. Polishing may then occur through “tumbling” the rice in a drum with leather straps. Storage: May be stored as paddy rice or after hulling. It is normally stored in jute bags, and surplus is transported to the market for sale. Most of the rice produced in West Africa is consumed locally and not produced for export. Damaging Agents (3) Fungus: The most damaging agent to rice is blast (Piricularia oryzae). This disease causes leaf spotting. The stems break and the field appears as if it has been rolled. The disease is favored by nitrogenous manures. Infected plants should be burnt. Other pathogens of note include: leaf spot, leaf blight, smut, and false smut. Insects: Stem borers may also affect rice fields. These moth larvae make a living by burrowing into the plant stem, causing the plant to topple and die. Crop rotation may discourage this pest. Animals: Birds and rodents may be serious pests to rice plantings. Choosing a defendable field is important, in order to be able to constantly monitor fields. Uses (4) Nutrition (3) Seeds: Polished, or unpolished, this cereal constitutes in important part of West African diets. It is typically boiled and eaten with other vegetables or lentils. The bran (outside layer removed during the polishing procedure) is increasing in use for livestock and poultry feeds. The level of nutritive value that rice contains depends largely on the processing. Unpolished rice still contains an outer layer (the aleurone) which is rich in protein and vitamins. The polishing process removes this, leaving an “aesthetically pleasing”, high in starch, product. 110 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops The women also play a large role in the marketing of the grain for sale at the market (Frederick). 111 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Pennisetum glaucum Common Name: Pearl Millet 1) plant habit; 2) part of the infructescence; 3) pair of spikelets surrounded by involucre of bristles. Source: PROSEA Distribution in Africa (planted) Descending from a wild West African grass, pearl millet is ideally suited for production in an environment that is often plagued with excessive heat and drought. It produces reliably in areas that are too hot and dry to produce good yields of maize (or even sorghum). This is due to the water conserving characteristics of the plants and their ability to “mine” the resources they need to thrive from deep within the soil profile. It is easy to grow and suffers less from diseases and pests than sorghum, maize, and other grains; however, due to its developmental characteristics, it is susceptible to loss due to physical damage (i.e. winds and heavy rain). It is a versatile and superior foodstuff in a portion of the world that commonly must contend with food security problems. While it is typically grown in monoculture plantations, it may also be intercropped with legumes or other low‐growing, shade‐tolerant species. Description (2,3) Type: Annual Habit: Erect tillering and branching not uncommon and sometimes profuse. Height: 0.5‐4m. Pollination: Either cross‐pollinating or self‐pollinating. Cross‐pollination normally occurs, but in areas where the timing of the development of male and female flower parts overlap, self‐pollination may occur. 112 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Stems: Slender, 1–3cm in diameter, solid, with prominent nodes. Leaves: Leaves alternate, simple; leaf sheath often hairy; linear blade, up to 1.5m×8cm, margins minutely toothed, somewhat rough. Flowers: Numerous flowers are tucked tightly around a cylindrical spike and may range is length from 15 to 140cm. Seeds: Begin to develop as soon as fertilization occurs and are fully developed 20‐30 days later. Seeds range in color white to brown, blue, or almost purple. Most are slate gray. They are generally tear shaped and smaller than the seeds of wheat. Average weight is 8mg. Some thresh free, while others require threshing. Growth and Development (1,2,3) Germination: Under favorable conditions, seeds may sprout in 5 days; however, fresh seeds may require a dormancy period of several weeks post‐harvest. Flowering: Time to flower initiation is the main factor determining the life cycle of a plant. Initiation is weakly to strongly controlled by photoperiod, with short days accelerating flower initiation. Photoperiod response allows crop cycle length to be adjusted by time of planting, needed when rains begin late, to ensure that flowering and grain production occur at the same optimum time each year for a specific latitude. Maturity: From planting to harvesting typically requires 3½‐4 months. From fertilization to ripening takes approximately 40 days. Yield: Average yield of dry seed normally ranges between 450‐700kg/ha. Average yield of seeds and heads normally ranges between 900‐1,100 kg/ha. Environment (2) Rainfall: Grows in areas with rainfall ranges from 200‐1,500; however, does best in areas receiving 250‐700mm. Altitude: Seldom found in altitudes greater than 1,200m. Temperature: Plants are sensitive to low temperatures at the seedling stage and at flowering. High daytime temperature are needed for maturation of grain. Soils: Performs best in light, well‐drained loams. Tolerance: Does not do well in clay soils and cannot tolerate waterlogging. Plants are tolerant to acidic subsoils and soils that are high in aluminum. Cultural (1) Planting: Sowing is done with the first substantial planting rains, typically occurring in late April to the third week of May. Stands are spaced 6’ apart between old ridges with a minimum of cultivation. 7‐10 seeds per hole are planted about 2.5cm deep. Thinning and Weeding: Plants are thinned to 1 or 2 per stand when 10‐12cm in height. Interplanting with ground nuts, cow peas, or guinea corn to reduce the necessity of weeding. 113 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Nutrient Additives: The application of additives is not commonplace, though some evidence exists in support of increased yields with fertilizer applications. Harvesting: The stalks are cut low down, bundled, and stacked in the field. The heads are cut about 12cm below the grain and bundles for storage and further drying indoors or for immediate use. Storage: This is usually done on the head in bundles in smoky storehouses. In the drier, northern regions, storage occurs in pits that are lined with matting of millet chaff. Damaging Agents (1) Uses (2) Insects: A “frit” fly is known to attack young seedlings. Fungus: Ergot (Sphacelia sp.) attacks developing heads, causing the grain to become pink and sticky. Successful control may occur through sanitation and crop rotation. Green Ear Disease (Sclerospora sp.) converts the seed head to a mass of vegetative tissue. Stalks: May be used in the construction of seasonal fencing, roofing material, and as a fuel for cooking. Seeds: Mainly used as a whole, cracked, or ground flour; a dough; or a grain like rice. These may be made into unfermented breads, fermented foods, thin and thick porridges, steam‐cooked dishes, non‐alcoholic beverages, and snacks. Forage: Leaves may be pulled from the harvested stalks and stored as a supplemental livestock feed. Soil Improvement: Due to the deep‐penetrating root system, this plant serves as a nutrient pump, pulling nutrients up from the sub‐soil, making them available for interplanted crops or crops planted next in a rotation. Nutrition (2) Pearl millet consists of approximately 70% carbohydrates and 16% protein. Compared to other grains, it contains high levels of Vitamin A and carotene. Mineral constituents of note include: phosphorus, iron, and calcium. Others include: barium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silver, strontium, tin, titanium, vanadium, zinc, and iodine. In feeding trials, pearl millet has proven itself nutritionally superior to rice and wheat. 114 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Saccharum oficinale Common Name: Sugar Cane While it is likely that sugar cane has its origins in Southeast Asia or Oceania, it is now distributed throughout the tropics. In West Africa, historical production was limited mainly to local production for chewing; however, more recently commercial production has increased. Grown primarily in the lowland river valleys with access to irrigation waters, sugar cane is a common crop in the Volta River region of Ghana and the Niger, Sokoto, Benue, and Rima river regions of Nigeria. Most of the varieties common in West Africa produce a proportionately low quantity of juice. The complex refinery processes of producing white sugar have limited most of the commercial use of the plant in West Africa to the production of brown sugar. Description (1,2,3,4) Type: Perrenial. Habit: Standing upright, sugar cane may reach heights of 5m. It has a fibrous root system with thick, strong, jointed stems in which the sugar is stored. Leaves: The leaves are stiff, up to 5cm in width, and 30cm in length. They are smooth on both surfaces and sharp on the edges, with prominent midribs and long, tapering point. The leaf sheath overlaps and is hairy on the top. Flowers: The flower is an open panicle, fluffy, 30‐60cm in length, with little spikelets being conspicuous because of their white, downy tufts of hair. Seeds: The plant seldom produce seed and reproduction occurs mainly through propagation. Growth and Development (2,3) Propagation: Occurs by lengths of stems containing three buds and two internodes. Typically, the top portions of the canes are used. They may be planted close together under irrigation for establishment, and planted to the fields once the rains have begun. 115 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Maturity: Plants become mature 10‐14 months after planting. Yield: 26‐36 metric tons of cut cane per hectare may be obtained without irrigation. With irrigation, the yields may increase threefold. Environment (1) Climate: Sugar cane requires 130cm of rainfall per year, well‐distributed throughout the growing season. Ideally, dry weather occurs during the time of harvesting and sugar extraction. Although it grows best in humid climates, it is capable of doing well in dry areas, if irrigation occurs. Soils: It may be grown in any soil type, but prefers light alluvial soils. It is quite common on lagoon flat and in some coastal areas. A local measure of site suitability is the presence of elephant grass. It is said that where elephant grass thrives, so will sugar cane. The soil must be well‐drained and it may be necessary to lime the soil. It is a soil‐exhausting crop. Tolerance: It does not do well on gravelly or acidic soils. Cultural (1,2,3) Planting: Cuttings should be at least 15‐20cm in length. They are typically taken from the tops of the plants at 7‐9 months, not from the “sugar‐rich” base. Prior to planting, the land should be thoroughly cleared of weeds and soil should be tilled to allow the roots to spread. Spacing of the propagated cuttings should be in the range of 1.5x2m, with one set per stand. Two or three of the rooted cuttings or tops are placed together into the soil in a slanting position. Unless there is a fear of flooding, they are usually planted on the flat. Cultivation: Once the plants have sprouted, the gaps should be filled in. The ground should be weeded as necessary, bringing the soil up around the plants. This not only promotes the growth of the underground stem, but also the formation of new buds. During the growing period, the land should be weeded regularly. This success of the crop depends on this care. Thrashing: As the cane grows, the lower leaves die and remain on the stem. As the rains come, these should be pulled off and allowed to lie as mulch in the fields. This allows for air circulation and increased nutrient uptake by the plants. It is known as thrashing. Nutrient Additives: If available, animal manure or blended fertilizer should be applied to the fields prior to planting. Harvesting: On larger plantations, the crop is set on fire so that the leaves are burned prior to harvesting. The reasoning for this practice is that the leaves are very sharp, with saw‐like edges, that are likely to injure workers during the harvest. Typically, the cane is cut from December to February. The content of the sugar in the cane drops rapidly once the flowering (arrowing) starts and also once the rains start. There is more sugar in a mature cane of a poor variety, than in a immature cane of a good variety, so timing the harvest important. Canes are to be watched carefully so the peak of their yields is not lost. 116 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops The canes are cut at (or a little below) ground level to allow the new crop to start. One man can cut approximately 7 metric tons per day if the cane has been fired; half that much if it has not. Crushing: Once the cane has been cut, the juice is extracted as soon as possible. This process is referred to as crushing. Simple, relatively inexpensive, machines can be bought for this purpose that are worked by hand, animal, or a small motor. The completeness of the extraction varies by the type of source that is used. Most of the sugar utilized in West Africa is not refined to produce white sugar, as this process involves a final complex refinement. Damaging Agents (1,3) Fungus: Red rot (Colletotrichum falcatum) is a fungus which causes the loss of color and dropping of the upper sugar cane leaves, eventually killing the plant. It may be noticed in newly planted fields in which diseased stock was used in planting. The best control occurs through the use of resistant varieties. Insects: Stem borers (Sesamia calamistis) and leaf suckers (Locris maculate) may attack the foliage of sugar cane. In addition, termites may attack the plants during the dry season, forcing the crops to be replanted. Irrigated crops are less likely to be attacked. Uses Cane: It is common in West Africa to chew the cane raw. Once crushed, the fresh juice makes a good drink, though the syrup quickly ferments so it must be boiled at once to clarify it. The remains of the crushed cane are known as trash. This may be used to as fuel used in boiling the juice. The juice is filtered, heated, and stirred to become concentrated thick syrup. Molasses that forms may be removed. This is a common additive to various cattle feeds in both Europe and the United States. When dried, the sugar represents only 8‐10% of the weight of the raw cane. The type of sugar that local processing produces is known as Demerara sugar. It is brown and sticky and has a slightly higher food value due to its content of ash and proteins from the original juice. 117 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Sesamum indicum Common Name: Sesame or Benniseed Fruits 1) flowering branch; 2) opened corolla; 3) cross section of ovary; 4) fruit; 5) seeds. Source: PROSEA Distribution in Africa (planted) A native to Africa, this crop is grown widely throughout the tropics and throughout India. In West Africa, it is grown mostly in the northern regions for export. The seeds yield valuable cooking oil. It is likely that the cultivation of this crop will increase throughout the region, with improved methods of cultivation, harvesting, and processing of the oil. Description (1,4) Type: Annual herb. Habit: It is erect, simple or branched. Height: Up to 2m tall. Pollination: Pollen is released shortly after the flowers open; the interval between flower opening and pollen release is a cultivar characteristic. The stigma is receptive one day before flower opening and remains receptive for another day. Under natural conditions, pollen remains viable for 24 hours. Flowers are mostly self‐pollinated, but cross‐pollination is possible and may reach 50%. Stem: Grooved. Leaves: Lower leaves often have three leaflets, and may be deeply divided or compound. 118 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Flowers: The flowers are ~2‐3cm long, whitish, pink, purple, or pink and spotted. Most flowers open at 5–7 a.m., wilt after midday, and are shed at 4–6 p.m. Fruits: The fruits are 2‐3cm long and have conspicuous beaks. Seeds: Smooth. Environment (1,2,4) Climat Rainfall: Sesame produces an excellent crop with a rainfall of 500–
650mm evenly distributed during the growing season. Altitude: Sesame is sensitive to low temperatures and for this reason it is grown from sea‐level to 1500m. Temperature: High temperatures are required for optimal growth and production. Temperatures around 30°C encourage germination, initial growth and flower formation. Temperatures below 10°C inhibit both. Climate: Thrives in drier regions away from closed forest. Requires rainfall at the time of planting and during the first 2 months of growth and dry conditions at the time of harvest. Soils: Is capable of producing a crop on poor soils and, as such, typically occurs as the last crop is the native rotation and is given little attention. Tolerance: Not tolerant of waterlogging. Cultural (1,2,4) Planting: Is sown with the first rains of the planting season (April), requiring a fine tilth for a seed bed. Typically 2‐3kg of seed are broadcast per hectare, with seed occasionally being mixed with sand to make the sowing easier. Stands 0.5‐
1m apart produce greater yields. There are approximately 170,000 seeds in 0.5kg. Thinning and Weeding: Yields have been shown to double (400‐450kg/ha) through weeding and thinning the stands. Nutrient Additives: Where sesame is grown on a large scale, NPK mixtures of 5:10:5, 12:12:6, and 10:14:10 at a rate of 500–700 kg/ha are commonly applied at planting. Most smallholders rarely apply fertilizer to the crop. Application of both nitrogen and phosphorus is essential on poor soils, but potassium is seldom required. Harvesting: Plants mature in 2‐3 months. Harvesting should occur when the leaves yellow (the pods turning yellow prior to maturity). The stems are cut low to the ground or uprooted and stacked upright until the pods dry and split. Seeds are then shaken on to mats. Rain at the time harvest can mean a serious loss of crop. Storage: Commonly jute sacks or granaries. 119 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Damaging Agents (1) Fungus: With root rot, plants wilt and die. This may be controlled through proper rotation. Insects: May be attacked by grasshoppers, sesame leaf rollers, and sesame seed bug. Scouting and manual insect removal may be used for the first two. The later may be controlled through the use of clean soil and avoiding excessive moisture within the stands. Uses (1) Seeds: The seeds contain 50‐57% of sesame oil. This is an important export for use in margarine and machine oil. It is also used for cooking, soap, and fuel. The quality of the oil is dependent on the number of presses it has received, with increased pressings provided darker, stronger tasting oil. Leftover meal is made into livestock cakes or used as fertilizer. The seeds can also be roasted and ground for meal. Leaves: Can be used as spinach. Nutrition (3) Sesame is considered to be very low in Cholesterol and Sodium. It also serves as a good source of Thiamin, Phosphorus, Copper, and Manganese. To yield a more complete protein, including sesame with foods of complimentary amino acid profiles is recommended. It is also a mild anti‐inflammatory, containing monounsaturated fats, Folate, and Zinc. 120 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Solanum aethiopicum Common Name: Eggplant 1) flowering branch; 2) flower; 3) different fruit types; 4) fruit in cross section; 5) seed. Redrawn and adapted by M.M. Spitteler Distribution in Africa (planted) Native to Africa, these plants are notable for their high yielding ability in a little space and can serve as “space‐fillers” in home gardens. The plants are extremely climatically adaptable, fast‐maturing, produce over an extended period of time, and have soil conservation attributes through holding soil in the spaces between a farm’s main crops. They are shade‐tolerant and, as a result, may be a suitable species for interplanting. They have the potential to serve nutritional, economic, and conservation needs. This particular species (originally known as the “Guinea squash”) exhibits similar characteristics, but is not as well known, as its globally renowned cousin from Asia. At present, little technical information currently exists for this species. Description (1,2) Type: Fairly woody, deciduous annual or occasionally perennial herb. Habit: Vigorous horizontal branching. Height: 100‐150cm. Pollination: May be pollinated by large bees. Branches: With or without prickles and small hairs. Leaves: Mature leaves are smooth, apart from very small glandular hairs. Flowers: Contains small, white, star‐shaped flowers. 121 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Fruits: Come in a variety of colors ranging from white to cream, yellow, green, lime, orange, pink, red, plum, burgundy, lavender, violet, purple, or dusky black. The fruits are 3‐6cm in diameter, and range in shape from ellipsoid to almost round. Seeds: Should be taken from fully ripe fruits, washed, and then dried on cloth or paper. They should not be exposed to direct sunlight. Seeds stored dry and cool are viable for years. Seeds also store well inside air‐dried fruits, which is the traditional form of seed storage by farmers. The 1000‐seed weight is 2–4g. Environment (2) Rainfall: 500‐1,200mm. In the tropics, plants thrive during the rainy season. Altitude: Up to 1,200m. Temperature: Optimal growth temperature is between 20‐30° C; however, plants may tolerate temperatures as low as 15°C and as high as 35°C. Soils: Succeeds in most soils, though prefers soils of high fertility (increased N and K) with pH levels ranging between 5.5‐6.8 Tolerance: The ecological requirements for this plant are thought to be similar to that of common eggplant; however, it is likely that they are slightly hardier and more tolerant of drought. Cultural (1,2) Planting: Though this plant may be planted in a variety of conditions, it prefers full sun, well‐drained soil, or raised beds. Seeds may be broadcast or drilled directly into a prepared bed. Typically, seeds are sown into planter boxes or nursery beds, before being outplanted at 5‐10cm in height. Plants then take an additional month to become established, before developing strongly. Spacing should be 1.0‐1.5m apart. Thinning and Weeding: Weeding may be difficult due to the vigorous branching characteristics; however, these same characteristics aid in shading out most competitors. Nutrient Additives: If possible, 15–15–15 or 10–10–20 NPK fertilizer may be applied at 150 kg/ha 10 days after transplanting and at 50 kg/ha at first flowering, and then at monthly intervals. Soluble fertilizers may be fed by drip irrigation. Farm or poultry manure can be applied at a rate of 10–20 t/ha. Harvesting: Ideally, eggplant is picked while still immature (70‐90 days after sowing). At this point, the skin will be shiny, the flesh white, and the seeds tender. Use a knife or shears to cut the fruit from the plant. Plants may produce for up to 10 weeks. In one test, three plants yielded 10kg of fruits. Harvesting should occur gently and in the cool of the day to avoid browning of fruits. 122 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Storage: Fruits free of rot or damage can be transported long distances, and stored for several days or even weeks under well‐ventilated conditions. Provided that fruits are of good quality, standardization is not necessary; market women often mix different batches of fruits to make an attractive display. During periods of shortage, the market pays higher prices for small fruits because there are more of them per unit of weight whereas during periods of oversupply, larger fruits are appreciated. Fruits and leaves are not normally processed or preserved for long periods. Damaging Agents Insects: Common attackers may include leaf beetles, moth larvae, bud borers, and sucking bugs. (2) Fungus: Generally, resistant to such fungal pathogens as molds and mildews; however, may be attacked by a fungal leaf spot. Uses (2) Fruits: Typically, the eggplant is chopped, cooked, and placed in stews or soups. Peeling is unnecessary. Fruits reach their full flavor after being cooked beyond the crisp stage. Leaves: Though high in solanine toxins, Africans eat the least of at least certain types of eggplant. Soil Improvement: Can be promoted for use in the home‐garden setting or in plantations as a means of stabilizing soils that would otherwise be exposed. Nutrition (2) Consisting mainly of water (92%), these plants do offer small amounts of protein, starch, vitamins, and minerals. The latter may include: beta‐carotene, Vitamin B, Vitamin C, calcium, iron, potassium, and more. 123 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Solenostemon rotundifolius Common Name: Native Potatoes 1) lower part of plant; 2) flowering branch. Source: PROSEA Distribution in Africa (wild and planted) To some, tubers represent the foundation around which modern society has developed. This tuber is grown widely in West Africa and has characteristics that are commonly associated with the potato; however, they are neither potatoes nor potato relatives. They are, in fact, members of the mint family next to such well known edibles as spearmint, rosemary, sage, thyme, oregano, basil, and majoram. Africa’s native potatoes are actually the only mints that produce human food below the ground. Grown mainly for local uses, these small and oval “potatoes” are likely native descendents from Ethiopia. In West Africa, they are referred to as Hausa potatoes. Description (1,2) Type: Herbaceous perennials that are normally grown as annuals. Plants have a very distinctive odor due to the volatile oils they contain. Habit: Prostrate or ascending habits. Height: Seldom reaches heights in excess of 30cm. Stem: Succulent and square (cross‐section), the stem is covered in white hair with prostrate, lateral, trailing branches at the nodes. Leaves: Form in opposite pairs or whorls at the intervals along the stems. They are hairy, oval, and aromatic. May reach 6cm in length and have toothed margins. Some may have a purple color in the center of the leaf. 124 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Flowers: Flowers before the stem leafs out. Flowers are borne on long, terminal racimes (spikes). Each flower is small and symmetrical, having united petals. Colors range from violet, to red, to yellow. The presence of flowers serves as an indicator that the potatoes are ready for harvesting. Tubers: Egglike in shape, the tubers form in clusters around the base of the stem. Varieties of the tubers are distinguished by color. The nigra are comparatively smaller and darker than other varieties, occur in Mali and the Upper Niger region. The rubra are small reddish‐gray or reddish yellow tubers. The alba is a white variety that is also found in the Upper Niger Basin. Growth and Development (1,2,3) Propagation: This crop is propagated by tubers or by softwood cuttings; however, the latter are believed produce smaller yields. Flowering: Flowers are bisexual, purplish‐white and form on a protruding stem. Fruiting bodies (consisting of 4 nutlets) rarely develop. Maturity: Depending on the variety and the climate, tubers may be ready for harvesting in 120‐200 days. Yield: Average obtainable yields are around 15 tons/ha; however, experimental plots have shown that yields of up to 50 tons/ha may be possible. Environment (1) Cultural (1) This species is best suited to the tropical humid areas, having a tolerance to high temperatures and rainfall with minimal rainfall requirements believed to be ~100cm. In West Africa, its presence has been noted from the humid coastal areas to the dry interior woodlands. In the drier regions, it is likely that irrigation would be necessary during the times of drought. There is little information pertaining to the altitude requirements of this crop. It responds best in deep, well‐drained soils that are well‐prepared before planting so that the underground portion can grow to full size without restriction. Planting: Planting commonly occurs through the propagation of tubers, setts, stem‐cuttings, or suckers that are sliced from sprouted tubers. The standard planting method is through the use of tubers or portions of tubers. These are planted into mounds, ridges, or prepared beds with the onset of the rainy season. Spacing is variable with 50‐90cm in between rows to 15‐30cm between plants. Propagated material should be placed at a depth of 5‐8cm. Weeding: If spaced properly, weeding is unnecessary. Plant leaves shade out any competing weeds. Nutrient Additives: Fertilizer is rarely applied; however, organic mulch may be incorporated into the mounds or ridges before planting, followed by a “shot” of fertilizer after the crop has become established. Piling soil around the base of the plants as they grow may encourage increased tuber development. 125 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Harvesting/Storage: Once the plants have shed their flowers, the tubers are mature and may be harvested. As with other tubers, harvesting should occur carefully, with the tubers being carefully protected. Comparative to other similar tubers, this species has a thick skin and is more resistant to damage; however, post‐harvest diseases and pests may be serious. Packing the harvesting tubers in dry sand and storing them in the shade has been found to extend the length of time they may be successfully stored. Damaging Agents Pests are not known to be problematic with this species; however, it is noted the lack of production in other parts of Africa may indicate that the problems exist and are simply undocumented. With other tubers, these limitations typically occur in the form of viruses and bacteria. Other limitations related to this species include marketing, transporting, and storage. (1) Uses (1) Nutrition (1) Currently, this crop is considered to a “smallholder” crop that is almost exclusively produced at a local level for local consumption. In fact, it is almost exclusively a women’s crop. Being a cheap plant to produce and having the capacity to be prepared like other similar tubers (i.e. sweet potatoes), they can serve as a good crop to plant to insure against other crop failures. Little attention has been given to the improvement of this crop in the past. As a result, it is quickly being replaced on local farms by more “well‐known” crops that have the capacity to provide greater income generating potential. These tubers can also serve as valuable contributors to local dietary needs. Servings provide vitamin A and calcium (in the form of beta carotene), as well as iron. In addition, they are comparatively high in protein and can serve as a source for such amino acids as threonine, tyrosine, methionine, valine, leucine, and lysine. 126 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Sorghum guineense Common Name: Guinea Corn 1) bicolor; 2) caudatum; 3) dura; 4) guinea; 5) kafir. Source: PROSEA Distribution in Africa (Planted) Sorghum is capable of growing in both temperate and tropical zones. It is one of the photosynthetically efficient plants and has one of the highest dry matter accumulation rates. It is fast‐maturing (~75 days) and has the highest production of food per unit of human or mechanical energy expended. In addition, sorghum thrives on sites where other crops cannot. It is resistant to drought, heat, waterlogging, and salinization. It is extremely versatile and may be grown in innumerable ways and prepared for consumption in a variety of ways. Remarkably, this plant is relatively undeveloped and currently has underutilized genetic potential that could be advanced. Description (1,2,4) Type: Most are annuals; a few are perennials. Habit: Erect, canelike grasses capable of profuse tillering. Height: Between 0.5‐6m. Pollination: Self‐pollinating is the most common, though cross‐pollination may occur via wind. Stems: Solid, usually erect. Leaves: Leaves alternate, simple; leaf sheath 15–35cm long, often with a waxy bloom, with band of short white hairs at base near attachment, blade 30–135cm × 1.5–13cm, initially erect, later curving, margins flat or wavy. 127 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Flowers: Flower head is usually compact. Each has two types of flowers. One type has no stalk and both male and female parts; the other is stalked and is usually male. Flowering takes place 16‐19 weeks from sowing. Seeds: Smaller than maize, but have a similar starchy endosperm; partially covered by husks. Seed coats vary in color from pale yellow through purple brown. Seeds are typically white and floury, but some varieties may be hard and corneous. Growth and Development (2,4) Germination: Under favorable conditions, seeds may sprout in 4‐5 days; fresh seeds may require a dormancy period of several weeks. Plant may also be propagated by stem cuttings. Flowering: Follows soon after panicle emergence, with the interval largely determined by temperature. Individual panicles start flowering from the tip downwards and flowering may extend over 4–9 days. Maturity: May mature as soon as 75 days or it may take up to 5 ½ ‐6 months. Yield: Up to 2,200 kg/ha of dry grain is possible, but 1,100 to 1,600 kg/ha is satisfactory and 750‐900 kg/ha is usual in the subsistence farm setting. Environment (1) Rainfall: Extremely drought‐resistant and commonly grown in areas too dry for maize. . Altitude: Seldom found in altitudes ranging from sea level to 3,000m. Temperature: Typically occurs between 0 and 40° of the equator Soils: Can tolerate a wide variety of soils, from sand to heavy clay. Tolerance: Tolerant to drought, waterlogging, salinity, variable climatic patterns, soil acidities, and soil types. Cultural (1,2,3) Planting: Occurs in May‐June in the north with the onset of the rains, June and July in the south. Ridges are made ~1m apart, with 3‐4 seeds planted at a spacing of 30‐50cm apart. Seeds are sown 2‐2.5cm deep. Thinning and Weeding: Thinned at 15‐20cm high to maintain 1‐2 plants per stand. Hand‐weeding (hoe) is commonplace throughout the growing season. Nutrient Additives: Though not commonly used, additives have been shown to substantially increase yields. Harvesting: Harvesting takes place in December‐January for most types. Stems are cut to ground level and allowed to dry for 7‐10 days. Then the heads are cut off and bundled and the stalks are collected and stacked. Leaves for fodder may be stripped before cutting down. 128 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Storage: When harvested before complete drying has occurred, the heads are bundled and placed under shelter to complete the drying process. Once dry, the husks are removed by winnowing. The grains are then typically stored in bins or jute sacks, if they are to be sent to market. If long‐term treatment is desired, seeds should be treated with insecticide (to prevent loss from weevils) and stored in airtight containers or in bags hung near the cooking fires. Damaging Agents Insects: Stem borers are found everywhere and most crops are affected. Partial control may occur through rotation, sanitation, and, in severe cases, the use of insecticidal dust. These dusts may also be beneficial to the control of storage pests. (2,3) Fungus: Guinea corn is susceptible to Covered smut, loose smut, head smut, downy mildew, Zonate leaf spot, and leaf spots. Crop rotation and treatment with copper carbonate may reduce damages. Parasitic Plants: Striga senegalensis may attack the roots of guinea corn. Weeding out may be necessary prior to planting. Uses (4) Stalks: Sorghum plant residues are used extensively as material for roofing, fencing, weaving and as fuel. The stems can be used for the production of fibre board. Seeds: The whole grain is boiled, roasted, or popped for human consumption. More often the grain is ground or pounded into flour, often after hulling. Sorghum flour is used to make thick or thin porridge, pancake, dumplings or couscous, opaque and cloudy beers and non‐alcoholic fermented beverages. Forage: The stover remaining after harvesting the grain is cut and fed to cattle, sheep and goats, or may be grazed. Nutrition (1) Kernels (whole‐grain form) consist of ~70% carbohydrate, ~12% protein, ~3% fat, ~2% fiber, and ~1.5% ash. These values are very similar to whole‐grain maize or wheat. Compared to maize, sorghum contains higher levels of the B vitamins, pantothenic acid, niacin, folate, and biotin; similar levels of riboflavin and pyridoxine; and lower levels of vitamin A. Similar to other grains, the potassium and phosphorus are the major minerals, with calcium and zinc tending to be low. Reports indicate that sorghum serves as a good source for more than 20 micronutrients. 129 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Vigna subterranea Common Name: Bambara Bean 1) habit of flowering plant; 2) flower; 3) fruits; 4) seed. Source: PROSEA Distribution in Africa (planted) The characteristics of this plant make it an ideal candidate for a “sustainable crop” of West Africa. As its name implies, it is native to the southern fringes of the Sahara and, as a result, it is extremely hardy under harsh conditions. It maintains natural genetic diversity and no additional inputs are required to grow the plant successfully. The nitrogen‐fixing characteristics of the plant increase soil‐fertility and it may be used as a natural soil‐conditioner. Description (2) Type: Annual. Habit: Spreading or trailing, but also erect and bushy. Height (length): Varies by location. Pollination: Underground flowers make cross‐pollination difficult. Plants are typically self‐pollinating, though ants may increase pollination levels. Stems: Branched and hairy with short internodes. Leaves: Trifolate and borne on long slender petioles. Flowers: Light to deep yellow. After pollination, each flower sends a tendril downward, which continues to burrow even after it has pierced the soil. Pods: Forms pods on, or just beneath, the ground. Range in color from a yellowish to dark reddish/brown. 130 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Seeds: Most varieties contain one seed per pod. Seeds are round 1‐1.5cm in diameter and range in color from white to creamy yellow, brown, purple, red, and black. Growth and Development (1,2) Germination: Emergence varies from 7‐21 days. Flowering: Flowering starts 30–55 days after sowing and may continue until the plant dies. Maturity: The pod reaches maturity approximately 30 days after fertilization. The seed further develops over the next 10 days. Depending on climate and cultivar plant maturity may occur 90‐180 days after planting. Yield: Average yield of dry seed is currently 400 kg/ha; however, yields of up to 4,000 kg/ha are possible under improved conditions. Environment (2) Rainfall: Does best in areas of equally distributed rain in the range of 600‐
1,000mm. Satisfactory yields can be obtained in areas where dry seasons are pronounced. Heavy rains do not seem to cause problems, unless they occur during the flowering period. Altitude: Satisfactory yields may occur up to elevations of 1,600m. Temperature: Optimal growth temperature is between 20‐28° C. Soils: Crops perform the best in loose, light soils with pH in the range of 5‐6.5. This encourages the growth of the nitrogen‐fixing bacteria in the root nodules and the development of the planted seeds. Thrives in laterite soils, which are toxic to many other crop species because of soluble aluminum. Tolerance: Extremely drought tolerant and resilient to variable climatic conditions. Cultural (2) Planting: Farmers typically sow early in the rainy season, by dropping 2‐4 seeds into a hole ~5cm deep and lightly covering them with soil. Spacing may range from 40x25cm to 60x60cm. Thinning and Weeding: Though traditionally done through hoeing, care must be taken to avoid disruption of the roots and the related damage to the crop. Nutrient Additives: No additives are necessary. Harvesting: In dry regions, the timing of harvest is less critical than that of groundnuts. In humid areas, prompt harvest is necessary to avoid rot. To harvest, the whole plant is uprooted, the pods are separated from the plants, and left to dry in the sun several days. During this time, they shrink, darken, and dry out. 131 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Storage: Local storage typically occurs in jute sacks. Due to the hard outer‐shell of the pods, insect damage can be prevented. As a result, beans that are to be stored for selling during the dry season, or to be used for the subsequent years planting, are stored within the pods. This makes storing this crop an obvious choice as a secondary income‐generating activity. Damaging Agents Insects: Seeds not stored in the pods are susceptible to attack by bruchid beetles; otherwise, they are known to relatively resistant to attack. (2) Fungus: Plants can fall victim to disease; most commonly in the form of fusarium wilt and leaf spot. Other: May be impacted by viral diseases (especially where other legumes are grown), nematode infestations, and rodent, cricket, or termite attack (especially in dry weather). Uses (2) Seeds: Upon maturity, the seeds may be prepared in a variety of ways for consumption; though extra time and effort is usually necessary due to the hardness of the pod shell. The most common include: whole (boiled or fried), cakes (boiled or fried from flour), and pudding (paste wrapped in leaves and boiled). Forage: The beans may be utilized to feed chicks. The leaves (rich in protein and phosphorus) make useful livestock fodder. Residue is also highly suitable for other grazing animals. Soil Improvement: Due to the nitrogen‐fixing properties of the plant, it makes a good companion crop in rotations and may be underplanted with maize and millet. Nutrition (2) Ripe or immature, the seed averages 63 percent carbohydrate, 19 percent protein, and 6.5 percent oil. The protein is more complete than in other beans and the nutritional energy (per 100g) has been measured at 367‐414 calories, which is greater than that of most other pulses grown in the region. 132 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Vigna unguiculata Common Name: Cowpea 1) Inflorescence; 2) fruiting branch; 3) seed. Source: PROSEA Distribution in Africa (wild and planted) This nitrogen‐fixing legume is native to Africa and originated in the southern Sahel and upper‐rim of central Africa. As such, it is well adapted to these regions and offers much in the way of combating some of the food security issues in this part of the world. It also serves as a candidate for intercropping with the traditional grain crops in the Sahel, as flowering and seed production occur post‐harvest of most grains. Currently, the practice of peasant farmers is to grow the cowpea in small plots. Description (1) Type: Annual. Habit: Erect or semi‐upright to spreading and climbing. Height (length): 20‐200cm, the latter being climbing varieties. Pollination: Mainly self‐pollinating, with up to 2% outcrossing. Stems: Up to 4m in length, angular or nearly cylindrical, slightly ribbed (3). Leaves: Leaves alternate, ovate, and spurred at the base. Length ranges from 0.5–2cm (3). Flowers: May be purple, pink, white, blue, or yellow. Pods: Tend to be long, smooth, cylindrical, and somewhat constricted between the seeds. 133 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Seeds: 8‐20 seeds per pod; globular or kidney shaped; 5‐12mm long; smooth or wrinkled; ranging in color from white, cream, or yellow to red, brown or black; some are speckled or blotched; characteristic in having a marked white helium surrounded by a dark ring; most commonly grown are the white types with a black mark around the helium, referred to as ‘black‐eyed’. Growth and Development (2) Germination: Occurs 4‐5 days after planting. Flowering: Begins to flower 2 months after planting. Maturity: Begins to mature 3‐4 months after planting. Yield: Average yield of dry seed normally ranges between 100‐300 kg/ha. Environment (2) Rainfall: >300+ mm/year Altitude: Commonly found up to 1,500m, and occasionally up to 2,500m. Temperature: Grows best at day temperatures of 25–35°C; night temperatures should not be less than 15ºC. Soils: Grows well in rich sandy loam soils in areas of moderate rainfall. Tolerance: Extremely drought tolerant. Prone to ‘over‐producing’ leaves in humid/moist areas, limiting seed production and yield. Cultural (2) Planting: Occurs July –August in the savanna zones; September in the rain forest zones. Three or four seeds may be sown in holes 3cm deep and 30cm apart. Thinning and Weeding: Usually not necessary, due to the rapid growth rate. Nutrient Additives: Nitrogenous fertilizers are not necessary, due to the nitrogen‐fixing properties of the plant. Harvesting: During November‐December in the savanna zone and December‐
January in the forest zone. Threshed by beating the heaped pods with sticks. Timely harvesting may be complicated by the prolonged and uneven ripening characteristics of many types and the shattering characteristics of the pods (1). Storage: Local storage typically occurs in jute sacks. Insect infestation is the limiting factor and cannot be over‐emphasized. Success in storing cowpeas currently relies on the use of post‐harvest/pre‐storage application of insecticides. Recent research indicates storage success through turning sacks end‐for‐end 2 or 3 times in a 24 hour period. This prevents weevils from successful penetration. 134 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Damaging Agents (1) Insects: The most common pests are various types of weevils (Callosbruchus chinensis and Acanthoscelides dotectus). Powerful mouthparts allow them to attack the beans, both in the field, and while in storage. Infected seeds are rendered useless for food or planting material. Protection relies mainly on the application of chemical and natural insecticides. Mosaic: This viral disease affects the development of leaves and stems, causes distortion, spotting, wrinkling, and growth retardation. Sanitation of affected plants is necessary. Nematodes: Root‐knot eelworm (Meloidogyne spp.) may affect development through causing the formation of swellings on the roots. As they utilize food produced on the plant, growth is retarded and yields lowered. Crop rotation may help prevent attack. Uses (2) Pods: Immature seeds and pods may be boiled and eaten as a vegetable. Seeds: Prepared with vegetables, spices, and palm oil to make a soup. May be decorticated and ground into a flour to be made into cakes that are deep fried or steamed. Flour may also be made into a meal that is used as an additive in a variety of dishes. Forage: Once the seeds have been harvested, the stems, leaves, and haulms may be stored to be fed to livestock during the ‘lean’ season. Soil Improvement: Serves as an excellent cover crop that may assist in erosion and weed control. Plants may be dug into the ground as a green manure. Nutrition (2) Cowpea contains up to 24% protein and 2% oil, with the remainder being carbohydrates, minerals, and lesser nutrients. Protein consists of 90% water‐
insoluble globulins and 10% water‐soluble albumins. Consistent with other grain legumes, methionine, cystine, and tryptophan are deficient, but lysine is in good supply. 135 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Xanthosoma spp. Common Name: Cocoyam There are several species that are cultivated and edible, all originating in tropical America. These species were introduced to West Africa around 1843, with cultivation occurring by the creoles of Sierra Leone and eventually being adopted by the Ashanti of Ghana. It is common in closed‐canopied forest areas and is now considered to be a staple of the Twi‐speaking areas of Ghana, where it is consumed as fufu. The name refers to its use as a shade crop on cocoa plantations and remnant cocoyam plants are often evidenced in the understory of mature plantations. Description (1) Growth and Development (2) Plants may reach a height of ~2m, with large, green, sagittate leaves. Flowers are seldom produced (except in the wetter regions). The starchy underground stems are corms. The differences in the varieties occur mainly in leaf size, the prominence of the veins, the color of the petioles, the size and shape of the corms, and the color of the flesh. Germination: Timing is dependent on the condition of the seed, ranging from 7‐
15 days. Maturity: Requires 6‐8 months for maturation, with the crop being hand‐dug in December‐January. Yield: Expected yields are in the range of 4,500‐9,000kg/ha. Cultural (1) The planting material consists of pieces of corms spaced at ~1x1m. Corms may remain dormant for many years, with pre‐existing plants re‐emerging and growing well when forested land is cleared. Once they receive full sunlight, these plants can quickly grow to their full size in a short amount of time. These are 136 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops referred to as spontaneous cocoyams. In planting new farms, all of the spontaneous cocoyams are first thinned out, with the corms being trimmed, the leaves removed, holes dug, and the seed planted. Growers should allow 3‐7m² per stand. After 11‐18 months, the plants produce large corms at the base of the petiole. These corms contain 8‐10 flask‐shaped cormels that are 15‐20cm long, arranged radially. After the development of the cormels, the leaves turn yellow. If left unharvested, new growth begins and the cormels become watery and less suitable as food. Cocoyams can be cultivated at almost any time of the year. Upon harvest, the cormels are removed and the corms are trimmed and replanted. Soil placed lightly over the top of the newly planted corms to form new seed. Though forming a different kind of growth (rough‐shaped corm with oval cormels), they may be propagated this way for several generations. As the quality becomes poorer, the land may be allowed to revert to bush. The crops does not store well and should be consumed within a few days of harvesting. Damaging Agents (1) Uses (1) Nutrition (3) Root rot was a serious problem in the 1930s and is considered to be widely distributed, especially on land that been newly planted. With this, the leaves wilt and the whole plant putrifies. Cocoyams are also susceptible to wilt (Sclerotium rolfsii), which attacks when the growing conditions are too moist. The cormels of the cocoyams are commonly eaten roasted or boiled, though their common use is as an additive in fufu. Starch and flour may also be prepared from the dried cormels. This may be stored for several months. Flour is also made from the corms. Young leaves and shoots, though slimy when cooked, serve as an important soup additive and source of vitamins and minerals (similar to spinach). Cocoyams are rich in carbohydrates and very low in protein. Like other tubers, they are deficient in most vitamins and mineral, but contain significant amounts of dietary fiber. Cocoyams are enriched with potassium, sodium, and magnesium, which aid in building a strong immune system and in helping the body absorb and utilize protein and carbohydrates. For these nutrients, daily servings may provide the recommended allowance. For other nutrients (such as calcium and iron), they may be present in cocoyams, but not in sufficient quantities serve as the sole source. The corms of the cocoyam also supplies easily digestible starch and are known to contain substantial amounts of protein, vitamin C, thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin. The leaves also serve as an important source of proteins and vitamins. 137 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Zea mays Common Name: Maize 1) basal plant part; 2) central plant part with female inflorescences; 3) upper plant part with male inflorescence; 4) infructescence. Source: PROSEA Distribution in Africa (planted) First being introduced into West Africa by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century, corn has become one of the main food plants of West Africa. Since introduction multiple varieties have become established, most recently from South America in order to combat rust diseases. In a part of the world where change may occur slowly, corn has not only been adopted, but has replaced many of the indigenous crops as the food of choice. Still grown mainly by small‐scale farmers, trait selection commonly occurs through holding the seeds over from one planting season to the next. Adding to its crop value in the humid part of the region, two corn crops may be raised in one season. The common types of corn grown in West Africa are flint, sweet, and dent. Description (1,2,3,7) Type: Annual. Habit: All types are upright. Flint corn has coarse, succulent stems, large leaves, matures relatively early, and is hardy and strong with deep‐reaching root systems. Sweet corn has leaves that clasp at the base of the plant, curving downward, with fibrous roots and special prop roots near the ground. Dent corn has coarse, succulent leaves and stems that are excellent for silage and deep‐
penetrating root systems that aid the plants in combating drought. Height: Flint and dent corn can obtain heights of 3.5m, sweet corn 2.5m. 138 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Flowering and Pollination: Pollen falls from the male flowers of the tassel. The “shucks” in the axils of the leaves enclose the seeds, and from them hang the stigmas of the female flowers (silks). Each silk is joined to a grain within the shuck. The pollen tubes grow inside the silk. The silk becomes sticky and catches the pollen that falls from the male flowers. The tassels mature before the silks, promoting cross‐pollination. Pollen can, and often will, fall on the silks of the same plant. Stems: Usually single, simple, and solid. Leaves: Alternate and simple; blade are linear and tapering, 30–150cm × 5–
15cm, with smooth margins and pronounced midribs. Flowers: Male and female inflorescences separate on the same plant; male inflorescence (‘tassel’) is up to 40cm long, lateral branches with paired spikelets between 8–13mm long, female inflorescence is a modified spike, usually 1–
3/plant in leaf axils about half way up the stem containing a single superior ovary and a long threadlike style and stigma (‘silk’) up to 45 cm in length and emerging from the top of the inflorescence, receptive throughout most of its length. Seeds: Seed formation occurs after the pollen is transported through the pollen tube, with one seed being formed for each strand of silk. Seeds are typically mature 4 to 6 weeks after fertilization. Growth and Development (2,4) Germination: Under favorable conditions, seeds begin to germinate in 4‐5 days. Maturity: Plants reach maturity in 12‐14 weeks (green) or 15‐17 weeks (dry). Yield: Early crops may yield 1,300‐2,200 kg/ha. Late varieties may yield 720‐
1,100 kg/ha. Environment (1,5) Rainfall: Prefers a range of 760 to 1,500mm; however, it is capable of withstanding 380‐500mm of precipitation, if it is spread out evenly throughout the season. Altitude: In the tropics, will thrive up to an elevation of 1,200‐1,500m. Temperature: Grows best at temperatures ranging from 24‐30° C. Temperatures higher than 32°C interfere with plant physiological processes. Soils: Corn is capable of growing in most soils, except pure clay or sand. It prefers sandy loams, forest, or alluvial soils that are rich in humus. It does not do well in excessively wet soils. Tolerance: Not tolerant of excessive rain (2,500‐5,000mm). 139 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Cultural (1,2) Planting: Preparing the land for the planting of corn m include clearing the bush, leveling the ground, and working the soil with a hoe or bullock and plow. The time of planting varies by location and climatic changes. Planting usually begins after the first rains have fallen. Seeds are typically selected from seed that has been carefully stored from the previous year. Three of four seeds are planted in holes 8‐10cm apart, with rows 90‐120 rows apart. Planting may occur on flat ground, but ridge‐
planting is more typical. Thinning and Weeding: Light hand‐cultivation should occur following germination to reduce water loss through competition. Weeds are typically removed at this point through the use of small hand tools. When the stand is ~30cm in height, weak plants are removed, leaving one or two. Nutrient Additives: When available or affordable, nitrogenous and phosphorus fertilizers are used to increase productivity and yields. Harvesting: In West Africa, the majority of harvesting is done through the use of hand tools (machetes) during the mature stage for human consumption. The remainder is left to dry, when it is separated from the cob through hand‐twisting or beating lightly with sticks. Storage: One of the main problems surrounding the production of corn in West Africa is the lack of adequate storage systems for the crop. Dried corn (still on the cob) is often packed in jute sacks and placed on raised jute sacks under cover. This method makes the crop very vulnerable to attack from weevils. Another method is to store the sacks above the cooking area, where the weevils and insects may be deterred by the smoke. Treatment of the grain with insecticide prior to storage is also an option, if affordable and available. In many areas, cooperatives are working with local farmers on the construction of household silos, using local materials. This is promising, as corn is an ideal silage crop. Damaging Agents (4) Fungus: Smut (Ustilago zeae) is a fungus which attacks the leaves and stems, forming tubers of black spores. Control is to uproot and burn infected plants. Rust (Puccinia polysora) may cause spotting and death of the leaves. This may be very serious in some years, especially in the later planted early crop. Some resistance to this is evident. Leaf spot (Physoderma) may also attack the lower leaves. Control may occur through rotation. Virus: Streak (thought to be Cicadulina) may cause yellow streaking of the leaves and plant deformation and stunting. Control involves uprooting and burning affected plants. Insects: Army worms may be very serious some seasons on young corn plants. Stem borers may also prove injurious in the late season maize. Control for both may be obtained through destroying infected material, practicing crop rotation, and through the use of appropriate insecticides. Weevils always prove troublesome during storage. Though many local practices may be used, the most effective method has been to treat seeds with insecticidal dust, prior to storage. 140 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Seeds: Corn is typically ground and boiled or roasted on the cob; the grains may be cooked fresh or dry with beans or the dry grains can be made into popcorn and eaten with roasted groundnuts. It can also be made into a pap to for use in feeding young children and invalids. Uses Plants: The plants can be fed to farm animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats when it is young and fresh. It can also be cut fresh and prepared as silage for use later in the season. Dried plants may serve as a source of fuel for use in cooking. Nutrition (6) Starch provides up to 72‐73% of the kernel weight of corn. After starch, the next largest chemical component of the kernel is protein, which varies from about 8‐
11%. The nutritional quality of corn as a food is determined by the amino acid make‐up of its protein. The oil content of corn comes mainly from the germ and ranges from 3‐18%. Corn also serves as a source of dietary fiber, minerals, and such vitamins as carotenoids, vitamin A, thiamine, and riboflavin. Protected homegardens provide many fruits and vegetables for both consumption and sale. (Frederick) 141 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Zingiber officinale Common Name: Ginger This herb is a native of tropical Asia, but is widely cultivated throughout the tropics of the world (including West Africa). While medicinal ginger comes from dried rhizome, the green root is utilized in the flavoring of various foods and beverages. Description (1,2) Type: Annual tuber rhizome. Habit: Reedlike; leaves to 20cm in length and 2 cm wide, slender and arising from a coarse, irregular, tuberous rhizome; both leaves and rhizomes are strongly aromatic. Height: Can be greater than 1m. Flowers: Flower six months from planting; flowers are borne on dense spikes; up to 5cm long; may be pale green with yellow margins; may be spotted with purple or yellow, with the lip usually being purple. Fruit: An oblong capsule that breaks open irregularly Growth and Development (2) Germination: New plants are propagated from “hands” that are sliced from overwintered plants. Maturity: Crop is mature when the leaves have dried off the crop. Yield: May yield between 7.5‐12.5 metric tons/ha. This equates to ~2‐3 metric tons of dry ginger. 142 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Environment (2) Rainfall: Requires ~1m of rain/annum. Altitude: Capable of thriving in any elevation, up to 1,200m. Soils: Requires rich organic soil or effectively drained valley loam. Cultural (1,2) Planting: Done during the early rains (April‐May) using small pieces that have been dug immediately before planting from roots. Pieces with “eyes” are used. Plant 7‐10cm deep and 40‐50cm apart on small ridges. Mulching is done immediately after planting. Requires ~600 kg/ha for planting. Harvesting: Occurs after the live stem has died. The rhizomes are raised and immediately placed in water. Handling and Storage: Rhizomes are well washed and then scraped with a blunt knife, removing only the outer skin and keeping the “hands” wet. These are kept as large as possible and washed again in 6 changes of water, then dried in the sun on clean, raised mats. They should be turned 3 or 4 times a day and will be dry in 3‐4 days. When dry, curing is done by soaking in water for 4 minutes, then washing for 3 minutes and drying for 6‐7 hours. This curing is repeated 3 times with “yellow” ginger and 6 times with “white” ginger. Damaging Agents: The two main constraints in the production of ginger are the diseases of rhizome rot caused by Pythium sp. and a bacterial wilt caused by Pseudomonas solanacearum (3). 143 A Farmer’s Friend | Crops Grains are measured out carefully into head­pans and transported on market day. (Frederick) Millet beer is a centerpiece of sustenance and social events in some areas of West Africa (Frederick) 144 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Benin: Agricultural Commodities Exported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Cotton Lint 108,014
154,081
1,426
2 Cashew Nuts 48,255
31,336
649 3 Cigarettes 772
7,079
9,170
4 Oil of Palm 9,900
6,500
657 5 Cotton Seed Cake 55,600
5,600
101 6 Sheanuts 21,917
4,732
216 7 Oil of Palm Kernels 5,200
3,500
673 8 Cottonseed 27,027
3,457
128 9 Oilseeds 8,914
2,699
303 10 Pineapples 1,210
2,207
1,824
11 Cotton Seed Oil 2,528
1,977
782 12 Palm Kernels 5,500
972
177 13 Tomato Paste 992
685
691 14 Seeds Fruits Spores
8
671
83,875
15 Cotton Waste 1,020
476
467 16 Soybean Cake 1,489
463
311 17 Palm Kernel Cake 7,000
450
64 18 Cigars Cheroots 45
274
6,089
19 Tobacco Products 28
271
9,679
20 Shelled Cashew Nuts 279
221
792 Total 305,698Mt
227,651
Benin: Agricultural Commodities Imported (2006) Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) 1 Milled Patty Rice 439,427 115,917
264 2 Tomato Paste 29,073
36,998
1,273 3 Chicken Meat 28,336
26,622
940 4 Turkey Meat 22,867
23,471
1,026 5 Oil of Palm 34,791
20,922
601 6 Prepared Food nes 5,491
14,734
2,683 7 Wheat Flour 20,287
9,675
477 8 Refined Sugar 31,987
9,600
300 9 Meat nes 16,662
8,909
535 10 Cigarettes 952
7,693
8,081 11 Broken Rice 30,270
7,550
249 12 Tobacco Products nes 2,500
7,542
3,017 13 Cattle 15,000 (Head)
7,500
500 14 Dry Whole Cow Milk 2,890
6,780
2,346 15 Malt Extracted Food Preparation Flour
6,135
5,944
969 16 Evaporated Whole Milk 2,792
5,080
1,819 17 Macaroni 8,505
4,847
570 18 Wine 3,790
4,757
1,255 19 Distilled Alcoholic Beverages 2,100
4,588
2,185 Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 20 Barley Beer 4,477
3,987
891 Total 693,332Mt
15,000 Head 333,116
145 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Burkina Faso: Agricultural Commodities Exported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Cotton Lint 178,741
264,145
1,478 2 Sesame Seed 18,107
10,043
555 3 Cigarettes 720
7,559
10,499 4 Refined Sugar 7,900
4,820
610 5 Maize 58,033
4,105
71 6 Cattle 18,668 (head)
3,114
167 7 Cotton Seed Oil 3,187
2,901
910 8 Cotton Seed 23,218
2,318
100 9 Shelled Brazil Nuts 4,500
1,666
370 10 Cocoa Beans 11,748
1,531
130 11 Prepared Food nes 237
1,098
4,633 12 Cashew Nuts 5,089
1,044
205 13 Cotton Waste 1,102
965
876 14 Dehydrated Vegetables 953
954
1,001 15 Sheep 46,534 (head)
945
20 16 Tropical Fresh Fruit
1,349
899
666 17 Sheanuts 11,891
854
72 18 Millet 7,121
601
84 19 Distilled Alcoholic Beverages 408
560
1,373 20 Vegetable Oil 448
423
944 Total 334,752Mt
65,202 Head 310,545
Burkina Faso: Agricultural Commodities Imported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Tobacco Products nes 2,711
36,199
13,353
2 Milled Patty Rice 92,052
19,370
210 3 Broken Rice 80,593
17,217
214 4 Prepared Food 4,473
7,202
1,610 5 Wheat Flour 16,750
6,128
366 6 Kola Nuts 7,848
5,046
643 7 Barley Malt 5,361
5,005
934 8 Refined Sugar 14,701
4,949
337 9 Dry Whole Cow Milk 1,216
3,846
3,163 10 Coffee Extracts 456
3,498
7,671 11 Oil of Palm 5,363
3,403
635 12 Fatty Acids Oils 431.31 5,531
3,268
591 13 Husked Rice 6,743
2,491
369 14 Cigarettes 190
2,410
12,684
15 Wine 3,622
2,262
625 16 Macaroni 5,649
2,235
396 17 Cocoa Beans 1,266
1,931
1,525 18 Hydrogenated Oils 2,024
1,920
949 19 Distilled Alcoholic Beverages 3,441
1,730
503 20 Wheat 5,858
1,674
286 Total 265,848Mt
131,784
146 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Cote d’Ivoire: Agricultural Commodities Exported (2006) Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Cocoa Beans 947,858
1,500,000
1,583
2 Cocoa Paste 126,064
274, 883
2,181
3 Cocoa Butter 66,512
208,373
3,133
4 Bananas 227,225
170,418
750 5 Cotton Lint 112,712
154,651
1,372
6 Natural Dry Rubber 121,336
146,337
1,206
7 Cocoa Powder and Cake 77,825
138,573
1,781
8 Pineapples 153,860
115,383
750 9 Green Coffee 142,082
105,504
743 10 Cashew Nuts 115,925
71,020
613 11 Coffee Extracts 4,160
22,075
5,306
12 Palm Oil 34,511
18,834
546 13 Tobacco Products nes 1,491
18,152
12,174
14 Chocolate Products nes 9,416
17,170
1,823
15 Prepared Food nes 6,635
14,588
2,199
16 Mangoes 11,460
13,356
1,165
17 Cottonseed 65,237
12,915
198 18 Nuts nes 6,033
10,666
1,768
19 Natural Rubber 5,874
8,088
1,377
20 Refined Sugar 10,800
8,010
742 Total 2,247,016Mt
3,028,996
Cote d’Ivoire: Agricultural Commodities Imported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Milled Patty Rice 701,631
172,636
246 2 Tobacco Leaves 7,865
94,982
12,077
3 Cattle 140,000 (Head)
50,000
357 4 Wheat 214,466
45,608
213 5 Broken Rice 147,659
38,020
257 6 Dry Whole Cow Milk 10,745
28,007
2,607
7 Prepared Food nes 9,246
27,708
2,997
8 Tomato Paste 20,569
22,894
1,113
9 Wheat Flour 41,312
14,712
356 10 Wine 14,834
11,818
797 11 Olive Oil 3,124
10,212
3,269
12 Refined Sugar 46,479
9,325
201 13 Edible Pig Offals 21,953
8,685
396 14 Evaporated Whole Milk 5,543
7,851
1,416
15 Chicken Meat 10,051
7,700
766 16 Husked Rice 19,031
6,869
361 17 Edible Cattle Offals 9,265
6,676
721 18 Malt of Barley 17,916
6,568
367 19 Sheep 70,000 (Head)
6,000
86 20 Cigarettes 257
5,634
21,922
Total 1,301,946 Mt
210,000 Head 581,905
147 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Gambia: Agricultural Commodities Exported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Refined Sugar 60,000 12,000
200 2 Groundnut Oil 7,200 4,500
625 3 Shelled Groundnuts 7,000 1,600
229 4 Mangoes 593 969
1,634 5 Sesame Seed 1,008 751
745 6 Cotton Lint 530 594
1,121 7 Groundnut Cakes 2,359 451
191 8 Frozen Vegetables 149 426
2,859 9 Cigarettes 24 359
14,958 10 Nuts nes 342 201
588 11 Fresh Vegetables 76 117
1,539 12 Vegetable Oil 146 49
336 13 Wet, Salted Cattle Hides 40 48
1,200 14 Prepared Food nes 87 45
517 15 Dry, Salted Calves Skin 14 42
3,000 16 Raw Sugar 210 25
119 17 Tea 15 24
1,600 18 Maize 160 18
112 19 Prepared Fruit 45 15
333 20 Linseed Oil 26 15
577 Total 80,024Mt
22,249
Gambia: Agricultural Commodities Imported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Refined Sugar 142,877
30,000
210 2 Wheat Flour 51,603
14,477
281 3 Prepared Food nes 6,474
14,100
2,178 4 Tomato Paste 12,744
11,882
932 5 Palm Oil 25,200
11,500
456 6 Cigarettes 578
8,778
15,187 7 Tea 4,013
7,685
1,915 8 Dry, Whole Cow Milk 2,416
5,951
2,463 9 Broken Rice 17,183
4,957
288 10 Margarine + Shortening 5,086
4,621
909 11 Linseed Oil 23,067
3,876
168 12 Confectionary Sugar 2,604
3,249
1,248 13 Soybean Oil 4,900
3,000
612 14 Milled Paddy Rice 10,857
2,878
265 15 Chicken Meat 3,782
2,850
754 16 Malt Extracted Food Preparation Flour
2,635
2,415
917 17 Vegetable Oil 2,360
2,331
988 18 Coffee Extracts 210
2,084
9,924 19 Non‐Alcoholic Beverages 2,713
1,913
705 20 Canned Chicken Meat 840
1,907
2,270 Total 322,142Mt
140,454
148 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Ghana: Agricultural Commodities Exported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Cocoa Beans 476,087
812,643
1,707 2 Refined Sugar 280,600
83,000
296 3 Pineapples 55,778
67,943
1,218 4 Cocoa Butter 13,693
45,773
3,343 5 Cocoa Paste 20,361
41,614
2,044 6 Oil Palm 62,000
22,500
363 7 Cashew Nuts 30,702
19,690
641 8 Cocoa Powder and Paste 11,023
15,622
1,417 9 Dry, Natural Rubber 9,273
10,972
1,183 10 Cotton Lint 7,225
10,579
1,464 11 Fresh Vegetables 5,867
9,582
1,633 12 Cocoa Shells and Husks 18,750
8,834
471 13 Shelled Groundnuts 12,659
8,102
640 14 Roots and Tuber nes
9,387
7,745
825 15 Vegetable Oil 4,754
4,340
913 16 Evaorated Whole Milk 3,510
4,321
1,231 17 Oilseeds nes 13,749
3,454
251 18 Papayas 1,876
3,101
1,653 19 Yams 3,655
2,779
760 20 Kola Nuts 4,626
2,779
601 Total 1,045,575Mt
1,185,373
Ghana: Agricultural Commodities Imported (2006) Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Cotton Lint 158,276
264,759
1,673 2 Milled Paddy Rice 384,368
108,411
282 3 Refined Sugar 472,630
99,500
211 4 Tomato Paste 64,810
68,500
1,057 5 Palm Oil 93,700
59,000
630 6 Cattle 65,000 (Head)
55,000
846 7 Wheat 250,000
41,000
164 8 Chicken Meat 44,851
34,657
773 9 Prepared Food nes 5,315
23,153
4,356 10 Dry, Skimmed Cow Milk 9,413
20,451
2,173 11 Malt Extracted Food Preparation Flour
15,239
18,641
1,223 12 Tea 9,663
18,546
1,919 13 Margarine + Shortening 21,238
18,091
852 14 Broken Rice 59,261
15,232
257 15 Pastry 9,175
12,399
1,351 16 Non Alcoholic Beverages 13,404
12,029
897 17 Maize 50,000
10,000
200 18 Dry, Whole Cow Milk 3,634
9,976
2,745 19 Confectionary Sugar 7,009
9,932
1,417 20 Cigarettes 1,005
9,144
9,099 Total 1,672,991Mt
65,000 Head 908,421
149 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Guinea: Agricultural Commodities Exported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Green Coffee 17,616
12,809
727 2 Dry, Natural Rubber 10,082
11,783
1,169 3 Cattle 15,000 (Head)
11,000
733 4 Cocoa Beans 7,033
8,601
1,223 5 Wheat Bran 14,450
1,415
98 6 Sheep 20,000 (Head)
1,000
50 7 Cotton Lint 620
804
1,297 8 Pineapples 444
778
1,752 9 Goats 15,000 (Head)
600
40 10 Cotton Seed 1,734
355
205 11 Cashew Nuts 429
326
760 12 Wheat Flour 7,800
319
41 13 Wheat 2,008
291
145 14 Mangoes 561
196
349 15 Cigarettes 1
179
179,000
16 Natural Rubber 132
179
1,356 17 Palm Oil 290
132
455 18 Wet, Salted Cattle Hides 195
122
626 19 Beeswax 34
119
3,500 20 Barley Beer 123
69
561 Total 63,552Mt
50,000 Head 50,898
Guinea: Agricultural Commodities Imported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Cigarettes 4,058
37,676
9,284 2 Milled Patty Rice 95,385
25,000
262 3 Prepared Food nes
4,864
18,216
3,745 4 Refined Sugar 74,850
17,200
230 5 Wheat Flour 44,032
14,679
333 6 Distilled Alcoholic Beverages 1,993
12,814
6,430 7 Tomato Paste 8,430
10,210
1,211 8 Palm Oil 23,900
9,500
397 9 Wheat 51,056
9,044
177 10 Margarine + Shortening 5,179
5,033
972 11 Dry, Whole Cow Milk 1,404
3,518
2,506 12 Malt Extracted Food Preparation Flour
4,376
3,483
796 13 Pastry 2,490
3,188
1,280 14 Hydrogenated Flour 2,747
3,109
1,132 15 Dry Onions 15,226
2,936
193 16 Cereal Flour 10,764
2,744
255 17 Tea 1,025
2,197
2,143 18 Chicken Meat 2,182
2,075
951 19 Confectionary Sugar 1,517
1,928
1,271 20 Non‐alcoholic Beverages 2,677
1,747
653 Total 358,155Mt
186,297
150 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Guinea‐Bissau: Agricultural Commodities Exported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Cashew Nuts 80,854
61,649
762 2 Cotton Lint 176
238
1,352 3 Cotton Seed 1,692
238
141 4 Distilled Alcoholic Beverages 45
150
3,333 5 Mangoes 32
59
1,844 6 Fresh Vegetables nes 32
36
1,125 7 Palm Oil 14
14
1,000 8 Barley Beer 11
6
545 9 Fresh Fruit nes 2
3
1,500 10 Pineapples 4
2
500 Total 82,862Mt
62,395
Guinea‐Bissau: Agricultural Commodities Imported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Broken Rice 33,173
10,820
326 2 Wheat Flour 14,005
4,208
300 3 Barley Beer 4,992
3,334
668 4 Prepared Food nes
2,139
3,310
1,547 5 Soybean Oil 2,465
2,400
974 6 Wine 3,505
2,274
649 7 Non‐alcoholic Beverages 2,940
2,168
737 8 Milled Paddy Rice 5,930
1,900
320 9 Refined Sugar 6,200
1,700
274 10 Chicken Meat 822
1,287
1,566 11 Margarine + Shortening 574
741
1,291 12 Dry, Whole Cow Milk 237
741
3,127 13 Cigarettes 55
729
13,255
14 Pastry 342
493
1,442 15 Tomato Paste 296
364
1,230 16 Maize 1,460
350
240 17 Waters, Ice, etc. 1,325
324
245 18 Infant Food 89
311
3,494 19 Dry Onions 1,450
291
201 20 Dry, Skim Cow Milk 90
279
3,100 Total 15,743Mt
38,024
151 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Liberia: Agricultural Commodities Exported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Natural Dry Rubber 111,500
92,000
825 2 Cocoa Beans 1,764
2,365
1,341 3 Wheat 2,926
471
161 4 Green Coffee 396
338
854 5 Milled Paddy Rice 2,000
317
158 6 Palm Kernel Cakes 1,200
110
92 7 Wheat Bran 1,165
99
85 8 Oil of Palm 157
97
618 9 Beef and Veal 32
88
2,750 10 Tobacco Leaves 35
44
1,257 11 Tea 53
42
792 12 Distilled Alcoholic Beverages 14
34
2,429 13 Oil of Palm Kernels
44
15
341 14 Tobacco Products nes 2
14
7,000 15 Tomatoes 7
1
143 Total 121,295Mt
96,035
Liberia: Agricultural Commodities Imported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Milled Paddy Rice 100,000
22,000
220 2 Breakfast Cereals 37,315
10,779
289 3 Wheat 48,310
7,300
151 4 Cigarettes 482
6,515
13,517
5 Prepared Food nes
1,246
6,177
4,957 6 Wheat Flour 15,895
5,700
359 7 Vegetable Oil 4,085
4,600
1,126 8 Oil of Palm 6,765
4,414
652 9 Chicken Meat 6,410
3,498
546 10 Maize Flour 11,643
2,800
240 11 Pastry 1,677
2,587
1,543 12 Dry, Whole Cow Milk 762
2,406
3,157 13 Pulses nes 6,660
2,400
360 14 Soybean Cakes 7,681
2,056
268 15 Pig Meat Sausage 2,048
1,973
963 16 Potatoes 3,188
1,803
566 17 Hen Eggs 1,700
1,789
1,052 18 Margarine + Shortening 1,866
1,784
956 19 Confectionary Sugar 1,278
1,672
1,308 20 Refined Sugar 5,589
1,665
298 Total 264,600Mt
93,918
152 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Mali: Agricultural Commodities Exported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Cotton Lint 206,840
207,000
1,001 2 Cattle 230,000 (Head)
81,000
352 3 Sheep 300,000 (Head)
18,000
60 4 Goats 150,000 (Head)
7,500
50 5 Groundnut Oil 6,400
6,100
953 6 Cotton Seed Cakes 26,100
4,600
176 7 Mangoes 2,164
3,507
1621 8 Cotton Seed 12,000
2,100
175 9 Wheat Flour 13,288
1,301
98 10 Tobacco Leaves 53
1,107
20,887
11 Shelled Groundnuts 2,200
1,000
455 12 Green Beans 160
438
2,738 13 Sweet Potatoes 2,000
400
200 14 Dry, Salted Goatskins 276
372
1,348 15 Arabic Gum 479
337
704 16 Hide nes 4
300
75,000
17 Fresh Vegetables 165
235
1,424 18 Prepared Food nes
135
219
1,622 19 Sesame Seed 322
204
634 20 Prepared Vegetables 198
168
848 Total 272,724Mt
680,000 (Head) 335,888
Mali: Agricultural Commodities Imported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Prepared Food 6,056
18,698
3,088 2 Preparation Flour 8,156
15,851
1,941 3 Dry, Whole Cow Milk 5,530
15,708
2,841 4 Tea 7,506
14,833
1,976 5 Cigarettes 763
14,002
18,351
6 Broken Rice 33,286
10,782
324 7 Wheat Flour 30,628
9,664
316 8 Refined Sugar 26,987
6,506
241 9 Tomato Paste 3,747
4,265
1,138 10 Wheat 23,413
4,144
177 11 Macaroni 5,269
3,280
623 12 Cattle 7,000 (hd)
2,500
357 13 Confectionery Sugar 1,191
1,620
1,360 14 Cheese (Whole Cow Milk) 171
1,321
7,725 15 Potatoes 1,730
1,167
675 16 Distilled Alcoholic Beverages 131
1,076
8,214 17 Tobacco Products nes 162
1,005
6,204 18 Milled Paddy Rice 6,880
1,000
145 19 Pastry 666
955
1,434 20 Hydrogenated Oils
1,097
917
836 Total 163,369Mt
7,000 (hd) 129,294
153 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Mauritania: Agriculture Commodities Exported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Fish Meal 30,200
16,000
530 2 Sheep 200,000 (Head)
9,000
45 3 Goats 120,000 (Head)
5,500
46 4 Camels 36,000 (Head)
2,700
75 5 Arabic Gum 348
1412
4,057 6 Sheep Skin with Wool 190
307
1,616 7 Dry, Salted Sheep Skin 91
145
1,593 8 Dry, Salted Goat Skin 31
88
2,839 9 Preserved Olives 67
46
687 10 Dry, Salted Cattle Hides 12
40
3,333 11 Fish and Marine Mammal Oils 95
28
295 12 Macaroni 32
28
875 13 Dry, Skim Cow Milk 12
27
2,250 14 Prepared Food 14
23
1,643 15 Refined Sugar 42
21
500 16 Tea 11
18
1,636 17 Food Wastes 25
10
400 18 Dry Onions 46
10
217 19 Dried Salt‐Smoked Beef 9
6
667 20 Wet, Salted Cattle Hides 4
3
750 Total 31,229Mt
356,000 Head 35,412
Mauritania: Agricultural Commodities Imported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Cigarettes 9,870
66,325
6,720 2 Refined Sugars 189,840
40,121
211 3 Oil of Palm 33,400
32,000
958 4 Wheat 148,509
25,349
171 5 Tea 8,997
22,416
2,491 6 Wheat Flour 57,240
19,839
347 7 Dry, Whole Cow Milk 4,781
10,987
2,298 8 Whole, Fresh Cow Milk 13,595
10,634
782 9 Milled Paddy Rice 19,576
10,570
540 10 Malt Extracted Food Preparation Flour
5,310
9,115
1,717 11 Tomato Paste 8,365
9,091
1,087 12 Prepared Food nes
2,863
7,831
2,735 13 Cereals nes 20,387
5,934
291 14 Evaporated Whole Milk 4,704
5,536
1,177 15 Chicken Meat 4,170
5,342
1,281 16 Potatoes 22,030
4,342
197 17 Non‐Alcoholic Beverages 5,425
3,718
685 18 Dry Onions 18,263
3,702
203 19 Cow Milk Butter 1,174
3,200
2,726 20 Broken Rice 10,500
2,885
275 Total 588,999Mt
298,937
154 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Niger: Agricultural Commodities Exported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Goats 308,752 (Head)
8,443
27 2 Cigarettes 799
4,842
6,060 3 Asses 4,347 (Head)
2,420
557 4 Green Beans 2,890
1,371
474 5 Roots and Tubers nes 2,702
1,339
496 6 Cotton Lint 897
1,214
1,353 7 Fresh or Dried Vegetable Produce 3,359
1,190
354 8 Oilseeds nes 3,301
1,176
356 9 Milled Paddy Rice 2,765
772
279 10 Groundnut Oil 959
631
658 11 Oil of Palm 1,819
533
293 12 Pulses 664
296
446 13 Refined Sugar 898
277
308 14 Sesame Seed 463
270
583 15 Wet, Salted Goat Skins 167
144
862 16 Shelled Groundnuts 403
141
350 17 Cattle 308 (Head)
137
445 18 White/Long/Black Pepper 743
129
174 19 Cow Milk Butter 77
108
1,403 20 Leeks and Other Vegetables 505
105
208 Total 23,411Mt
313,407 Head 25,538
Niger: Agricultural Commodities Imported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Cigarettes 3,661
32,224
8,802 2 Oil of Palm 39,000
20,000
513 3 Dry, Whole Cow Milk 3,917
9,405
2,401 4 Prepared Food nes
2,888
6,153
2,131 5 Wheat Flour 18,920
6,054
320 6 Macaroni 9,291
5,858
631 7 Tea 2,129
5,447
2,558 8 Palm Kernel Cakes 85,275
5,247
62 9 Tomato Paste 4,161
5,139
1,235 10 Milled Paddy Rice 15,691
4,660
297 11 Refined Sugar 13,628
4,169
306 12 Maize 47,330
3,416
72 13 Tallow 4,500
3,300
733 14 Coconut Oil 3,700
2,652
717 15 Cotton Seed Oil 4,317
2,306
534 16 Wheat 9,546
1,950
204 17 Hydrogenated Oils
1,501
1,659
1,105 18 Malt Extracts 1,493
1,378
923 19 Nuts nes 3,434
1,232
359 20 Vegetable Oil nes 1,429
1,080
756 Total 275,811Mt
123,329
155 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Nigeria: Agricultural Commodities Exported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Cocoa Beans 255,034
312,530
1,225
2 Natural Dry Rubber 24,000
42,000
1,750
3 Cocoa Butter 7,622
24,212
3,177
4 Cotton Lint 14,053
17,792
1,266
5 Sesame Seed 39,800
14,800
372 6 Wheat Bran 140,595
13,014
93 7 Arabic Gum 15,362
11,804
768 8 Cashew Nuts 18,789
9,923
528 9 Palm Kernel Cakes 84,600
8,500
100 10 Ginger 4,853
6,114
1,260
11 Cocoa Powder and Cake 2,774
4,473
1,612
12 Fresh or Dried Vegetable Produce
2,876
3,555
1,236
13 Oil of Palm 5,000
3,500
700 14 Cotton Seed 12,600
2,800
222 15 Groundnut Oil 4,000
2,800
700 16 Cotton Seed Cakes 12,800
2,700
211 17 Soybeans 10,000
2,500
250 18 Natural Rubber 966
1,688
1,747
19 Barley Beer 1,116
1,266
1,134
20 Palm Kernels 6,200
1,250
202 Total 633,040Mt
487,221
Nigeria: Agricultural Commodities Imported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Wheat 2,608,947
475,983
182 2 Milled Paddy Rice 1,350,000
297,000
220 3 Dry, Whole Cow Milk 70,442
191,516
2,719
4 Oil of Palm 180,000
180,000
1,000
5 Refined Sugar 711,303
163,335
230 6 Cattle 350,000 (Head)
160,000
457 7 Prepared Food nes 19,390
105,829
5,458
8 Raw Sugar 548,819
90,241
164 9 Tomato Paste 51,249
66,976
1,307
10 Cigarettes 4,414
55,085
12,480
11 Evaporated Whole Milk 22,104
47,260
2,138
12 Tallow 72,900
41,000
562 13 Dry, Skim Whole Milk 15,860
37,333
2,354
14 Infant Food 6,121
34,131
5,576
15 Tobacco Leaves 8,496
30,848
3,631
16 Non‐food Purpose Alcohol 87,474
27,278
312 17 Barley Malt 62,262
25,288
406 18 Goats 380,000 (Head)
25,000
66 19 Sheep 400,000 (Head)
25,000
62 20 Distilled Alcoholic Beverages 2,805
16,810
5,993
Total 5,822,586Mt
1,130,000 (Head) 2,095,913
156 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Senegal: Agricultural Commodities Exported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Cotton Lint 18,780
29,002
1,544 2 Groundnut Oil 22,700
25,967
1,144 3 Prepared Food 9,073
25,705
2,833 4 Broken Rice 76,207
22,130
290 5 Malt Extracts 5,335
11,406
2,138 6 Cigarettes 707
6,166
8,721 7 Green Beans 6,434
5,285
821 8 Tobacco Products nes 528
5,163
9,778 9 Tomatoes 5,068
4,587
905 10 Groundnut cakes 14,894
4,088
274 11 Dry, Whole Cow Milk 1,286
3,218
2,502 12 Mangoes 4,895
3,155
645 13 Pastry 2,151
2,484
1,155 14 Other Resins 900
2,240
2,489 15 Tobacco Leaves 350
2,143
6,123 16 Food Wastes 13,257
2,092
158 17 Coffee Extracts 215
1,844
8,577 18 Wet, Salted Cattle Hides 2,431
1,620
666 19 Dry, Skim Cow Milk 619
1,608
2,598 20 Molasses 29,619
1,434
48 Total 215,449Mt
161,337
Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) Senegal: Agricultural Commodities Imported (2006) Value Ranking Commodity 1 Broken Rice 799,863
236,494
296 2 Wheat 313,777
78,595
250 3 Dry Whole Cow Milk 23,535
52,657
2,237 4 Soybean Oil 72,420
46,918
648 5 Prepared Food nes
19,204
43,789
2,280 6 Malt Extract 23,558
39,110
1,660 7 Tobacco Leaves 2,669
26,417
9,898 8 Chicken Meat 14,051
25,209
1,794 9 Oil of Palm 37,470
23,649
631 10 Sheep 195,000
18,000
92 11 Goats 185,000
14,500
78 12 Dry Onion 76,341
14,107
185 13 Maize 64,340
13,231
206 14 Tallow 26,005
11,665
449 15 Fat Preparations nes 4,341
9,469
2,181 16 Refined Sugar 21,331
8,128
381 17 Potatoes 42,389
8,124
192 18 Confectionary Sugar 6,628
7,391
1,115 19 Wine 8,904
7,028
789 20 Tea 5,246
6,991
1,333 Total 1,942,072Mt
691,472
Quantity (Mt) 157 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Sierra Leone: Agricultural Commodities Exported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Cocoa Beans 7,387
10,428
1,412 2 Cigarettes 100
600
6,000 3 Green Coffee 950
592
623 4 Rice Bran 6,500
550
85 5 Kola Nuts 500
400
800 6 Wheat Bran 2,785
330
118 7 Palm Kernel Cakes 1,400
140
100 8 Non‐Alcoholic Beverages 49
139
2,837 9 Fiber Crops nes 286
81
283 10 Cassava Tapioca 300
70
233 11 Pastry 49
59
1,204 12 Prepared Vegetables nes 122
44
361 13 Tobacco Leaves 11
38
3,455 14 Spices nes 9
27
3,000 15 Coconuts 45
22
489 16 Oil of Palm 23
20
870 17 Bread 2
4
2,000 18 Confectionary Sugar 1
3
3,000 19 Refined Sugar 7
2
286 20 Sesame Seed 1
1
1,000 Total 20,527Mt
13,550
Sierra Leone: Agricultural Commodities Imported (2006) Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Cigarettes 935
11,570
12,374
2 Prepared Food nes
3,923
9,050
2,307 3 Refined Sugar 34,428
7,449
216 4 Cattle 15,000
7,000
467 5 Milled Paddy Rice 14,620
4,520
309 6 Breakfast Cereals 10,746
4,499
419 7 Wheat Flour 14,530
4,390
302 8 Wheat 25,000
4,100
164 9 Dry Whole Cow Milk 1,339
3,941
2,943 10 Oil of Palm 5,162
3,418
662 11 Barley Beer 3,852
3,357
878 12 Wholemeal Bulgur
14,339
3,000
209 13 Malt Extracted Food Preparation Flour
5,544
2,600
469 14 Sheep 40,000
2,500
62 15 Non‐Alcoholic Beverages 3,655
2,409
659 16 Vegetable Oil 2,985
2,400
804 17 Chicken Meat 3,133
2,384
761 18 Buckwheat 8,735
2,373
272 19 Dry Beans 2,815
2,300
817 20 Margarine + Shortening 2,358
2,248
953 Total 158,072Mt
55,000 Head 85,508
158 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Togo: Agricultural Commodities Exported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Cotton Lint 35,406
49,042
1,385
2 Cocoa Beans 28,812
24,822
862
3 Carded, Combed Cotton 8,130
10,395
1,279
4 Wheat Flour 16,985
8,351
492
5 Oil of Palm 10,049
5,562
553
6 Dry Whole Cow Milk
1,974
3,922
1,987
7 Non‐alcoholic Beverages 6,267
3,720
594
8 Confectionary Sugar
2,417
2,826
1,169
9 Green Coffee 3,980
2,764
694
10 Cotton Seed Cake 16,593
2,652
160
11 Vegetable Oil 7,467
2,290
307
12 Cotton Seed 22,783
2,263
99
13 Barley Beer 2,670
2,248
842
14 Yogurt 2,694
2,036
756
15 Food Prepared nes 2,369
682
288
16 Cotton Seed Oil 997
657
659
17 Wheat Bran 11,134
508
46
18 Cashew Nuts 1,058
493
466
19 Cigarettes 78
473
6,064
20 Wine 191
446
2,335
Total 182,054Mt
126,152
Togo: Agricultural Commodities Imported (2006)
Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Wheat 73,511
16,922
230
2 Cigarettes 1,925
16,283
8,459
3 Sheanuts 17,396
13,222
760
4 Oil of Palm 46,967
11,260
240
5 Prepared Food nes 12,341
5,194
421
6 Barley Malt 4,422
3,320
751
7 Refined Sugar 31,090
2,993
96
8 Broken Rice 27,432
2,216
78
9 Tomato Paste 7,155
2,022
283
10 Wine 6,656
1,776
267
11 Chicken Meat 2,832
1,430
505
12 Milled Paddy Rice 16,896
1,417
84
13 Pastry 3,094
1,309
423
14 Turkey Meat 2,285
1,234
540
15 Distilled Alcoholic Beverages 496
1,189
2,397
16 Confectionary Sugar
1,479
1,120
757
17 Dry Skim Cow Milk 801
1,001
1,250
18 Husked Rice 14,372
966
67
19 Evaporated Whole Milk 2,006
827
412
20 Condensed Whole Milk 2,883
760
264
Total 276,039Mt
86,461
159 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities United States of America: Agricultural Commodities Exported (2006) Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Soybeans 25,602,609
6,692,044
261
2 Maize 48,741,188
6,137,514
126
3 Wheat 31,581,449
5,180,994
164
4 Cotton Lint 2,897,907
4,251,216
1,467
5 Chicken Meat 2,343,294
1,765,632
753
6 Pig Meat 666,028
1,675,473
2,516
7 Wet, Salted Cattle Hides 513,779
1,424,435
2,772
8 Cigarettes 95,664
1,313,681
13,732
9 Shelled Almonds 257,967
1,100,196
4,265
10 Tobacco Leaves 165,781
1,054,873
6,363
11 Soybean Cakes 4,089,168
1,036,401
253
12 Pet Food 815,335
786,995
965
13 Wine 387,382
745,256
1,924
14 Distilled Alcoholic Beverages 141,435
740,712
5,237
15 Milled Paddy Rice 1,675,042
689,946
412
16 Gluten Feed and Meal 4,282,891
616,935
144
17 Grapes 391,398
591,582
1,511
18 Seeds/Fruit Spores 190,122
581,486
3,058
19 Chocolate Products nes 184,269
560,346
3,041
20 Sorghum 4,585,303
558,756
122
Total 129,608,011Mt
37,504,473
United States of America: Agricultural Commodities Imported (2006) Value Ranking Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) 1 Distilled Alcoholic Beverages 495,544
4,142,606
8,360
2 Wine 641,477
3,577,778
5,577
3 Boneless Beef and Veal 1,091,221
3,373,534
3,092
4 Barley Beer 2,798,661
2,993,125
1,069
5 Green Coffee 1,239,080
1,978,782
1,597
6 Pastry 575,048
1,461, 000
2,541
7 Natural, Dry Rubber 1,045,540
1,442,301
1,379
8 Bananas 3,881,468
1,243,502
320
9 Confectionary Sugar
544,984
1,196,596
2,196
10 Chocolate Products 452,295
1,185,521
2,621
11 Tomatoes 931,971
1,126,683
1,209
12 Prepared Fruit nes 795,324
1,038,930
1,306
13 Pig Meat 376,340
995,468
2,645
14 Non‐Alcoholic Beverages 935,802
894,561
956
15 Grapes 471,253
878,617
1,864
16 Cheese (Whole Cow Milk) 181,982
839,367
4,612
17 Olive Oil 237,112
747,137
3,151
18 Green Chillies and Peppers 445,997
742,838
1,666
19 Cocoa Beans 454,344
733,137
1,614
20 Tobacco Leaves 257,522
730,207
2,836
Total 17,852,966Mt
31,321,690
160 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Top Value Exports By Country (2006)
Country Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) Benin Cotton Lint 108,014
154,081
1,426
Burkina Faso Cotton Lint 178,741
264,145
1,478
Cote d’ Ivoire Cocoa Beans 947,858
1,500,000
1,583
Gambia Refined Sugar 60,000
12,000
200
Ghana Cocoa Beans 476,087
812,643
1,707
Guinea Green Coffee 17,616
12,809
727
Guinea‐Bissau Cashew Nuts 80,854
61,649
762
Liberia Natural Dry Rubber 111,500
92,000
825
Mali Cotton Lint 206,840
207,000
1,001
Mauritania Fish Meal 30,200
16,000
530
Niger Goats 308,752 (head)
8,443
27
Nigeria Cocoa Beans 225,034
312,530
1,225
Senegal Cotton Lint 18,780
29,002
1,544
Sierra Leone Cocoa Beans 7,387
10,428
1,412
Togo Cotton Lint 35,406
49,042
1,385
Total 2,813,069Mt
3,541,772
United States of America Soybeans 25,602,609Mt
6,692,044
261
Top Value Imports by Country (2006)
Country Commodity Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) Unit Value (USD) Benin Milled Patty Rice 439,427
115,917
264
Burkina Faso Tobacco Products 2,711
36,199
13,353
Cote d’ Ivoire Milled Patty Rice 701,631
172,636
246
Gambia Refined Sugar 142,877
30,000
210
Ghana Cotton Lint 158,276
264,759
1,673
Guinea Cigarettes 4,058
37,676
9,284
Guinea‐Bissau Broken Rice 33,173
10,820
326
Liberia Milled Patty Rice 100,000
22,000
220
Mali Prepared Food 6,056
18,698
3,088
Mauritania Cigarettes 9,870
66,325
6,720
Niger Cigarettes 3,661
32,224
8,802
Nigeria Wheat 2,608,947
475,983
182
Senegal Broken Rice 799,863
236,494
296
Sierra Leone Cigarettes 935
11,570
12,374
Togo Wheat 73,511
16,922
230
Total 5,011,485Mt
1,548,223
United States of America Distilled Alcoholic Beverages 495,544Mt
4,142,606
8,360
161 A Farmer’s Friend | Agricultural Commodities Country Ranking By Total Value of Exported Agricultural Product (2006) Ranking Country Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) 1 Cote d’ Ivoire 2,247,016
3,028,996 2 Ghana 1,045,575
1,185,373 3 Nigeria 633,040
487,221 4 Mali 272,724 Mt
680,000 Head 335,888 5 Burkina Faso 334,752 Mt 65,202 Head
310,545 6 Benin 305,698
227,651 7 Senegal 215,449
161,337 8 Togo 182,054
126,152 9 Liberia 121,295
96,035
10 Guinea‐Bissau 82,862
62,395
11 Guinea 63,552 Mt
50,000 Head 50,898
12 Mauritania 31,229 Mt
356,000 Head 35,412
13 Niger 23,411 Mt
313,407 Head 25,538
14 Gambia 80,024
22,249
15 Sierra Leone 20,527
Total United States of America 13,550
6,169,240 129,608,011Mt
37,504,473 Country Ranking By Total Value of Imported Agricultural Product (2006) Ranking Country Quantity (Mt) Value (1,000 USD) 1 Nigeria 2,095,913 2 Ghana 3 4 Senegal Cote d’ Ivoire 5 Benin 6 7 8 9 10 Mauritania Guinea Gambia Burkina Faso Mali 11 12 13 14 Niger Liberia Togo Sierra Leone 15 Total Guinea‐Bissau United States of America 5,822,586 Mt 1,130,000 Head 1,672,991 Mt 65,000 Head 1,942,072 1,301,946 Mt 210,000 Head 693,332Mt 15,000 Head 588,999 358,155 322,142 265,848 163,369 Mt 7,000 Head 275,811 264,600 276,039 158,072 Mt 55,000 Head 15,743 14,480,704 17,852,966
162 908,421 691,472 581,905 333,116 298,937 186,297 140,454 131,784 129,294 123,329 93,918 86,461 85,508 38,024 5,924,833 31,321,690 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Andropogon gayanus Common Name: Northern Gamba Andropogon gayanaus Kunth – 1. Plant part with stem and leaf; 2. Flowering stem Description A leafy, densely tillered, perennial with a height that ranges from 60–150cm at maturity. The leaves are linear to 90cm long and 5–10mm wide; blades have a scaly upper surface; sheaths are covered with short, dense, radiating hairs. The spikelets are often purplish in color. 900,000 seeds/kg. Distribution Native throughout tropical Africa, extending south to Mozambique, Botswana, Namibia and South Africa in regions with extended dry seasons. Occurs naturally in dry grasslands on sandy or clayey soils at altitudes up to 1,500m. The species has been introduced to many parts of the world, particularly to tropical America. Uses Sown as permanent pasture on commercial ranches, it can be heavily stocked during the wet growing season. This makes it a useful selection for holding pens, as it can feed a large number of cattle for a short time. It may also be cut for fresh feed. It has been used in Nigeria for reclaiming overgrazed land. Planted at 10m wide strips, A. gayanus can be beneficial in fields of millet to reduce wind erosion. The thick stems may also be used for thatch. 163 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Environment Sown as permanent pasture on commercial ranches, it can be heavily stocked during the wet growing season. This makes it a useful selection for holding pens, as it can feed a large number of cattle for a short time. It may also be cut for fresh feed. It has been used in Nigeria for reclaiming overgrazed land. Planted at 10m wide strips, A. gayanus can be beneficial in fields of millet to reduce wind erosion. The thick stems may also be used for thatch. Agronomy Establishment: Sown in rows 40cm apart at 2–4 kg/ha or planted from splits on a 40cm grid. Seed should be kept for several months after harvest before sowing. Defoliation: In a grazing system, it should be maintained between 15–20 cm and 50–60 cm in height. A grazing rotation of 1‐week active/4‐weeks inactive is place to start, adjusting according to stock class and numbers, fertilizer use and rainfall. A similar cycle should be followed for cut‐and‐carry. Compatibility: This species competes strongly for moisture and nutrients, and can have high levels of basal cover. It can also form associations with legumes if managed to meet the requirements of the legumes. Weediness: No indications of weediness. Pests and Diseases: Few pests or diseases of any consequence. Dry Matter: Yields approximately 10–20 t/ha/yr, depending on moisture and the amount of fertilizer used. May yield up to 50 t/ha of dry matter in the dry tropics with adequate N and irrigation. Production Animal Production: Cattle can gain 400 g/day in the wet season and at least maintain weight in the dry season. Seed: The seeds shed as it matures, so the loss of seed is common, particularly with high winds. Seed yields of 80–100 kg/ha are common. Direct heading can provide 75% of the harvested yield, with the threshing of windrows providing the remainder. Strengths Limitations •
•
•
•
• Not tolerant of waterlogging or poor drainage • Nutritive value declines rapidly Drought tolerant Low, dense, very leafy Palatable when young Better ground cover than P. maximum • Adapted to low P and high Al Reference: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Andropogon_gayanus.htm 164 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Axonopus compressus Common Name: Blanket Grass Axonopus compressus (Swartz) P. Beauv. ­ habit Description This species is shallow‐rooted with smooth, stolon internodes and bearded nodes. It forms a dense mat with foliage 15‐20cm tall, and flowering culms 30‐
45cm in height. The blades are shiny, flat or folded, 4‐18mm wide and 2‐16cm long with a smooth or hairy upper surface. It produces between 2.6‐3.0 million seeds per kg. Distribution Native to the America’s, this grass has become naturalized through tropical West Africa. It thrives in the moist soils of woodlands and savannas. Uses This grass is used as a permanent pasture, ground cover and turf in moist, low fertility soils, particularly in shaded situations. It is generally too low growing to be useful in cut‐and‐carry systems or for fodder conservation. Environment Soils: Adapted to well to moderately drained sandy or sandy‐loam soils, but also to light clays and peats. Thrives in acid soils with pH 5.5‐6 and has a low tolerance of salinity. Climate: Found mainly in areas with an average annual rainfall of 1,000‐
4,000mm. It is not very drought–tolerant. While preferring moist soils, it does not withstand prolonged flooding or permanently swampy conditions. Occurs 165 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops from sea level to 3,000m in areas with a range in average annual temperatures from 19‐27°C. Although it is found in the subtropics and upland tropics, it appears to be best adapted to the lowland tropics. It grows well in the shade, often forming a thick mat under dense tree canopies. It is considered a valuable ground cover under oil palm and rubber plantations. Agronomy Establishment: Commercial seed is often not available, so it is usually propagated vegetatively. When seed is available, it is broadcast onto, or shallowly sown into, a well‐prepared seed‐bed to give the best chance of establishment. Subsequent rolling helps maintain soil moisture and ensures close contact between soil and seed. The sowing rate depends on the quality of the seedbed and the desired ground cover. With a good seedbed where rate of cover is not an issue, 2‐3 kg/ha of seed is adequate. With a seedbed that is not as well prepared or where rapid cover is important, 6‐12 kg/ha may be necessary.
Defoliation: This species thrives under heavy grazing. Frequent grazing also helps to maintain it in a vegetative state.
Compatibility: As soil nitrogen levels decline and under regular defoliation, this species can successfully invade pastures, particularly if shade levels increase. Weediness: It can become a troublesome weed in the wet tropics. Pests and Diseases: It is not subject to any major diseases or insect pests, although it is attacked by grass webworm (Herpetogramma licarsisalis, Lepidoptera, Pyralidae), usually during rainy weather, and is an alternative host for Rhizoctonia solani and rice tungro spherical waikavirus. Production Dry Matter: Dry matter yields of 1‐5 t/ha have been measured. Animal Production: Average daily liveweight gain of about 0.2 kg/head/day has been measured in steers grazing over an extended period. Seed: Seed can be harvested with a stripper type harvester. Strengths Limitations •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Grows on poor soil Good ground cover Very Shade tolerant Tolerates heavy grazing Poor drought tolerance Low nutritive value Low dry‐matter yield Short growing season Reference: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Axonopus_compressus.htm 166 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Cenchrus ciliaris Common Name: Buffel Grass Cenchrus ciliaris L. – 1. Habit; 2. Ligule; 3. Inflorescence; 4. Spikelet with involucre Description This is an extremely variable tufted species, with types ranging in habit from ascendant to erect, and branching from about 0.3‐2.0m at maturity. Leaf blades are linear, 2‐13mm wide and 3‐30cm long; green, blue green to gray green in color; mostly smooth, but sometimes hairy at the base. Panicles are erect or nodding, straw, gray or purple colored, and bristly; 2‐15cm long and 1‐2.5cm wide, with seed units inserted along a zig‐zag axis. There are approximately 330,000‐550,000 seed units/kg. Deep, strong, fibrous root system to >2m. Distribution A native of Africa, this species is now naturalized throughout Asia, parts of Europe, and globally, throughout the sub‐humid, semi‐arid tropics and subtropics. Uses While mainly used as a permanent pasture species, it can also be used for hay or silage. It is not suited to short‐term pasture because it is too difficult to remove and it binds nutrients. 167 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Environment Soils: Often occurs in the wild on sandy soils, but is also well adapted to deep, freely draining sandy loam, loam, clay loam and red earth soils. Although it is slow to establish on black cracking clay soils, once established, it grows well. Requires good fertility and the optimum soil reaction is pH 7‐8. May grow on soils with a pH as low as 5.5. It is very sensitive to high levels of soil aluminum and manganese. Climate: The most drought tolerant of the commonly sown grasses, this species occurs naturally in areas with average annual rainfall 100‐1,000mm, but most commonly between 300‐750mm. It does not survive prolonged waterlogging, but the taller varieties appear to be more flood‐tolerant. Found from sea level to ~2,500m, this species has a distributional range with average annual temperatures from about 12‐28ºC. Optimum temperature for photosynthesis in varieties measured is 35ºC, and minimum between 5‐16ºC. The species is intolerant to shade.
Agronomy Establishment: Fresh seed often has a high level of dormancy. The germination rate can be improved with storage of 6‐18 months after harvest. The total live seed content is commonly 30‐50%. Establishment is difficult on hard setting and heavy clay soils. Establishes readily if competition is controlled. Sown 0‐1cm deep at 1‐2 kg/ha, the lower rate on sandy‐loam soils. It can also be established vegetatively from "splits". Defoliation: It is slow to establish and grazing may need to be delayed 4‐6 months after sowing, and up to 9‐12 months, depending on establishment conditions. It is very tolerant of regular cutting or grazing. Since quality declines rapidly with age, it should be cut or grazed at least every 8 weeks. Leafiness is maintained by low cutting at about 7cm. Compatibility: A particularly aggressive grass, by virtue of its extensive root system, it competes with associated species for water and nutrients. It also appears to be allelopathic. Weediness: Invasive in arid and semi‐arid environments, and has been declared noxious in some areas.
Pests and Diseases: The most serious disease is buffel grass blight caused by the fungus, Magnaporte grisea, a rampant leaf spot disease that reduces quality and production of forage and seed, and in some cases, destroys stands. Other fungal species causing damage are Fusarium oxysporum, Bipolaris sp., and Claviceps sp. Seed crops can be reduced by buffel grass seed caterpillars (Mampava rhodoneura) that feed on seed, webbing the heads together. 168 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Production Dry Matter: Yields depend greatly on soil fertility and growing conditions, but are mostly in the range of 2‐9 t/ha. Under ideal conditions, it may produce up to 24 t/ha. Animal Production: Can carry up to 1 steer or 6 sheep/ha, depending on rainfall and soil fertility. Cattle can gain up to 180‐200 kg/headd/yr at 2 head/ha under good growing conditions. Seed: Nitrogen is essential for seed production, yields being raised 10‐fold with nitrogen fertilizer. Seed yields range between about 150 and 500 kg/ha. Strengths •
•
•
•
Limitations
• Needs high fertility for production • Establishment is difficult on clay soils • Will not survive prolonged flooding or waterlogging • Can cause ‘big head’ in horses • “Fluffy” seed is difficult to sow. • Threat to certain sub‐humid to arid environments Reference: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Cenchrus_ciliaris.htm Persistent Very drought tolerant Quick to respond after rain Widely adapted 169 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Chloris gayana Common Name: Rhodes Grass Chloris gayana Kunth – 1. Habit; 2. Ligule; 3. Inflorescence; 4. spikelet Description This species is tufted (and usually stoloniferous) with foliage ranging from 0.5‐
1.2m, and fertile tillers from 0.9‐2m tall. It has smooth leaves, with 2‐3mm long hairs near the collar and blades that are 25‐50cm long, and 3‐9mm wide, tapering to a fine point. Spikelets are about 3.5mm long, comprising 3‐4 florets. Plants produce approximately 4 million seeds/kg. It has a rooting depth of up to 4.7m. Distribution A native of Africa, this grass is found in open woodlands and grasslands, riverine and lake margins, and seasonally waterlogged plains. It may occur on a wide range of soils. Uses It is used in permanent pasture or as a short‐ to medium‐term pasture grass to restore soil structure, improve organic matter levels, and reduce nematode numbers. It can also be under‐sown into maize. It makes good hay if cut at (or just before) early flowering, but is not considered suitable for silage. It also develops good ground cover and effectively controls erosion once established (though it needs regular defoliation to maintain cover) and effectively suppresses woody re‐growth. 170 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Environment Soils: This species grows on most well‐drained soils, provided that fertility is adequate. It is very tolerant of salinity. It grows best in soils with pH between 5.5‐7.5, but will grow down to pH 4.5 and up to 10. It is intolerant of high soil manganese.
Climate: Rainfall in its natural range varies from about 500‐1,500 mm/yr. It does not thrive in areas with more than 1,800mm rainfall, but can survive in areas with a 6‐month dry season. This is by virtue of a root system that can extract water to a depth of >4m. It may tolerate seasonal waterlogging and up to 15 days of flooding. Generally, this species has poor shade tolerance.
Agronomy Establishment: This species may be propagated vegetatively or from seed. Planting material can be obtained by breaking up larger clumps into pieces, which are then planted on a 1m grid. A more rapid cover can generally be obtained by planting from seed, usually at sowing rates of 0.5‐1 kg/ha. The seed is best sown on the surface of a well‐prepared seedbed, followed by rolling. Seed germinates in 1‐7 days, and seedlings develop rapidly.
Defoliation: Stands develop quickly and can be grazed 4‐6 months after planting, although highest production is reached in the second year. Growth commences early in the spring. Since the feeding value declines rapidly with the onset of flowering, it is important to maintain the stand in a leafy condition by fairly regular defoliation. Compatibility: It grows well with temperate and tropical legumes, by virtue of its open stoloniferous ground cover.
Weediness: It invades disturbed ground and can be a weed of cultivation; however, it usually dies out after 4‐5 years if not further disturbed, and rarely invades natural areas. Pests and Diseases: Many fungi and nematodes have been isolated from the grass , but they rarely have any economic impact. Chloris striate mosaic virus may be carried in the seed. Insect pests include fall armyworm, larvae of Mocis latipes, the lesser corn‐stalk borer, Rhodes grass scale or Rhodes grass mealybug, chinch bugs, and the two‐lined spittle bug. Some of these can severely damage stands if conditions are suitable. Production Dry Matter: Yields generally range from about 10‐25 t/ha, depending on the variety, soil fertility , environmental conditions, and cutting frequency. Yields in the second year may be double those of the establishment year. Animal Production: Stands can carry about 1‐4 beasts/ha depending on pasture productivity. Production declines without legumes or the use of nitrogen fertilizer. Seed: Seed matures 23‐25 days after flowering. Hand picking is satisfactory for small areas, and this seed needs minimal cleaning. Mature seed may have some post‐harvest dormancy and should remain viable for up to 4 years depending on environmental conditions. 171 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Strengths Limitations •
•
•
•
•
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• Short season of nutritive peak in many cultivars • Fluffy seed difficult to grow • Not adapted to acid, infertile soils • Plants require high fertility to persist • Low shade tolerance Widely adapted Easily established Early nutritive value High salt tolerance Tolerant of heavy grazing Few pests or diseases of economic importance • Some varieties can suppress nematodes (e.g. cv. Katambora) • Good seed production Reference: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Chloris_gayana.htm 172 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Cynodon dactylon Common Name: Bermuda Grass Description This is s fine to robust plant, with stolons and rhizomes. The rhizomes can penetrate 40‐50cm in clay soil and 70‐80cm in sand. The foliage is dense, 10‐
40cm tall, with smooth leaf blades that are 3‐15cm long and 2‐4mm wide. The spikelets are 2‐3mm long. There are approximately 3‐4.5 million seeds/kg. Distribution It is believed that the dactylon variety originated in Turkey and Pakistan. It has since been introduced to all tropical and subtropical, and some temperate regions of the world. Other varieties are believed to be native to the African and Asian continents. It is commonly found in grasslands, lawns and pastures and as a weed in cultivation. It is locally dominant along roadsides and in overgrazed and trampled areas. Uses This species may be used in permanent pastures for grazing or cut‐and‐carry, and for hay or pellets and silage production. It provides useful deferred feed and is valuable for soil conservation, as a turf, and as a cover crop in orchards. Environment Soils: It grows on a wide range of soils, but does the best in soils that are relatively fertile and well drained. While it is adapted to broad range of soil pH (4.5‐8.5), it grows best when the pH is above 5.5. It is tolerant of salinity, but makes only slow growth under saline clay. Climate: Usually occurs over an average annual rainfall range of 625‐
1,750mm, but may survive down to 550mm, and up to 4,300mm. It is very drought tolerant by virtue of rhizome survival through drought‐induced dormancy over periods of up to 7 months. It tolerates at least several weeks 173 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops of deep flooding. It also grows from sea level to about 4,000m. C. dactylon generally grows best with mean daily temperatures above 24°C or over, with an optimal range of 17‐35°C. Grows very slowly at 15°C. It is not shade tolerant and yields decrease rapidly with increasing shade. It usually dies out under medium to dense shade. Agronomy Establishment: May be propagated by seed or vegetatively. It is normally sown at 5‐10 kg/ha de‐hulled seed, the higher rate being used for more rapid cover. No seed dormancy has been reported. Seed is best sown onto a very well prepared, fine, weed‐free seedbed and rolled in. Seedlings usually root down quickly. Improved varieties are usually planted vegetatively. Seedlings and sprig‐plantings grow vigorously once established.
Defoliation: This species is extremely tolerant of heavy grazing. Regular grazing and nitrogen fertilization are necessary to maintain quality. It is best cut for hay or silage when 30‐40cm tall or every 4‐6 weeks, usually when in full bloom. It is possible to achieve four cuttings per year. A stubble height of 5‐10cm under grazing or cutting gives good regrowth. Plowing or discing when sod‐bound may renovate it.
Compatibility: This species is very competitive, particularly in fertile soils, and only aggressive legumes are capable of forming an association with it. It suppresses weeds well when mowed or grazed closely and fertilized.
Weediness: Once established, it is difficult to eradicate with chemicals or cultivation, and can become a serious weed in cultivated land. It is declared a weed in over 80 countries.
Pests and Diseases: Rust and leafspot are the major fungal diseases, although resistant types are available. Smuts can infest seedheads. It may also be attacked by the bacterium Xanthomonas cynodontis, and by barley yellow dwarf virus, lucerne dwarf virus, and viral stripe diseases (which affect corn and rice), as well as by a range of nematodes, the main one being root knot nematode. Armyworm, tropical grass webworm, spittlebug, and bermudagrass mite are also major pests. Production Dry Matter: Productivity depends on the cultivar used, the time of year, and the amount of nitrogen available. Yields of 1,000‐3,000 kg/ha per month are possible in the summer and 100‐1,200 kg/ha in winter. Animal Production: Liveweight gain of cattle ranges from 200‐300 kg/ha/yr, when moderate rates of fertilizers are applied and at stocking rate of about 2 or more head/ha. Seed: Strains show considerable variation with respect to seed set and, in general, seed production is relatively low. Seed yields may range from about 100‐300kg/ha. 174 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Strengths Limitations
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Widely adapted to soils and climate Palatable High nutritive value when young Excellence groundcover for soil conservation Tolerant of heavy grazing Makes useful hay and silage Tolerant of salinity Tolerant of flooding Reference: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Cynodon_dactylon.htm 175 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Cynodon plectostachyon Common Name: Giant Star Grass Description This is a robust and deep‐rooted plant containing stolons and rhizomes. It may reach a height of 100cm. The leaf blades are flat, linear, and green to purplish‐
red. Spikelets are green, red or purple, 2‐3mm long, with one spikelet. There are 2.2‐4 million spikelets/kg. Distribution A native of Africa, this plant is naturalized throughout the tropics and sub‐
tropics. It commonly occurs in disturbed areas in grassland, cattle paddocks and road verges, on moist alluvium. Uses It can be grazed or harvested for hay or silage. Larger types are suitable for cut‐
and‐carry. It is a useful live mulch and ground cover for weed control and soil conservation. Environment Soils: It grows on a wide range of soil types from sands to heavy clays, although it does best in moist, well‐drained, lighter textured soils. It is tolerant of alkaline soils and is adapted to soils with pH 6.5‐8.5, but gives best performance in the neutral to slightly alkaline range.
Climate: This species appears more drought‐hardy than other varieties, growing down to 450mm rainfall, but up to 4,000mm. It does not tolerate prolonged flooding, but can withstand waterlogging for 2‐3 days. While considered to be very drought tolerant, it produces little forage during periods of moisture stress. It also appears to be limited to a more restricted range within the tropics than other varieties. Grows best in full sun or light shade. It is found from sea level to 176 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops ~2,500m and has a distributional range with average annual temperatures from about 12‐28ºC. The optimum temperature for photosynthesis in varieties measured is 35ºC, and minimum between 5 and 16ºC. The species is intolerant to shade. Agronomy Establishment: Due to minimal seed set, these grasses are mostly propagated vegetatively, using either sprigs or stolons at a minimum of 1 t/ha on less than a 1m grid. With manual planting, stems are inserted into the soil to 75% of their length before compacting. A solid stand can be achieved in 3 months after planting. Sprigs and newly established plants are susceptible to drought and should be kept moist.
Defoliation: It is tolerant of heavy grazing; however, it may tend to open fields to invasion by broadleaf weeds. If well fertilized, they grow vigorously, producing the best combination of yield and quality when grazed or cut every 4‐5 weeks. This generally means maintaining a stubble height of 15‐25cm. Compatibility: These are very vigorous grasses that, unmanaged, can overgrow associated legumes. They are not very shade tolerant, and can be shaded out by taller grasses and trees. Weediness: All have fibrous, stolons that thrive on disturbance. These grasses can easily become weeds in cropping systems. Pests and Diseases: Not greatly affected by disease, particularly if managed to remain young and leafy. The major diseases are rust, and leaf‐spot. There are also records of leaf blight disease, black choke, smut, and another spikelet disease caused by a Fusarium sp. Nematodes isolated from these grasses include the stubby root, spiral, stealth, ring, stunt, awl, and lance nematodes. Fall armyworm and spittlebug are the major insect pests, along with strip grass looper caterpillar. Production Dry Matter: It is capable of producing monthly summer yields of 1,300 kg/ha/month. Annual dry matter yields may vary from about 5 t/ha in low input systems to 10‐15 t/ha with good management, and up to 25 t/ha with irrigation and high N fertilization. Animal Production: Average liveweight gains of 700‐1,500 kg/ha from 225 kg steers grazing at a stocking rate of 8 beasts/ha can be achieved over a 200‐day warm season. Seed: Production is extremely variable by type and location. 177 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Strengths Limitations
• Rapid establishment from vegetative cuttings • Persistent when properly managed • Drought tolerant • Some types make good cool season growth with adequate moisture and fertility • Palatable and high quality forage when harvested or grazed regularly • Good LWG per animal and per hectare • Hay cures rapidly under favorable conditions • No seed available. • Low productivity during dry periods. • Top growth killed by frost. • Requires higher fertility than Paspalum notatum , Hemarthria altissima and Digitaria eriantha (pangola). • Forage quality drops rapidly after 5 weeks of regrowth and following heavy frost. • Acceptability to cattle declines rapidly with time. • Some types produce high HCN. Reference: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Cynodon_spp.htm 178 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Eragrostis curvula Common Name: Weeping Love Grass Description A tufted, perennial with drooping leaves concentrated at the base of the plant to 30‐50cm. The culms are erect, up to 1.2m tall, with fine, fibrous unbranched, stems, and smooth nodes. Leaf blades are variable in color ranging from bluish to green and curling at the tip when dry. They are long and narrow, tapering to 500mm long and 1‐5mm wide, rolled or flat. Spikelets are grayish‐green, flattened, 3‐10mm long and 1‐1.5mm wide. It produces approximately 3.5‐5 million seeds per kilogram. Distribution Though a native of Africa, this grass has become naturalized in many tropical and subtropical climates throughout the world. It grows in grasslands and clearings in woodlands and is considered an important pioneer grass in its native habitat. While not common in natural grasslands, it can be dense on disturbed land (i.e. trampled, heavily grazed or cultivation fallow). Uses It is used mostly for pasture and hay and may also be selected for use in the stabilization of road verges and terraces, water discharge areas, and the banks of earth tanks. It may also be sown in strips for control of wind erosion. Environment Soils: This species grows on well‐drained, acid soils of sandy to loam texture with pH ranging from 4.5‐7.0. It is susceptible to iron deficiency chlorosis on calcareous soils. Although it can be established on heavy clays, it is less persistent. The extensive root system can exploit depths to 5m, but it is also adapted to relatively shallow soils. It is considered to be tolerant of moderate levels of salinity.
179 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Climate: It normally grows in areas of low to moderate rainfall (500‐1,000mm), extending to as low as 300mm if sown in basins or contour furrows and mulched. It is very drought tolerant and effective in using light rain and preventing other plants from establishing. It does not grow in poorly drained soils and does not tolerate flooding. It grows in areas with an annual temperature from <14º to about 23ºC. The optimum temperature for growth is between 17 and 32ºC. It also shows moderate shade tolerance. Agronomy Establishment: A clean fine seedbed is essential for successful establishment. Seed can be broadcast or drilled, and covered to less than 1cm. Rates of 1‐5 kg/ha seed give good stands with broadcast sowings, although this can be reduced to as low as 0.25 kg/ha for row planting. An inter‐row cultivation of row‐planted E. curvula during the first year helps it compete with weeds, although this is not necessary in subsequent years. Row spacing can be from 0.6‐
1.2m. Good seedling vigor and rapid early growth contribute to the ease of establishment. Defoliation: This species starts growth early in the season and continues until quite late. It is important to mow or graze regularly. Rotational grazing is not necessary to maintain stands, although in some circumstances it can be helpful. Defoliation can slow water use and improve chances of survival.
Compatibility: It competes aggressively, especially in disturbed and in sandy soils. Weediness: This species has become a serious weed of pasture, on road verges, and in cultivation. Less palatable and prolifically seeding types develop large, viable soil seed banks, making them difficult to eradicate and very competitive with other pasture species. Pests and Diseases: None known.
Production Dry Matter: Growing mostly in infertile soils under low rainfall , dry matter yields are generally low at 3‐10 t/ha/year. Yields can be doubled by increasing cutting frequency from 4‐8 weeks, and more than doubled through applications of 100‐200 kg/ha N.
Animal Production: Heifers stocked at about 12/ha have produced a liveweight gain of 550 kg/ha over summer, and sheep 53/ha over 130 days produced a liveweight gain of 160 kg/ha. Seed: Seed crops are generally planted in rows to achieve larger seeds. It is possible to produce two crops per season, one started in April in the northern hemisphere and the other in August. Crops are started with 50 to 100 kg/ha N, along with other nutrients as required. It can be harvested with a header‐
harvester or a hand sickle when one‐third of the head has turned brown. Seed yields of 30‐225 kg/ha have been reported.
180 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Strengths Limitations
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Grows on low‐fertility soils Establishes easily Good cold tolerance Valuable in erosion control Drought‐hardy Long growing season Not adapted to heavy clays Nutritive value declines rapidly Can become a weed Intolerant of waterlogging Reference: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Eragrostis_curvula.htm 181 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Melinis minutiflorae Common Name: Molasses Grass Description This is a tufted perennial with foliage 0.6‐0.8m deep, and slender, loose, straggling or trailing stems. The leaves are crowded towards the ends of sterile shoots with fertile culms that are erect or ascending, to 1.5m tall. The leaf sheaths and blades are minutely to densely covered with glandular hairs exuding drops of viscid oil, with a characteristic molasses or cumin odor. The Leaf blades are flat, 4‐20cm long, 0.5‐1.3cm wide, and usually flushed purple or red‐brown, tapering to a fine point. There are 6‐15 million spikelets ("seeds")/kg. There is wide variation in growth habit, hairiness, leafiness, and vigor. Distribution Though a native of Africa, this species is naturalized throughout the tropics and subtropics. It is commonly found in grasslands, shady places, and rocky slopes in sub‐humid and humid climates. It may sometimes form pure stands. Uses A vigorous pasture grass, it is used as a fast‐establishing pioneer to suppress weeds or cover disturbed soil. It may be used for grazing, hay, and silage. It is not favored for cut‐and‐carry due to the low, dense growth, stickiness, and strong aroma. It has value for intercropping to reduce insects and ticks. Environment Soils: It grows on a variety of well‐drained soils, with surface textures ranging from sands to medium clays. It has a tendency of growing most vigorously on steep hillsides and road cuttings. It is tolerant of low fertility, a pH from 4.5‐
8.4, and high aluminum and is responsive to improved fertility. It is intolerant of salinity.
182 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Climate: It is considered to be native or naturalized in areas with annual rainfall of 750‐2,500mm and is capable of withstanding a dry season of four to five months. It does not tolerate waterlogging or flooding. It is found at elevations ranging from 800‐2,200m in the tropics and subtropics, in areas with average annual temperatures from 18‐21ºC. May be found both in full sunlight and partial shade. Agronomy Establishment: Land preparation with fire or rough cultivation is usually adequate. Fresh seed has little dormancy, but can be hammer‐milled to improve germination and seed handling. Seed can contain 2‐3 million caryopses/kg. This very fine seed is sown at 0.5‐1 kg/ha, either broadcast onto the surface or placed very shallowly, no more than 2.5cm, sometimes under‐
sown with cereal crops. It establishes quickly. It can also be propagated from cuttings, which strike readily, and cover the ground quickly. Defoliation: It does not withstand grazing below 15‐20cm because the crowns are well above ground level. It should be well established before grazing and then grazed sparingly, as stands decline under heavy grazing. Develops quickly and may be harvested 50 days after planting seed. Compatibility: Establishes quickly from seed, developing into a competitive mat, and dominating other grasses initially. It combines well with legumes under appropriate management and can be transient. It should not be the only species sown. It has a strong ability to suppress annual weeds. Weediness: Listed as a weed in many countries, it contributes to considerable fuel loading that may lead to forest reduction from severe understory fires. Pests and Diseases: Generally, it is little affected by insects or disease; however, a variety of fungus, virus, nematodes have been noted. Production Dry Matter: Annual dry matter yields are mostly in the order of 5‐10 t/ha, depending largely on moisture availability and the nitrogen fertility.
Animal Production: Can carry 1 beast/ 0.5‐2 ha, gaining 0.4‐0.5 kg/day liveweight.
Seed: Mechanical harvesting is difficult due to the bulk of foliage. This problem is reduced if the crop is mowed and sweated prior to threshing. The best crops have been taken low when it has been over‐ripe and seed is retained in the mat, but such crops are difficult to clean. 183 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Strengths Limitations
• Adapted to infertile soils • Tolerant of aluminum • Pioneer species (rapid establishment and ground cover) • Weed suppression • Susceptible to severe fire • Invasive • Intolerant of heavy grazing Reference: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Melinis_minutiflora.htm 184 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Panicum maximum Common Name: Guinea Grass Panicum maximum Jacq. – 1. Habit flowering plant; 2. Ligule; 3. spikelet Description This is an extremely variable species. Loosely to densely tufted; erect or ascending; rooting at the lower nodes. The leaf blades are linear and the spikelets are oblong, blunt, and rounded on the back. Because of the morphological and agronomic variability, the species may be tall (>1.5m) or short (<1.5m). Tall varieties may have stems to about 10mm diameter. The leaves may be smooth to hairy, 40‐100cm long, 1‐3.5cm wide, tapering to fine point, with spikelets 2.5‐3mm long. Tall varieties may produce 700,000‐2 million seeds/kg. The short varieties are lower growing perennials, usually 0.5‐1.5m tall with stems to about 5mm in diameter. Leaves are smooth to hairy, up to 1.4cm wide, with spikelets 2.5‐3.5mm long. Short varieties may produce 1.5 million seeds/kg. Distribution A native of Africa, the species is widely naturalized throughout the tropics. It grows naturally in open grasslands, usually under or near trees and shrubs, and along riverbanks. 185 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Uses May be used for long‐term pasture if fertility is maintained. It is ideal for cut‐and‐carry. It is also suited to incorporate into agroforestry plantings, due to shade tolerance. It is reasonably palatable when mature, providing good roughage. It has been used successfully for making both silage and hay. Environment Soils: This species grows in most soil types, providing they are well drained, moist and fertile. Tolerance to low soil pH is variable and the species is generally intolerant of waterlogging or salinity. Climate: The tall varieties are grown mostly in areas with annual rainfall above 1,000mm, while the small varieties are planted in areas with 800mm or less. Drought tolerance varies, although generally they do not tolerate dry periods longer than 4 or 5 months. It is tolerant of short term flooding by moving water. The species may be found from sea level to >2,000m. Small varieties are generally less affected by cooler temperatures than are many of the tall varieties. It grows well in full sunlight, but has been recorded as growing better at 30% shade, with yields reduced by half at 50% shade. Agronomy Establishment: The germination of seed may range from a few months to 18 months, depending on the variety. Dormancy can be overcome by the removal of glumes from fresh seed. Seed can be drilled or broadcast at 2‐3 kg/ha, and should be planted at no more than 1cm deep. Rolling after sowing improves germination. P. maximum can also be established from rooted tillers (or cuttings with thick stemmed varieties).
Defoliation: It is susceptible to frequent low cutting. For long‐
term maintenance of stands, tall varieties should not be cut or grazed below 30cm, and should be cut or grazed at about 4‐weekly intervals to obtain the best balance between quality and quantity. Small varieties can be grazed lower, but perform better under a rotational regime. Compatibility: The species combines well with twining legumes under light grazing. As these legumes are generally less tolerant of grazing than the grass, the legume component declines and weeds increase under heavier grazing. It should not be planted with less palatable grasses. This leads to selection and decline of the P. maximum. It can be grown successfully under open forest or plantation due to shade tolerance. 186 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Weediness: P. maximum spreads along water courses and ungrazed roadsides, and has been listed as a weed in many countries. It is a major weed in sugar‐cane fields, due to its ability to grow under shaded conditions. Pests and Diseases: Ergot (Claviceps spp.), and other fungal diseases can reduce seed production under conditions that favor the pathogens. Production Dry Matter: Commonly 20‐30 t/ha, depending on the variety and growing conditions (particularly if high levels of N applied). Animal Production: Can achieve up to 0.8 kg/head/day and up to 1,200 kg/ha/yr (commonly 300‐500 kg/ha/yr) depending primarily on the stocking rate and N fertilizer rate. Seed: Ripens unevenly and sheds as it matures. Yields of 50‐100 kg of pure seed yield are common from machine harvesting, and around 200 kg/ha from ground sweeping. Strengths
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Very leafy High quality feed High production potential Readily eaten by all stock Suited to grazing and cutting Drought tolerant Early season growth in some lines Requires fertile soils Intolerant of waterlogging Intolerant of heavy grazing Becomes stemmy if not cut or grazed frequently
Reference: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Panicum_maximum.htm 187 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Pennisetum clandestinum Common Name: Kikuyu Grass Pennisetum clandestinum Hochst. ex Chiov. 1. Habit of basal plant part; 2. Ligule; 3. Inflorescence; 4. spikelet Description This plant is typically 30‐40cm tall with stolons and rhizomes. The branching stolons are close to the ground, forming a turf under regular defoliation. Sterile shoots have short stems and long leaves; fertile shoots are lower‐
growing than sterile shoots and with shorter leaves. The leaf sheath is pale yellow‐green, with dense, fine hairs. The leaf blade is linear and up to 30cm long and 7 mm wide; folded tightly when young, but opening flat when mature; smooth or hairy and finely serrated margins. Inflorescence reduced to a cluster of 2–4 very shortly stalked spikelets, almost enclosed in the uppermost leaf sheath. Spikelets 10–20mm long, narrow, and comprised of two florets. There are approximately 400,000 seeds/kg. Distribution A native of Africa, the species is now naturalized throughout northern and southern Africa and, globally, throughout the tropics. Uses Permanent pasture, ground cover, amenity turf, irrigated pasture, and hay or silage. Environment Soils: It grows best on high fertility soils of loam or clay, especially well‐
structured soils, but may also persist on alluvial or fertilized moist, sandy soils. Tolerates a low pH (to pH 4.5) and high Al and Mn, as well as moderate salinity. Prefers moderately drained soils.
188 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Climate: Originates from areas with an annual rainfall of 1,000–1,600mm. Where soils are suitable, it has become naturalized in areas with rainfall up to 3,000mm and down to 800 mm/yr. May perform well under irrigation in lower rainfall areas. It is moderately drought tolerant, because of a deep root system (to >3 m). Often found along water courses, it can tolerate some waterlogging and up to 10 days inundation . Its most active growth occurs during periods of high humidity. In its native environment it occurs at altitudes ranging from 1,500–3,000m. The optimum temperature for growth is between 16 and 21°C, with growth declining markedly at high temperatures and below 7°C. It is moderately shade tolerant, but does not grow well in heavy shade. Agronomy Establishment: Kikuyu is readily established vegetatively or from seed. Harvested pieces of stolons or rhizomes can be planted on a regular grid, or broadcast and cultivated into the soil surface. Subsequent rolling ensures better establishment. Seed is sown at 1–2 kg/ha when soil temperatures reach 20°C. Good moisture conditions for several days after sowing are essential for effective establishment.
Defoliation: Regular defoliation is necessary to maintain forage quality and palatability of the stand. Management should aim to maximize the amount of leaf, and minimize the amount of stem. Stands should be grazed to about 5cm in height and allowed to regrow to about 15cm. If well fertilized, kikuyu is very tolerant of constant heavy grazing, although productivity is reduced under such management. Compatibility: Kikuyu is very competitive and generally incompatible with other grasses. Weeds tend to be a problem only in degrading pastures. Weediness: It only presents a potential problem in soils of high fertility, and can be a problem in cooler areas where it can suppress growth of other grasses. As a vigorous creeping grass , it can spread into cultivation areas or water channels. Pests and Diseases: Pyricularia penniseti causes a leafspot, death of leaf tips, and in severe cases death of seedlings – usually only in nutrient deficiency‐
weakened plants. Bipolaris setariae produces a characteristic black spot on the leaf and yellowing of the leaf tip, making the pasture less palatable to stock. Rust caused by (Phakopsora apoda) decreases photosynthetic capacity of infected leaves, but does not kill plants. Various arthropods and their larvae cause temporary damage to stands.
Production Dry Matter: Yields are only limited by soil fertility and moisture availability. Under optimum conditions, it may produce 30 t/ha/yr, but is unproductive if not fertilized. 189 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Animal Production: Well‐fertilized pastures are capable of carrying 1.5–3.0 adult cattle/ha. Seed: The sward must be kept short to encourage flowering. Yields of 200–
400 kg/ha are normal, and up to 700 kg/ha achievable. Strengths Limitations
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• Requires fertile soils for persistence and production • Competitive against many legumes • Rhizomes can create weed problem • Susceptible to ‘kikuyu yellows’ disease Productive under heavy grazing Good ground cover Responsive to good fertility Suited to subtropics and high altitude tropics Reference: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Pennisetum_clandestinum.htm 190 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Pennisetum purpureum Common Name: Elephant Grass Pennisetum purpureum Schumach. – 1. Habit of flowering plant; 2. Spikelet surrounded by bristles Description Forms large, bamboo‐like clumps, usually 2‐3.5m high (up to 7.5m) and branched towards the top with stems that are 3cm diameter near the base. Leaf blades may be smooth or hairy, 30‐120cm long and 1‐5cm wide. Leaf‐
sheaths may be smooth or with stiff hairs. Spreads by short rhizomes, either rooting from the lower nodes or falling stems or at nodes, creating a stolon. Inflorescence is bristly, 10‐30cm long and 1.5‐3cm wide and dense. It is usually yellow‐brown in color, but may appear green or purplish. This species has an extensive root system that penetrates to 4.5m. Contains around 3 million fertile spikelets or 'seeds'/kg. Distribution A native of Africa, the species is generally found along rivers and forest margins on more fertile soils. It has been introduced to most tropical and subtropical countries, where it has since become naturalized. Uses This species is mostly planted for cut‐and‐carry systems, and not for long‐term grazed pastures. It may also be used for hedgerows and living fences, although the roots compete with adjacent crop. Young growth makes good hay, which can be fed as hay or pellets. Coarse stems in older growth make it unsuitable for hay. It also makes good silage, although it is inferior to maize and sorghum. Older growth becomes too coarse to be of value for anything other than soil conservation. 191 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Environment Soils: Grows on a wide range of soil types, provided the fertility is adequate. Grows best in deep, well‐drained, friable loams with a pH of 4.5‐8.2.
Climate: In the wild, it is normally only found in areas with rainfall >1,000mm, and on riverbanks in areas of lower rainfall. Although it is extremely drought tolerant by virtue of a deep root system, it needs good moisture for production. It does not tolerate prolonged flooding or waterlogging. It produces best between 25 and 40°C and from sea level to 2,000m altitude. This species exhibits moderate shade tolerance.
Agronomy Establishment: It can be established from seed, although it is almost always planted from cuttings (pieces of cane) or splits (rooted pieces of clump). The cuttings can also be planted horizontally into a furrow, to a depth of 5‐10cm. It is normally planted in rows 0.5‐2m apart, and 0.3‐1m apart within rows. Close spacing is required for soil conservation and for high rainfall environments. More open spacing is used in drier environments.
Defoliation: Attempts should be made to maintain a 15cm cutting height. Cattle mostly consume the leaf. The proportion of the leaf decreases (and stem increases) with age and height. To ensure that the cut material is mostly leaf, the plant should not be allowed to grow >1.5m before cutting. Compatibility: This species competes vigorously with other species. Weeds will invade if the fertilizer regime relaxed.
Weediness: It may develop into an invasive species outside of its native range. Control may be obtained through regular mowing or herbicide. Pests and Diseases: Many fungal diseases are reported, the most common being leaf spots. Some varieties are resistant. It may also be attacked by the bacterium, Pectobacterium carotovorum. Production Dry Matter: Yields of 10‐30 t/ha/yr are common, (up to 85 t/ha/yr if well fertilized and 2‐10 t/ha/yr if unfertilized). Frequent cutting (up to 45 days) yields less dry matter, but better leaf production, than infrequent cuts. Animal Production: Live weight gains of 1 kg/head/day during the growing season and 480 kg/ha/yr are achievable. Pure stands are capable of carrying 2‐
7 head/ha in a grazed system. Seed: The seed is rarely harvested. Strengths Limitations
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• Needs high fertility • Matures rapidly, becoming stemmy • Usually needs to be planted vegetatively High dry matter yields Very palatable, high quality forage Drought tolerant Frost susceptible Reference: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Pennisetum_purpureum.htm 192 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Setaria sphacelata Common Name: Broadleaf Setaria Description This species is a robust tussock growing >3m tall, with short rhizomes. The leaves are gray‐green, soft, largely smooth, sometimes with dense hairs on sheath. The leaf blades are 30‐80cm long and up to 2cm wide. The inflorescence is a tightly contracted false spike with purple or white stigmata. Distribution A native of Africa, this species is found largely in grasslands on swamp margins and flood plains. It is rare in the wild, but is often cultivated. Uses Is used in permanent pastures, and for hay, silage, cut‐and‐carry, soil conservation, and hedgerows. Environment Soils: It will grow in most soils, provided moisture is readily available. It survives in soils with low fertility, but responds well to applications of nitrogen and phosphorus, and sometimes potassium, in these locations. Climate: This species is found in areas with average annual rainfall >1,000mm. It is mostly cultivated in areas with rainfall above 1,500 mm/yr. It can survive long dry seasons, but does best with short or no dry season. Reddening of the leaves is often associated with moisture stress. It is very tolerant of flooding. It grows well in the tropics and subtropics and has a low shade tolerance.
193 A Farmer’s Friend | Cover Crops Agronomy Establishment: This species produces little viable seed. It is generally planted from rooted tillers with clumps topped to about 15cm and separated into pieces, each with 2‐3 tillers. Planting material should be fresh and not allowed to dry out. It is planted with tops exposed on a grid from 70 x 90cm to 45 x 100cm. It can also be planted in wider rows, allowed to grow tall, and then rolled flat to facilitate nodal rooting and sward formation.
Defoliation: This species persists under frequent cutting or grazing, but requires controlled management to achieve optimum results. For the best combination of re‐growth and quality, plants should be cut at 30‐45cm at least every 30 days. Compatibility: This competes strongly for nutrients, especially potassium. It will suppress leguminous species, especially if not well fertilized with P and K in particular. Fertilizer increases the competitiveness of the grass . Weediness: Not applicable. Pests and Diseases: Not applicable. Production Dry Matter: This species can obtain annual yields ranging from 4‐24t/ha, depending on the levels of fertility and moisture. Animal Production: No information available. Seed: Little or no seed produced. Strengths Limitations
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• Low sodium content in some provenances • High oxalate levels (should not be fed to horses) • Must be propagated vegetatively High quality feed Good for cut‐and‐carry Tolerates poor drainage Survives in low fertility Reference: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Axonopus_compressus.htm 194 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Acacia albida Common Name: Winterthorn Origin: African Sahel Description Height: 10‐30m.
Form: Single‐stemmed with large, spread out crown (trunk diameter up to ~1.5m). Bark: Grey‐brown, cracked when old; young twigs shiny‐gray. Thorns: Pairs of spines; straight to ~2cm. Leaves: Compound, gray‐green; loses leaves in rains. Flowers: In dense cream‐yellow spikes about 10cm long and fragrant; seen in September‐December on the bare tree. Fruit: Pods develop and ripen between January and May; conspicuous thick, orange‐brown, twisted in odd shapes, hard and shiny. Parts do not break open, but rot to set free 10‐20 flat round seeds which lie in soft tissue. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Arid and Semi‐Arid Tropics/farmland; drought tolerant. Soil: Coarse‐textured well‐drained alluvial soils. Tolerates seasonal waterlogging and salinity, but cannot withstand clayey soils. Drainage: Tolerates occasional flooding. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (270‐2700m); Mean Annual Rainfall (250‐
1200mm); Mean Annual Temperature (18‐30°C). 195 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Seed Collection: Gather from mature pods on tree. Seed Storage: Seed can be stored indefinitely if kept in a dry, cool place free from insects (~11,500‐20,000 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: Nick the seed or soak in hot water and allow cooling for 24 hours. Germination Time: ~6 to 10 days. Beds: Not practiced because of the potential damage to long taproots. Pots: Needs ~3‐5 months in nursery, root pruning necessary. Note: Do not disturb potting mix when transplanting. Management Establishment: Fire problems, browsing (requires protection for 5‐8 years). Spacing/Rotation: 10 x 10m spacing or 10‐50 trees/ha. Coppice/Pollard: Responds well to coppicing. Resistance: Termite resistant. Uses/Benefits Edible, flavoring (pods); firewood, charcoal, construction, posts, canoe making, utensils, (wood), fodder (pods and leaves), mulch, shade, tannin, dye (bark and roots) Conservation Soil: Erosion control (deep taproot with spreading laterals), nitrogen‐fixing. Agroforestry: Farming possible under tree because of deciduous nature during the rainy season. 196 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Acacia auriculiformis Common Name: Northern Black Wattle Origin: Northeast Australia Description Height: 8‐30m. Form: Short with two or more crooked stems; heavily branched with dense crown. Bark: Fissured gray or brown. Leaves: Deciduous in the rainy season or evergreen. “True” leaves only present as a seedling. Flowers: Yellow, small fragrant clusters. Fruit: Seed‐filled pods. Initially straight, but become twisted as they mature. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Harsh sites in the dry tropical lowlands and humid and sub‐humid zones. Tolerates up to a six month dry season. Soil: Found most commonly on clayey soils; can tolerate highly alkaline and saline soils, with pH ranging from 4.3 to 9. Drainage: Tolerates occasional flooding. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐500m); Mean Annual Rainfall (760‐2,000mm); Mean Annual Temperature (24‐38°C). 197 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Seed Collection: Collect directly from tree or ground; inspect for borer damage. Seed Storage: May store fresh for several months; stores dry in containers for 1‐2 years (~55,000‐75,000 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: Pour boiling water over seeds, stir, pour off in three minutes; replace with temperate water. Germination Time: ~10 days. Beds: As striplings. Pots: Needs ~3‐5 months in nursery, sow in full sun; start as striplings. Management Establishment: Shade intolerant; weed for two years; fire and wind sensitive. Spacing/Rotation: 10‐12 year rotation; close spacing and branch pruning improves tree form. Coppice/Pollard: Coppice‐ poor; Pollard‐ regenerates well with 4‐5m cuts. Resistance: Young trees are moderately resistant to termites. Uses/Benefits Firewood, charcoal, construction, posts, rafters, furniture (wood); tannin (bark and gum); ornamental, bee forage (flowers) Conservation Soil: Nitrogen‐fixing, erosion control, stabilization, windbreaks, and reclamation. Agroforestry: Useful species for contour banding and intercropping. 198 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Acacia nilotica Common Name: Prickly acacia or Eyptian Thorn Origin: Africa and India Description Height: 6‐12m. Form: Medium sized with umbrella shaped crown; trunk up to 30cm in diameter. Bark: Fissured gray, reddish‐brown, or black; rough and furrowed. Thorns: Abundant long and slender spines. Leaves: Deciduous in the rainy season or nearly evergreen. Flowers: Rounded heads of a bright golden‐yellow color appearing between September and January. Fruit: Seed‐filled pods; 5‐15cm long; constrictions between the seeds yield a “necklace‐like” appearance; occur between November and March; mostly aromatic, do not naturally split open. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Arid and semi‐arid tropics/ farmland; areas with high water table and sunlight. Highly drought resistant. Soil: Adaptable to heavy soils; alluvium preferred; tolerant to salinity and alkalinity. Drainage: Tolerates flooding. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,340m); Mean Annual Rainfall (200‐
1,270mm); Mean Annual Temperature (4‐47°C). 199 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Seed Collection: Remove dry pods from the tree. Seed Storage: Stores for approximately 1 year (~5,000‐10,000 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: No treatment required for fresh seeds. Pour boiling water over stored seed, stir, and pour off in three minutes. Germination Time: ~10 days. Beds: Not practiced because of high incidence of root inury. Pots: Requires 3‐4 months in nursery; occasional root pruning may be necessary. Management Establishment: Susceptible to weed competition, browsing and insect attacks. Young seedlings may require full sun. Spacing/Rotation: 20 year harvest rotation. Coppice/Pollard: May withstand occasional coppicing, but response is poor. Resistance: Termite resistant. Uses/Benefits Edible (fruit, seed, and gum); firewood, charcoal, posts, rafters, tools, carvings, boats (wood); fodder (fruit and leaves); tannin (bark and pods); ornamental, bee forage (flowers); bee forage, used for tree protection (thorns) Conservation Soil: Nitrogen‐fixing, erosion control, and stabilization. Agroforestry: Windbreak, live fencing. 200 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Adansonia digitata Common Name: Baobab Origin: Africa Description Height: 8‐25m. Form: Enormous trunk with short twisted branches. Bark: Smooth, glossy gray with blue or red reflections. External layer is soft and spongy. Internal layer is very fibrous with red and white coloration. Leaves: Deciduous in the rainy season or nearly evergreen. Digitate leaves are arranged alternately and appear after flowering. Flowers: Large flowers (~20cm in diameter) hang from stalks up to 25cm long. Each flower has five thick sepals and five large white stamens with incurved filaments and orange to brown anthers. Fruit: Large capsule of an oval shape, reaching ~35cm in length and ~17cm in diameter. Inside are numerous black seeds wrapped in a white/yellowish edible pulp. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Characterized by low altitudes in arid and semi‐arid zones; tolerates a 4‐10 month dry season. Soil: Shows preference for well‐drained soils that are acidic (pH<6.5), with sandy top soils overlying loamy substrates. Drainage: Tolerates occasional flooding, but is intolerant to prolonged waterlogging. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1500m); Mean Annual Rainfall (250‐1000mm). 201 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Seed Collection: Collect ripe seeds from tree or ground. Seed Storage: Will store for several years (~2,000‐3,000 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: Scarification; soak seeds in boiling water for five minutes. Germination Time: May take up to a year. Beds: Produced as open‐rooted. Pots: Preferred method. Requires 1 to 3 months in the nursery; prune roots no more than twice before outplanting. Management Establishment: Needs protection from browse. Spacing/Rotation: Slow growing; not considered as a rotational species; may live up to 1,000 years. Coppice/Pollard: Branches may be pollarded or lopped to promote increase in leaf production. Resistance: Resistant to fire, termite, and drought. Uses/Benefits Edible (fruit, seed, and leaves) fiber, ropes, and mats (bark), soap (fruit husks), shade, bee shelter and fodder, religious significance, and various local medicines. Conservation Soil: Adapts well to poor soils, deep penetrating roots. 202 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Albizia lebbeck Common Name: Indian siris Origin: India Description Height: Up to 30m.
Form: In dense forest‐ single stemmed; in open grown‐ spreading crown Bark: Flaky, pale gray, yellowish‐gray to grayish violet, with large, red to rust‐
brown lenticels. Leaves: Deciduous in the dry season; leaves bipinnate, with bright green leaflets; blunt at both ends. Flowers: Appear shortly after new leaves; fragrant greenish‐yellow to white; large, round heads. Fruit: Light gray to beige seed‐filled pods with 6‐12 seeds per pod. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Prefers moist areas/ Arid and Semi‐arid tropics; drought‐
resistant after first growing season Soil: Establishes well on fertile, well‐drained loamy soils, but poorly on heavy clays. Tolerates acidity, alkalinity, heavy and eroded soils and waterlogged soils. Drainage: Withstands waterlogging, though growth is retarded. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,800m); Mean Annual Rainfall (500‐
2,500mm); Mean Annual Temperature (19‐35°C). 203 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Seed Collection: Collect ripe pods from trees, dry in the sun, and beat lightly to extract seeds. Seed Storage: Will store for 4‐5 years (~5,000‐12,000 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: Pour boiling water over seeds, stir, and pour off in 3 minutes; replace with temperate water, soak for 24 hours. Germination Time: ~10 days. Propagation: Grown as striplings, direct sowing, or root cuttings. Beds: Stump with ~25cm root and ~10cm shoot. Pots: Requires 3‐5 months in the nursery. Management Establishment: Best established using potted seedlings. Trees are vulnerable to strong winds and are not fire tolerant. Spacing/Rotation: 3 x 3m (fuelwood); 5 x 5m (timber); 10‐15 year rotation. Coppice/Pollard: Responds well to coppicing, pollarding, pruning, and lopping; will produce root suckers if the roots are exposed. Resistance: Termite resistant. Uses/Benefits Firewood, charcoal, posts, rafters, furniture (wood), fibers (roots), fodder (leaves, twigs, flowers, and pods), tannin (bark and gum), soap (bark and flowers), bee forage. Conservation Soil: Erosion control (especially along embankments), green manure, mulch, nitrogen‐fixing. Agroforestry: Not a good windbreak selection because of shallow root system; good for contour band cropping or intercropping 204 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Anacardium occidentale Common Name: Cashew Nut Origin: Brazil Description Height: 9‐15m. Form: Medium‐sized; crooked trunk and branches with small spreading crown. Bark: Mottled gray‐brown. Leaves: Evergreen, simple and alternate, up to 20cm long and 15 cm wide. Apically round or notched. Flowers: Numerous in terminal panicles; 10‐20cm long; green and reddish with radial symmetry. Fruit: Red or yellowish cashew‐apple is soft, juicy, pear‐shaped, and 10‐20cm long and 4‐8cm broad. Shelled nut (embryo) attached to underside of apple. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Adaptable to most tropical areas having high temperatures; drought resistant. Soil: Found in loam, sandy, and clayey soils; not tolerant of saline soils. In drier areas, a deep, well‐drained soil, without impervious layers is essential. Drainage: Not tolerant of poorly drained soils Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,000m); Mean Annual Rainfall (500‐
3,500mm); Mean Annual Temperature (17‐38°C). 205 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Seed Collection: Collect well‐developed seeds and dry. Seed Storage: Does not store well, but will store in air‐tight container for 1 year. Seed Treatment: None; plant seed stalk‐side up. Germination Time: 12 days. Propagation: Direct Sowing; layering, budding, and grafting. Pots: Produced as pots. Requires 3‐5 months in the nursery. Cautionary note: uncooked nut may cause irritation to the skin. Handle with care. Management Establishment: Fire sensitive; susceptible to browse; weed for two years post‐
planting. Spacing/Rotation: 10 x 10m spacing; 100 trees/ha; prune during dry season months. Coppice/Pollard: Rarely pruned, but necessary to periodically remove dead branches. Resistance: Not termite resistant. Uses/Benefits Edible (fruit flesh, flowers, cooked nuts); firewood, charcoal, posts, rafters, packing cases, boats (wood); fodder (leaves, fruits, and flowers); tannin, dye, medicine (bark); gum, oil (seeds); varnish (old bark); bee forage, shade. Conservation Soil: Erosion control (large root system), soil cover. Agroforestry: Excellent windbreak; hedges; border planting. Intercropping with groundnuts or soybeans recommended. 206 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Annona muricata Common Name: Soursop Origin: Tropical America Description Height: 5‐9m. Form: 3.5m diameter crown; produces first branches near the base of the tree; non‐symmetrical. Thorns: Fruit is studded with widely spaced, soft spines. Leaves: Evergreen, alternate, smooth and glossy with a dark green color on the upper surface and lighter green beneath; oblong and elliptic, pointed at both ends. Flowers: May emerge singly, anywhere on the trunk; short‐stalked with three, fleshy, outer‐petals and three, close‐set, pale‐yellow inner‐petals. Fruit: Oval or heart‐shaped, ranging in size from 10‐25cm long and up to 14cm wide; compound and covered with a reticulated, leather‐like skin. Inner portion is fibrous and juicy, resembling pineapple. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Humid tropical and sub‐tropical lowlands. It has become naturalized in thickets, pastures, and along roads. May tolerate a 6 month dry season. Soil: Prefers loose, fairly rich, deep loams, with a pH range of 5.5‐6.5. Drainage: Not tolerant of poorly drained soils. Biophysical Limits: Mean Annual Rainfall (>1,000mm); Mean Annual Temperature (25‐30°C). 207 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Seed Storage: Germination rates decline with storage of seeds. Seed Treatment: None. Germination Time: 20‐30 days @ ~80‐90%. Beds: Sow in beds, cover with 1cm of soil; keep moist and shaded. Pots: Transplant to pots once the first sets of leaves have matured; ready for out‐planting at 10‐30cm tall. Management Establishment: Prune dry twigs and excessive interior growth; weed around base of tree and replace with mulch to prevent dehydration. May need to prune to prevent multiple‐stem growth form. Spacing/Rotation: As close as 2.5 x 2.5m Uses/Benefits Edible (fruit flesh), medicine (leaves) Conservation Soil: Shallow root systems check erosion. Agroforestry: Can interplant with vegetables or other fruit trees in gardens. Used in home‐gardens. 208 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Azadirachta indica Common Name: Neem Origin: India Description Height: 15‐30m.
Form: Single‐stemmed with wide spreading branches forming a dense crown. Bark: Hard, fissured, or scaly and whitish‐gray or reddish brown. Leaves: Evergreen. Alternate, pinnate leaves are 24‐40cm long with 20‐31 medium to dark green leaflets about 3‐8cm long Flowers: The flowers (white and fragrant) are arranged in drooping panicles up to 25cm long. Fruit: Varying in shape from elongate oval to nearly roundish. The fruit skin is thin and the bitter‐sweet pulp is yellowish‐white and very fibrous. Contains 1‐3 elongated seeds. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Arid, sub‐arid and sub‐humid conditions; highly tolerable of drought. Soil: Grows on a wide variety of neutral to alkaline soils, but performs better than most species on shallow, stony, sandy soils, or in places where there is a hard calcareous or clay pan not far below the surface with pH ranging from 6.2‐
7. Drainage: Not tolerant of poorly drained soils. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,500m); Mean Annual Rainfall (>1,000mm); Mean Annual Temperature (25‐30°C). 209 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Seed Collection: Collect when freshly fallen; separate seeds from pulp by soaking. Seed Storage: Stores for 2‐3 weeks (~4,000‐4,500 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: None. Germination Time: 14‐24 days. Beds: Requires 8‐11 months before out‐planting. Pots: Requires 3‐4 months before out‐planting. Management Establishment: Require weeding for two years after out‐planting; water seedlings after out‐planting. Spacing/Rotation: 2.5 x 3m centers; 8 year rotations for woodlots. Coppice/Pollard: Responds well to coppicing and pollarding. Resistance: Insect resistant; not fire resistant. Uses/Benefits Posts, rafters, tools, fuel (wood), fodder (fruit and flowers), medicine (bark, roots, leaves, and twigs), insecticide (leaves and seeds); tannin (bark). Conservation Soil: Deep tap roots, good erosion control; regenerates naturally in disturbed areas; insecticidal properties against soil pests. Agroforestry: Good windbreak, live fencing, and shade tree; typically not planted with crops, but may be used with millet. 210 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Balanites aegyptiaca Common Name: Desert Date Origin: African Sahel Description Height: ~10m. Form: Multi‐branched, spiny shrub or tree with a rounded crown and dense, long, stout branchlets. Bark: Grayish‐brown to yellowish‐green, scaling bark; deeply fissured longitudinally. Thorns: Green spines arranged spirally along the re‐curved branches. Leaves: Evergreen or partly deciduous during the dry season; leaves compound and spirally arranged on shoots; oval shaped. Flowers: Fragrant, yellow‐green clusters. Fruit: Ellipsoid; ~3cm long and ~1cm in diameter. The ripe fruit is brown or pale brown to yellow with a brittle coat enclosing brown or brown‐gray sticky pulp. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Arid and Semi‐arid tropics; reaches maximum development on low‐lying alluvial sites; good drought resistance. Soil: Adaptable; thrives on well‐drained sandy soils; sensitive to salinity. Drainage: Not tolerant of poorly drained soils. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐2,000m); Mean Annual Rainfall (250‐
1,200mm); Mean Annual Temperature (20‐30°C). 211 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Seed Collection: May be collected from fruit being processed for other reasons, from dung, and directly from trees. Seed Storage: Capable of being stored for long periods (~500‐1,500 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: Soak in lukewarm water overnight and stir vigorously to separate seeds from pulp. Germination Time: ~8‐18 days. Beds: May start through stumping, direct sowing, or root cuttings. Pots: Needs 6‐12 months in nursery; important not to outplant too early. Management Establishment: Protect from browsing and eliminate competition with weeds. Coppice/Pollard: Coppices and pollards well and can regenerate after lopping and heavy browsing. Resistance: Insect resistant; withstands fire after 3rd year of establishment, browse resistant when mature. Uses/Benefits Edible, alcohol (fruit, leaves, and flowers); firewood, charcoal, rafters, tools, bowls, mortars, petals, fence posts (wood); fodder (leaves, fruit); tannin/dye (bark, root, fruit, seed); medicine (bark, leaves, fruit roots); fiber (bark) Conservation Soil: Erosion control species due to shallow, wide‐spreading lateral roots and a narrowly branching taproot. Agroforestry: Live fencing (hedge), shelterbelts. 212 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Bauhinia rufescens Common Name: Bauhinia Origin: African Description Height: 1‐8m. Form: Short multi‐stemmed shrub. Bark: White to gray; smooth; fibrous and scaly in the old, pink slash. Thorns: 10cm long thorn‐like lateral shoots. Leaves: Evergreen in humid regions; deciduous under ordinary Sahel conditions. Flowers: Greenish‐yellow to white‐pink clusters; fragrant. Fruit: Twisted pods; up to 10cm long; 4‐10 seeds per pod. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Arid and Semi‐arid tropics; associated with lowlands and farmlands in dry savannah regions; good drought resistance. Soil: Found on poor, arid, sandy, stony soils, as well as on deep clays. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (200‐800m); Mean Annual Rainfall (400‐
1,000mm); Mean Annual Temperature (>40°C). Nursery Specifics Germination Rate: With treatment, approximately 40%. Seed Treatment: Scarification or soak in hot water overnight. Seed Storage: Not commonly practiced (9,000‐10,000 seeds/kg). Pots: Requires 4‐6 months in the nursery. Note: Grows mainly in the wild. 213 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Management Establishment: Seedlings are fairly hardy, but need to be protected from browsing animals through first growing season. Growth is fairly slow. Coppice/Pollard: Good. After first year, regenerates quickly and abundantly after browsing. Uses/Benefits Edible (fruit and seed), rafters, fenceposts, bark as fiber, tannin (bark), medicine (fruit, roots, leaves) Conservation Soil: Erosion control. Agroforestry: Live fencing (hedge) and shelterbelt species; not a good shade tree. 214 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Butyrosperm parkii Common Name: Sheanut Origin: African Savanah Description Height: 9‐15m. Form: Single‐stemmed with a large branching crown. Bark: Thick and fissured. Leaves: Deciduous; old leaves are shed in the middle and end of the dry season, and trees are in full leaf by the onset of the rainy season. Flowers: Flowering lasts from 1 to 3 months; Flowers are hermaphroditic and occur in groupings of 30‐40 flowers. Individual flowers are white or creamy‐
white and 1‐2cm in diameter. Fruit: Fruits take 4‐6 months to develop, and reach maturity early in the rainy season. Mature fruits are an elliptical, yellow‐green or yellow berry 5‐8cm long and 3‐4cm wide, containing a single, reddish seed. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Light‐demanding species of open sites and parkland savannah; very drought resistant. Soil: Prefers dry and sandy clay soils with a good humus cover; also tolerates stony sites, though with lower yields. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (100‐1,200m); Mean Annual Rainfall (600‐
1,400mm); Mean Annual Temperature (24‐32°C). 215 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Seed Collection: Collect freshly fallen fruit. Seed Storage: Stores for 1 month; sow immediately after de‐pulping. Seed Treatment: None needed; plant with the point of the white part down and with the seed half exposed. Germination Time: 14‐30 days. Pots: Needs 18‐24 months in the nursery; sow seed 4‐5cm deep. Beds: Not practiced. Direct sowing is recommended due to the long tap root; does not transplant well. Management Establishment: Wide spacing, site preparation, elimination of weed competition, protection against fire and browsing are essential. Spacing/Rotation: 10‐12 trees/ha. Resistance: Older trees may tolerate annual burning. Termite resistant. Uses/Benefits Edible (fruit and seed); firewood, charcoal, posts, rafters, tools, mortals, pestles (wood); fodder (leaves and fruits); dye (ash); seed‐oil for lamp burning, medicine (bark, butter); bee fodder (flowers) Conservation Soil: Erosion control. Agroforestry: Windbreak, excellent for intercropping (millet, groundnuts, maize, etc.). 216 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Cajanus cajan Common Name: Pigeon Pea Origin: Northeast Africa and Southern Asia Description Height: 1‐5m. Form: Woody shrub; tall, open, and upright or dwarf compact. Bark: Thick and fissured. Leaves: Deciduous; leaves retained into the dry season; alternate; pinnately trifoliate. Flowers: Flowers multi‐colored with yellow predominant; red, purple, or orange may occur in streaks on the dorsal side. Fruit: Pods are compressed; 2‐9 seeds/pod; resistant to shattering in the field. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Prefers grassy habitats in the Arid and Semi‐arid Tropics; infertile arid sites; extremely drought resistant. Soil: Adaptive to a wide variety of soil conditions; sensitive to excessive salinity. Drainage: Sensitive to waterlogging. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐2,000m); Mean Annual Rainfall (400‐
2,500mm); Mean Annual Temperature (18‐38°C). 217 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Seed Collection: Collect fresh seeds. Seed Storage: No problems with long storage under preferred conditions (~5,000‐14,000 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: None needed. Germination: 85‐95% for fresh seeds. Beds: Direct sow in fields as a crop. Management Establishment: Weed for 4‐8 weeks; sensitive to grazing and fire. Spacing/Rotation: 30,000 plants/ha. Coppice/Pollard: Coppice – for five years, cut at ground; pollard – cut at 0.2m. Uses/Benefits Edible (dry and green seeds); firewood (wood); basket material, thatch (branches) fodder (pods, husks, and foliage); medicine (leaves and seeds); bee fodder (flower). Conservation Soil: Erosion control, green manure, nitrogen fixing, roots may break through plow pans. Agroforestry: Windbreak, live fencing, intercropping (excellent with cereals). 218 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Calotropis procera Common Name: Rubber Tree Origin: Sub‐Saharan Africa/Middle East Description Height: Average ≤ 2.5m.
Form: Shrub or small tree with simple stem; rarely branched, woody at base. Bark: Fissured and corky. Exudes white latex when cut or broken. Leaves: Opposite, simple; blades oblong‐ovate. Flowers: Hermaphroditic; 5‐lobed and shortly united at the base. Fruit: Simple, fleshy, and inflated. Seeds within are numerous and flat with silky, white pappus 3cm or more in length. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Pioneers degraded sites, such as roadsides, lagoon edges, and in overgrazed native pastures. Assumed to be an indicator of over‐
cultivation; extremely drought resistant. Soil: Prefers disturbed, sandy soils. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (up to 1,300m); Mean Annual Rainfall (300‐
400mm). Nursery Specifics Seeding: The tree seeds freely and natural regeneration is common. Propagation: Propagation through half‐stumping assumes a special importance in order to pass on desirable cultivation traits. 219 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Management Spacing/Rotation: 1‐2m spacing. A single harvest per season is preferable to a double or even triple harvest. Uses/Benefits Food (bark and latex); fodder (pods, leaves, and flowers); charcoal (stems); fiber (stem fibers); rubber (liquid latex); tannin (bark extract). Conservation Soil: Source of green manure. Helps improve soil water conditions and also acts as a soil binder. Other: Indicates sulfur dioxide emissions in the air and exhausted soil conditions. 220 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Carica papaya Common Name: Papaya or pawpaw Origin: Tropical America Description Height: 6‐10m. Form: Single‐stemmed herb. Bark: Hollow green or deep purple stem, roughened by leaf scars. Leaves: Emerge from upper part of the stem in a spiral on horizontal petioles; 30‐105cm long. The life of a leaf is 4‐6 months. Flowers: The white flowers have five petals and are fleshy, waxy and slightly fragrant. Fruit: Generally, the fruit is melon‐like, oval to nearly round. The skin is waxy and thin but fairly tough. Ripe fruit is juicy, sweetish and somewhat like a cantaloupe in flavor; produces 30‐150 fruits/year. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Wide range of areas from equatorial tropics to temperate latitudes; must be grown in warm, sunny areas sheltered from wind; may withstand six months of dry season if irrigated. Soil: Thrives in permeable, well‐aerated, rootknot nematode‐free, fertile loamy soil; preferably rich in organic matter with neutral reaction (pH 6‐7). Drainage: Prefers well‐drained soils and is sensitive to water‐logging. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,600m); Mean Annual Rainfall (1,000‐
2,000mm); Mean Annual Temperature (21‐33°C). 221 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Seed Collection: Remove gelatinous layer by rubbing between fingers or with sand. Seed Storage: Stores for up to 5 months (~20,000 seeds/kg). Germination Time: 10‐14 days. Seed Treatment: None needed, but may soak. Pots: Requires 2 months in the nursery Beds: Requires 3‐4 months in the nursery. Note: Plants may be male, female, or hermaphroditic. Management Establishment: Sensitive to fire, wind, competition from weeds, and rot and wilt diseases associated with poor drainage. Spacing/Rotation: 3 x 3m spacing with 1 male for every 15‐20 females. Coppice Pollard: Poor. Uses/Benefits Edible (fruit, young leaves); fodder (leaves, fruit); medicine (leaves, fruit, seeds, roots). Conservation Agroforestry: Common homegarden species. 222 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Cassia siamea Common Name: Cassia Origin: Southeast Asia Description Height: 18m. Form: Single‐stemmed with dense upright crown. Bark: Smooth, mottled gray and brown; slight fissuring with age. Leaves: Rounded, oval, and opposite. Flowers: Golden yellow flowers with five petals; appear as clusters at terminal ends of branches. Fruit: 20‐30cm pods; contain 15‐25 seeds/pod. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Arid and semi‐arid tropics; tolerates low rainfall and dry seasons of 4‐8 months. Soil: Performs best on deep, well‐drained, fertile soils with pH 5.5‐7.5, but will grow on degraded lateritic soils provided that drainage is not impeded. Species is intolerant of saline soils. Drainage: Prefers well‐drained soils. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,200m); Mean Annual Rainfall (400‐
2,800mm); Mean Annual Temperature (20‐31°C). 223 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Collect unopened pods, dry in sun, beat with mortar, wind separate. Seed Storage: Up to 24 months. Germination Time: 7‐14 days. Seed Treatment: None needed if fresh, but may soak stored seed for 24 hours. Pots: Requires 4‐5 months in the nursery. Beds: Requires 7‐12 months in the nursery. Propagation: Stump‐plant with 10‐20cm root. Management Establishment: Sensitive to fire, browse damage, and competition from weeds. Moisture conservation measures aid in establishment; requires careful pruning to age gracefully. Spacing/Rotation: 3x3m spacing with anticipated rotation of 5‐20 years (depending on site). Coppice/Pollard: Good for 4 or 5 rotations. Resistance: Transplants well even in the dry season, if stumped. Uses/Benefits Edible (young leaves); firewood, charcoal, posts, rafters, tools (wood); fodder (leaves)(note: poisonous to pigs); medicine (leaves, wood); bee fodder (flowers); tannin (bark). Conservation Soil: Erosion control, increases topsoil infiltration, reduces run‐off, reclamation species. Agroforestry: Windbreaks, shelterbelts, shade, live fencing, border fencing, intercropping. 224 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Casuarina equisetifolia Common Name: Casaurina Origin: Australia Description Height: 15‐20m.
Form: Large straight bole with lofty open feathery crown. Bark: Light grayish and smooth on young trunks; rough, thick, furrowed and flaking into oblong pieces on older trees. Thorns: n/a Leaves: Main shoots minutely hairy, with small recurved scales, usually 8 in a whorl. Main spikes are usually numerous and terminate the drooping branches. Flowers: Unisexual; males in a terminal, simple spike; females more acute and protruding from the surface of the cone. Fruit: Elliptical, seed‐bearing cones. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Humid and semi‐humid tropics. Adaptable to poor sites and can tolerate a 6‐8 month dry season. Soil: Invariably well‐drained and rather coarse textured; principally sands and sandy loams. Drainage: Intolerant of prolonged waterlogging and may fail on poor sand with reduced subsoil moisture. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,400m); Mean Annual Rainfall (200‐
3,500mm); Mean Annual Temperature (10‐35°C). 225 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Pick or cut cone‐bearing twigs; dry cones in sun. Seed Storage: Stores for 2 years (~26,000 seeds/kg, but viability may be as low as 50%). Germination Time: 14‐21 days. Seed Treatment: None needed. Pots: Requires 3‐5 months in the nursery. Beds: Requires 1‐4 months in the nursery. Note: Shade seedlings during establishment in the nursery. Management Establishment: Sensitive to fire, browse damage, and competition from weeds. Spacing/Rotation: 2 x 2m spacing with anticipated rotation of 7‐15 years (depending on site). Coppice/Pollard: Poor. Uses/Benefits Excellent firewood, charcoal, posts, beams, rafters, tools, oars, electric poles (wood); tannin and dye (bark); medicine (root). Conservation Soil: Erosion control, good soil improvement, nitrogen fixing, reclamation species, Agroforestry: Windbreaks, shelterbelts, hedges, good fallow rotation crop (note: may limit soil moisture content), intercropping. 226 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Ceiba pentandra Common Name: Kapok or Silk Cotton Tree Origin: India Description Height: 60m. Form: Wide trunk with large base roots; long and straight. Bark: Gray, smooth bark; large spines protrude from the trunk to discourage damage. Thorns: Present on stem when tree is in juvenile stage. Leaves: Deciduous, compound, and palmate; the 5‐9 leaflets are 7‐8cm long and 1‐4cm wide. Flowers: Usually open before leaves appear and are clustered on small, new branches. The 5 petals are approximately 3cm long and are a creamy white or pale pink. Fruit: Pods are woody, smooth, and pendulous, with a light green color; inside, a white cotton‐like fiber surrounds brown seeds. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Forested areas; prefers high water table; capable of withstanding a 6‐7 month dry season. Soil: Prefers deep permeable, volcanic loam. Drainage: Prefers sites free from waterlogging. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐900m); Mean Annual Rainfall (750‐3,000mm); Mean Annual Temperature (18‐38°C). 227 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Remove from capsule. Seed Storage: Seeds remain viable for up to a year under normal conditions (10,000‐45,000 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: None needed, but may soak overnight prior to sowing. Pots: Requires 3‐5 months in the nursery. Beds: Stumps require 6‐8 months in the nursery; striplings require 3‐5 months in the nursery. Note: Natural reproduction in the wild is virtually unknown, due to the value of the kapok fiber. Management Spacing/Rotation: General spacing of 7 x 7m is common; may be raised with agricultural crops until the canopy closes. Tree thinning may be necessary to cull undesirable trees. Uses/Benefits Edible (ground seeds, pods, and leaves for soup); canoes, stakes (wood); pillow/mattress stuffing (cotton/fiber); fodder (leaves). Conservation Soil: Waterside erosion control (deep, vigorous root system) Agroforestry: Windbreak (older trees may blow over with strong winds), shade, live fence posts. 228 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Genus: Citrus Species: aurantifolia, medica var limonum, paradise, sinensis Common Name: Lime, Lemon, Grapefruit, Orange Origin: Far East Description Height: 4.5‐7.5m.
Form: Multi‐stemmed with global crown. Bark: Gray and brown with vertical fissures as trees mature. Thorns: Yes (lemon, lime); no (orange). Leaves: Evergreen, alternate, and ovate; 4‐10cm wide. Flowers: Borne singly or in clusters; five petals; white and sweetly fragrant. Fruit: Varies by species from nearly round or oblate to pear‐shaped or oval. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Riverbanks. Drought Resistance: Irrigate if soil moisture is not available. Soil: Sandy loam to clay loam; well‐drained areas. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐2,000m); Mean Annual Rainfall (900‐
2,500mm); Mean Annual Temperature (5‐40°C). 229 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Extract fresh seeds from mature fruit. Seed Storage: Can store for one month, but recommended to use fresh seed. Germination Time: 20 days. Seed Treatment: None needed. Pots: Requires 5‐6 months in the nursery. Note: May graft between species groups. Management Spacing/Rotation: 75 trees/ha for orange/grapefruit; 134/ha for lemon/lime. Coppice/Pollard: Average. Uses/Benefits Edible (fruit and leaves) Conservation Soil: Shallow surface rooting; not nitrogen fixing. Agroforestry: May grow cover crops with citrus, if enough moisture is present; common in home gardens. 230 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Cocos nucifera Common Name: Coconut Origin: Unknown Description Height: 20‐25m.
Form: Leaves crowded at the apex of single trunk marked with leaf scars – no branches. Bark: Smooth, columnar, light gray‐brown trunk. Leaves: 2‐6m long; leaflets up to 1m long; narrow and tapering. Flowers: Small, numerous, sweet scented, light yellow, in clusters that emerge from canoe‐shaped sheaths among the leaves. . Fruit: Ovoid, 15‐30cm long; contain a single seed; exocarp a thick, fibrous husk; inside is the coconut meat. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Distributed throughout the coastal areas of the tropics; naturalized throughout the world; requires a hot, moist climate and a high water table. Soil: Well‐drained alluviums, sand; good drainage is required in clay soils, tolerates salinity. Drainage: Not tolerant of prolonged waterlogging. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (520‐900m); Mean Annual Rainfall (1,000‐
1,500mm); Mean Annual Temperature (20‐28°C). 231 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Fruits mature 12 months after flowering, should be planted after two‐week ripening period, select nuts that are round –medium sized – mature (11‐12 months old), mature fruits are partially brown. Seed Storage: Plant after a two week ripening period. Germination Time: Two months. Seed Treatment: None needed, but may trim the nuts just above the functional eye in the area opposite the widest segment of the husk to aid normal sprouting development. Pots: Requires 3‐5 months; prune roots that grow through the bottom. Beds: Requires 3‐5 months; outplant when there are 2‐4 leaves. Note: Place nuts 2/3 in soil with the widest side down, trim the roots as seedlings are pulled from the beds. Management Establishment: Planting density depends on soil moisture, variety, and type. Keep weeded for two years, water frequently, and supply adequate amounts of mulch. Spacing/Rotation: 8‐9m triangular spacing. Coppice/Pollard: No. Resistance: Currently being severely damaged by blight. Uses/Benefits Edible (fruit, nut, juice, young tips); posts, rafters (wood); thatch (leaves) Conservation Agroforestry: May benefit from intercropping with legume species, can intercrop with many food and tree crops (pawpaw, maize, cassava, etc.). 232 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Coffea arabica Common Name: Coffee Origin: East Africa Description Height: Typically, ≤ 5m, when pruned. Form: Glabrous shrub or small tree. Leaves: Evergreen; leaves are simple, alternate, opposite, thin, dark‐green, shiny surfaced, and fairly stiff. Prominent leaf midrib and lateral veins. Flowers: Produced in dense clusters along reproductive branches in the axils of the leaves; white, sweet scented and star‐shaped. Fruit: A drupe; immature berries are dull green; upon ripening, skin color changes from green to yellow to crimson. Each berry contains two seeds; after removal of the skin, dried seeds provide the coffee beans of commerce. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Thrives in a moderately humid atmosphere. Soil: Savanna soils of moderate acidity to neutral or slight alkalinity are suitable. Very sandy soils and shallow soils are unsuitable. Soils should be deep, slightly acidic, well‐drained loams, rich in nutrients with a generous supply of organic matter. Drainage: Requires moderate drainage. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (1,300‐3,000m); Mean Annual Rainfall (1,500‐
2,000mm); Mean Annual Temperature (15‐25°C). 233 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Harvested from mature, seed‐producing trees. Seed Storage: May store up to two months; increased storage reduces viability (~3,200 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: Remove parchment prior to planting. Pots: Requires 6‐12 months. Beds: Plant 20 seeds in 3.5 x 3.5m holes at the beginning of rainy season; will lose ~ ½ of the seeds naturally; requires 12 months before outplanting. Management Establishment: Shade for first years of establishment; control weeds throughout the year; mulches, green manure, and fertilizers are commonly used. Spacing/Rotation: Plant seedlings on contoured fields 2‐3m apart in 3‐5m rows. Coppice/Pollard: Prune annually for increased yields. Uses/Benefits Beverage, flat cakes, flavoring (dried seeds); fodder (pulp and parchment) furniture (wood) Conservation Soil: The pulp and parchment are used as manure and mulch. Annual litter fall maintains organic matter levels. Agroforestry: During first years of establishment, may be intercropped with food crops, such as corn, beans or rice. 234 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Diospyros mespiliformis Common Name: Ebony Origin: Africa Description Height: 15‐50m.
Form: Dense, rounded, and buttressed stem. Bark: Gray‐black or black, smooth in young trees; rough with small regular scales in older trees; pinkish when slashed. Leaves: Alternate; shiny‐green above, paler beneath; 4‐7cm long and oblong. Flowers: White and fragrant; male flowers are clustered and hairy; female flowers are solitary. Fruit: Fleshy; up to 3cm in diameter; green and pubescent when young; yellowish to orange when ripe. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Woodlands, savannas, and along riverbanks. Soil: Favors the heavy, rocky soils of riverbanks, but will grow will in moist, red loams and volcanic and loamy sands. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (350‐1,250m); Mean Annual Rainfall (500‐
1,270mm); Mean Annual Temperature (16‐27°C). Nursery Specifics Seed Storage: May be maintained for one season in open storage (~2,400‐3,200 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: Soak in hot water overnight to break dormancy. Beds: Should be sown during the spring in flat seed trays filled with river sand. Outplant at the 3‐leaf stage. Damage may occur to the taproot if left longer. Note: Rate of growth is slow initially, but growth rate speeds up considerably after first year. 235 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Management Establishment: Slash and weed until the trees are well‐established; protect from fire; should be sheltered in cold areas. Coppice/Pollard: Good. Resistance: Termite resistant. Uses/Benefits Timber, furniture, carvings, canoes, fuelwood, and charcoal (wood); edible (fruit); fodder (leaves) Conservation Agroforestry: Non‐aggressive root system makes it a suitable species for home gardens. 236 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Elaeis guineensis Common Name: Oil Palm Origin: Africa Description Height: 5‐7m. Form: Thick trunk; leaves/fronds crowded at the apex of a single trunk. Bark: Marked with rings of leaf scars; mature trees typically show scars of cut fronds. Thorns: Along the leaf stem/frond. Leaves: Bases adhere; 1‐2m long, 12‐20cm wide; saw‐toothed, broadened at the base; fibrous, green. Flowers: Monoecious; male and female flowers in separate clusters, but on the same tree. Fruit: In large clusters of 200‐300; black when ripe, red at base, with thick, ivory‐white flesh and small cavity in the center; nuts encased in a fibrous covering which contains the oil. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Savannas and forests. Flourishes in areas where forests have been cleared; can tolerate a short dry season. Soil: Benefits from deep soils that are fertile, iron‐free, and well‐drained.; tolerates a fair range of soil pH (4‐6). Biophysical Limits: Altitude (up to 900m); Mean Annual Rainfall (2,000‐
3,000mm); Mean Annual Temperature (27‐35°C). 237 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Use ripe seeds ready for cooking or processing. Seed Storage: Remove oily coating; can be stored for several months (~230 seeds/kg). Germination Time: 1‐2 months. Seed Treatment: Remove oily coating, bury 4‐5cm deep in rich humus; keep moist; need moisture and warm soil temperatures to germinate. Pots: Outplant when seedlings are 50‐60cm tall. Beds: Transplant when seedlings are 20‐25cm tall. Note: Difficult to germinate from the seed due to the variability of moisture and temperature. Management Establishment: More photo‐sensitive than nitrogen sensitive, likes sun and needs regular watering or irrigation. Spacing/Rotation: 10m triangular with an estimated rotation of 15 years. Coppice/Pollard: No. Resistance: Good. Uses/Benefits Edible (oil); beverage (wine and distilled alcohol made from the sap); thatch (fronds have many uses). Conservation Agroforestry: In oil palm plantations, interplanting with other crops and trees is possible; however, care should be taken to avoid shading oil palm trees. 238 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Eucalyptus camaldulensis Common Name: Eucalyptus Origin: Australia Description Height: 18‐50m.
Form: Straight, single‐stemmed bole with thin, wide‐spreading crown. Bark: Smoothish, white‐gray, or buff, shedding in strips or irregular flakes; irregular bark occupies the first 1‐2m of the trunk. Leaves: Alternate, gray‐blue, drooping, often curved or sickle shaped, tapering to a long point. Flowers: 5‐10 flowers, flower buds are white, each flower located on a slender stalk 5‐12mm long. Fruit: Small capsules at the end of thin stalks. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Ranges from tropical through subtropical and warm temperate, and from arid to semiarid; tolerates a dry season of 0‐8 months. Soil: Grows best on deep, silty or loamy soils with a clay base and accessible water table. Tolerates acidic soils. Drainage: Tolerates waterlogging and periodic flooding. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,500m); Mean Annual Rainfall (250‐
2,500mm); Mean Annual Temperature (21‐40°C). 239 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Pick capsule from the tree, just before ripe; dry seeds in the sun. Seed Storage: May keep for several years (~700,000‐800,000 seeds/kg). Germination Time: 10 days. Seed Treatment: None needed. Pots: Requires 5‐6 months in the nursery. Note: If growth is too fast, cut back tops. Avoid overhead watering at early stages. Management Establishment: Protect from competition with weeds and monitor for insect damage; may need artificial watering. Spacing/Rotation: 2x2m or 3x3m spacing; 7‐10 year rotation, depending on site conditions. Coppice/Pollard: Good. Resistance: Can tolerate fire, poor soil, salt, and waterlogging. Uses/Benefits Firewood, charcoal, posts, rafters, tools, fence posts (wood); tannin (bark/gum); medicine (leaves/gum) Conservation Soil: Good soil improvement; good erosion control (especially along water courses); dune stabilization Agroforestry: Good for windbreak, shade, and intercropping (maize). 240 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Eucalyptus microtheca Common Name: Coolibah Origin: Inland Australia Description Height: 3‐20m. Form: Site‐dependent. Stunted 3m bush or 20m tree with spreading branches. Bark: Gray or brackish, thick, fibrous, rough, not shedding. Leaves: Evergreen. Alternate, narrow, 6‐20cm long, 1‐3cm wide. Dull green and slightly paler underneath. Flowers: White, very small with 4‐6mm long buds; fragrant. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Seasonally inundated watercourses; Arid and Semi‐arid tropics. Soil: Prefers clay or silty loam, heavy soils. Drainage: Can tolerate seasonal flooding. Nursery Specifics Seed Treatment: None needed, but must be exposed to sunlight during germination. Pots: Needs 6 months in the nursery or until seedlings reach a height of 40cm. Note: Nurse seeds in a germination box and transplant to pots; avoid overhead watering at initial stages. Management Establishment: Protect from competition with weeds; fire sensitive. Spacing/Rotation: 4x4m, with a 6 year rotation (variable with site‐specific characteristics). 241 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Coppice/Pollard: Good. Resistance: Resistant to alkalinity, clay, drought, fungus, heat, heavy soil, high pH, insects, and wind. Uses/Benefits Firewood, charcoal, posts, poles, fence posts (wood) Conservation Soil: Good erosion control Agroforestry: Windbreak and shade. 242 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Gliricidia sepium Common Name: Quick‐Stick Origin: Central America Description Height: 10‐15m.
Form: Multi‐stemmed contorted trunk with open crown. Bark: Smooth. Leaves: Nearly deciduous during the dry season. Alternate, pinnately compound, 15‐30cm long. Flowers: Numerous on leafless branches, pinkish. Fruit: Immature pods, yellow‐green; turning black with maturity. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Adaptable to moist and dry sites. Humid and semi‐humid tropics. Soil: Thrives in a wide variety, including saline soils, beach soils, heavy clay, acidic, and alkaline. Drainage: Well‐drained sites. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,200m); Mean Annual Rainfall (600‐
3,500mm); Mean Annual Temperature (15‐30°C). 243 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Harvest pods when yellow/brown and before they open and dry in the sun. Storage: Stores for years (~8,500 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: None needed; may soak in hot water, remove from water overnight, soak again in the morning. Pots: Needs 2‐4 months in the nursery. Beds: Stump cut shoot at 25cm and roots at 15cm. Management Establishment: May withstand light browse. Spacing/Rotation: Woodlot – 1x1m or 2x2m spacing. Coppice/Pollard: Good. Resistance: Can tolerate seasonal drought, limestone, slope, and weeds. Uses/Benefits Edible (flowers); firewood, charcoal, posts, rafters, tools, furniture (wood); fodder (note: leaves only, remainder is toxic to most animals); medicine (leaves). Conservation Soil: Good mulch; green manure; enriches soil; nitrogen fixing; good for erosion control Agroforestry: Windbreak; shade; livefencing; and alley‐cropping. 244 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Gmelina arborea Common Name: Melina Origin: Tropical Asia Description Height: 15‐45m.
Form: Single‐stemmed tapered trunk with large branches and broad crown. Bark: Light gray or gray‐yellow, smooth, thin, somewhat corking, becoming brown and rough with maturity. Leaves: Deciduous. Leaves opposite and broadly ovate. Flowers: Many; short‐stalked; yellow‐orange or brownish‐yellow. Fruit: Immature pods are yellow‐green; turning black with maturity. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Humid tropics; plant along watercourses or irrigate. Soil: Prefers loams; adaptable to laterite soils; grows poorly on sandy, acidic, and thin soils. Drainage: Cannot tolerate watelogging. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,200m); Mean Annual Rainfall (750‐
4,500mm); Mean Annual Temperature (20‐28°C). Nursery Specifics Collection: Collect fallen seeds; de‐pulp by soaking for 1 week; sun dry for 2 days. Storage: Stores for 6‐12 months; susceptible to fungus (~1,400 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: Soak for 24 hours. 245 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Pots: Not practiced. Beds: Stumps – cut stem to 5‐15cm and root to 10‐15cm. Management Establishment: Protect from competition with weeds, browsing, and girdling. Spacing/Rotation: 2x2m spacing; 5‐8 year rotation (depending on site characteristics). Coppice/Pollard: Good for 3 coppices before replanting. Resistance: Can tolerate disease, drought, and fire. Uses/Benefits Firewood, charcoal, posts, rafters, boxes (wood); fodder (leaves, bark of young trees); medicine (roots, bark, sap) Conservation Soil: Provides little benefit to soil characteristics. Agroforestry: Shade, livefencing, may be intercropped at wide spacings. 246 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Khaya senegalensis Common Name: Mahogany Origin: Africa Savanna Description Height: 15‐30m.
Form: Single‐stemmed with large, dense crown. Bark: Dark gray, with small, thin, reddish‐tinged scales. Leaves: Evergreen; leaves alternate and compound with opposite leaflets; oblong with pale green color. Flowers: Cream petals; orange disc around the ovary. Fruit: Upright, spherical woody capsule; opening by 4 valves from the apex. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Riverine forests and scattered higher‐rainfall savannah woodlands. Soil: Tolerant to a wide range of soils; prefers neutral, deep, sandy loam soils that are well‐drained. Drainage: Resistant to flooding and may be considered for planting on swampy soils. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,800m); Mean Annual Rainfall (400‐
1,750mm); Mean Annual Temperature (24‐31°C). 247 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Collect seeds from fallen pods. Storage: Stores poorly, may not last more than 3 months (~6,000‐7,000 seeds/kg, but occasionally as few as 3,000). Seed Treatment: None needed. Pots: Requires 4‐5 months in the nursery. Beds: Striplings (require 8‐10 months); may propagate from cuttings, direct sowing, or wildlings. Management Establishment: Protect from competition with weeds. Spacing/Rotation: 5x5m and 5x10m on cleared and prepared sites. Coppice/Pollard: Good. Resistance: Moderately shade tolerant; mature trees resistant to fire. Uses/Benefits Firewood, charcoal, posts, rafters, tools, pestles, mortars (wood); fodder (leaves); medicine (bark, fruit, leaves) Conservation Soil: Good, though not nitrogen fixing. Agroforestry: Windbreaks, avenue and roadside plantings, live fencing. 248 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Leucaena leucocephala Common Name: Leucaena Origin: Central America Description Height: 5‐20m. Form: Short, many‐branched shrub or medium to tall‐sized tree with upright, angular branching and a narrow open crown. Bark: Bark on young branches is smooth, gray‐brown; slash is salmon pink, darker gray‐brown, and rougher with shallow, rusty orange‐brown vertical fissures and deep red inner bark on older branches and bole. . Leaves: Evergreen; acute at the tip and rounded at the base; tend to fold up with heat, cold, or lack of water. Flowers: White or pale‐cream white; 100‐180 flowers per head, in groups of 2‐6. Fruit: Pods average 11‐19cm long and 15‐21mm wide, with 5‐20 per flower head; seeds dark brown, hard and shiny. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Farmlands and moist sites of Humid and Semi‐humid tropics; poor cold tolerance. Soil: Performs optimally on calcareous soils, but can be found on saline soils and on alkaline soils (up to pH 8). Intolerant of soils with low pH, low phosphorus, low calcium, high salinity, or high aluminum saturation. Drainage: Not tolerant of waterlogged conditions. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,500m); Mean Annual Rainfall (650‐3,000mm); Mean Annual Temperature (25‐30°C). 249 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Collect ripe pods before they open; dry in sun. Storage: Stores for 1‐3 years (approximately 15,000‐20,000 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: Scarification or pour boiling water over seeds; pour off in 3 minutes; replace with temperate water; soak for 24 hours. Pots: Requires 2‐3 months in the nursery. Beds: Stumps – cut shoot at 25cm and root at 15cm; striplings, direct sowing, wildlings. Note: Seedlings may get root bound if too large. Management Establishment: Protect from competition with weeds, browsing, and termite attacks. Spacing/Rotation: Woodlot spacing 1x1m or 2x2m; 2‐5 year rotation (site‐
dependent). Coppice/Pollard: Good. Uses/Benefits Edible (fruit, leaves, dried and ground seeds) Firewood, charcoal, posts, rafters, tools, fence posts (wood); fodder (leaves and fruits for non‐ruminants only); medicine (seeds) Conservation Soil: Green manure, nitrogen fixing, erosion control. Agroforestry: Windbreaks, firebreaks, shade, live‐fencing, alley cropping. 250 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Mangifera indica Common Name: Mango Origin: Indo‐Burma Description Height: 15‐20m.
Form: Single‐stemmed with large, dark green, umbrella‐shaped crown. Bark: Brown, smooth, with many fissures; thick, becoming darker, rough and scaly or furrowed. Inner bark, light brown and bitter. Leaves: Alternate, simple, leathery, and oblong; curved upright from the midrib and sometimes with wavy edges. Flowers: Branched panicles bear many very small greenish‐white or pinkish flowers. Fruit: Irregularly egg‐shaped fleshy drupe. The skin smooth, greenish‐yellow, sometimes tinged with red. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Tropic and sub‐tropic plains; areas with high water table or available irrigation. Soil: Thrive in well‐drained soils with pH ranging from 5.5 to 7.5; fairly tolerant to alkalinity; need deep soil to accommodate the extensive root system. Drainage: Is tolerant of flooding, but not poorly drained soils. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (up to 1,200m); Mean Annual Rainfall (300‐
2,500mm); Mean Annual Temperature (19‐35°C). 251 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Remove pulp from ripe fruit; dry seed in sun. Storage: Stores for 3 months (up to 50 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: None needed; plant with point upwards at 2.5‐5cm deep or spread a large number on bed and cover thinly with soil, transplant into pots. Germination Time: 30 days. Pots: Requires one year in the nursery. Beds: Space 15x30cm Note: Acquire seeds locally; may graft. Management Establishment: Needs windbreak, shade, flower removal/pruning, and irrigation. Spacing/Rotation: 12m centers. Coppice/Pollard: Average. Uses/Benefits Edible (fruit, young leaves) firewood, charcoal, tools (wood); fodder (leaves and fruit); medicine (seed, fruit, and leaves) Conservation Soil: Fibrous surface roots. Agroforestry: Windbreaks, shade. 252 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Moringa oleifera Common Name: Horseradish Tree Origin: India and Arabia Description Height: 8‐12m. Form: Shrub or small tree; mutli‐stemmed with umbrella‐shaped open crown. Bark: Smooth, dark gray; slash thin and yellowish. Leaves: Deciduous and alternate; leaflets dark green above and pale on the underside. Flowers: Produced throughout the year; slender stalks with 5 green sepals and 5 white petals; sweet aromatic. Fruit: Large and distinctive; up to 90 cm long, slightly constricted at intervals; splits to expose rows of rounded seeds. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Colonizes stream banks and savanna areas where the soils are well‐drained and the water table remains farely high all the year round. Soil: Adapted to a wide range of soil types, but does well in well‐drained clay or clay‐loam. Prefers neutral to slightly acidic soils. Drainage: Sensitive to waterlogging. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (up to 1,000m); Mean Annual Rainfall (>500mm); Mean Annual Temperature (12‐40°C). 253 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Remove seeds from dried pods. Storage: Stores for 3 months. Seed Treatment: None needed. Germination Time: 1‐2 weeks. Management Establishment: May be allelopathic; susceptible to wind damage. Coppice/Pollard: Good. Uses/Benefits Edible (leaves, young shoots, flowers, and young seeds) firewood, fiber (wood); fodder (leaves and fruit); tannin (bark); soap (oil); medicine (seed, fruit, leaves) Conservation Soil: Green leaves make useful mulch. The press cake left after oil extraction from the seeds can be used as a soil conditioner or as fertilizer. Agroforestry: Shade, livefencing, hedgerows; useful where intense, direct sunlight can damage crops. 254 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Musa spp. Common Name: Banana/Plantain Origin: Indo‐Malaysian Region Description Height: 1.5‐6m. Form: Large and erect herbaceous plant with a succulent and juicy stem. Color: Entirely green or green with maroon and/or yellow splotches. Leaves: Fleshy stalked leaves numbering 4 to 15; arranged spirally. Unfurl at a rate of one per week, and extend upward and outward, to as much as 3m. Flowers: A transformed spike shooting out from the tip of the stem. Beginning as a long, tapering, purple‐clad bud, the flowers develop into slim, nectar‐rich, tubular, toothed, white flowers. Fruit: Young fruits develop from the female flowers and resemble slender green fingers. Over time, fruit color changes from deep‐green to yellow or red and range in length from 6 to 30cm and width from 2 to 5cm. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Requires a mean annual temperature of 80°F and a mean rainfall of 4” per month. Should not be more than 3 months of dry season. Soil: Prefers deep loams (at least 6”). Prefers acidity and does not tolerate salinity. Drainage: Thrives in well‐drained sites (soil that drain in 1‐2 hours following a rain storm). 255 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Management Propagation: Corms are customarily used for planting. Corms have a number of buds, or “eyes”, that develop into new shoots. The two upper buds develop rapidly and become vigorous plants. A healthy banana plant is uprooted and cut off ~10cm above the corm. Outer leaves are peeled to expose the buds. The corm is split between the two upper buds and trimmed with square sides. Immerse in hot water for 20 minutes and place in the shade (sanitized area) for 48 hours before planting. Set ~30cm in the soil with ~45cm wide holes. Suckers will emerge as conical shoots. Establishment: Requires weeding and protection from the wind. Spacing/Rotation: Plant close together to shade out undesired grasses. Uses/Benefits Edible (fruit); cloth (fiber); fodder (leaves and stalks) Conservation Agroforestry: Can interplant plantain with teak for up to 5 years, or until the canopy closes. May also intercrop with coconut and pineapple. 256 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Parkia biglobosa Common Name: Dawa Dawa Origin: African Savanna Description Height: 7‐20m. Form: Single‐stemmed with wide spreading crown; braches low down on a stout bole. Bark: Dark gray brown, thick, fissured. Leaves: Alternate, dark green, many (13‐60 pairs) leaflets of distinctive shape and venation held on a long stalk. Flowers: Hermaphroditic flowers of orange and red color. Fruit: Pink brown to dark brown pods; may contain up to 30 seeds. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Occurs in a wide range of habitats. Thrives in bush fallow and wooded farmland where cultivation is semi‐permanent and the water table is high. Soil: Prefers deep, cultivated soils, but also may be found on shallow, skeletal soils and thick laterites. Drainage: Thrives in well‐drained sites. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐300m); Mean Annual Rainfall (400‐700mm); Mean Annual Temperature (24‐28°C). 257 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Seed Collection: Pick freshly fallen pods, remove seeds from pod. Seed Storage: Stores poorly; best if planted when fresh (2,800‐6,700 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: Nick or soak overnight in hot water. Germination Time: 5‐10 days. Pots: Needs 10‐14 weeks in the nursery. Management Establishment: Requires protection from browse; refrain from extensive coppicing until tree is mature. Spacing/Rotation: 5x5m spacing, thin to 100 trees/ha after 8 years. Uses/Benefits Edible (fruit flesh, seeds); firewood, rafters, tools, poles (wood); fodder (leaves and fruit); tannin and dye (bark); soap (ashes); Conservation Soil: Mulch (leaf litter). Agroforestry: Useful as a windbreak and shade tree. It is commonplace to grow several crops (maize, cassava, yams, sorghum, and millet) under canopy. 258 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Parkinsonia aculeata Common Name: Jerusalem Thorn Origin: South America Description Height: 4‐10m. Form: Single, often crooked, stem with an open crown of spreading branches. Bark: Smooth, yellow‐green or blue‐green and slightly bitter. Thorns: Spines approximately 3cm long. Leaves: Alternate, ending with 20‐30cm long strips. Each strip contains 20‐30 pairs of thin, oblong, green, small leaflets which shed early. Flowers: Unbranched clusters on long slender stalks; irregular and slightly pea‐
shaped; yellow‐tinged with orange and hairy at the base. Fruit: Pods nearly cylindrical; 5‐10cm long, narrowed between seeds; long, pointed, and dark brown. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Arid, semi‐arid tropical, and sub‐tropical. Soil: Adaptable; thrives in desert gravel and sands along valleys and canyons; salt tolerant. Drainage: Grows poorly in waterlogged areas. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,300m); Mean Annual Rainfall (200‐
1,000mm); Mean Annual Temperature (≤36°C). 259 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Seed Collection: Pick pods when dry and shell by hand. Seed Storage: Seeds store well for long periods in cool, dry, airtight containers (11,000‐15,000 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: Soak for 2‐4 days or clip ends and soak overnight. Germination Time: 2‐10 days. Pots: Requires 6‐10 weeks in the nursery Beds: Stumps require 5‐6 months in nursery; striplings, 2‐3 months. Note: prune roots at time of out­planting. Management Establishment: Noted for fast growth; when fertilized, will grow up to 3m/year; requires full sun. Coppice/Pollard: Can withstand drastic pruning. Uses/Benefits Edible (fruit pulp); firewood, light poles, and posts (wood); fodder (foliage and pods); medicine (leaf, fruit, and stem) Conservation Soil: Erosion control, leaf litter as mulch, reclamation of wastelands Agroforestry: Suitable windbreak, live fencing. 260 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Persea americana Common Name: Avocado Origin: Tropical America Description Height: 9‐20m. Form: Straight bole; canopy ranges from low, dense and symmetrical to upright and asymmetrical. Leaves: 7‐41cm in length and variable in shape (elliptic, oval, lanceolate). Reddish when young, turning smooth, leathery, and dark green when mature. Flowers: Yellowish‐green, 1‐1.3cm in diameter; central axis terminates in a shoot. Fruit: A berry consisting of a single large seed, surrounded by a buttery pulp; skin is variable in thickness and texture. Fruit color at maturity is green, black, purple, or reddish; may weigh up to 2.3kg. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Prefers lowland tropical climates and relatively frost‐free areas of the subtropics. Prefers full sun; irrigation may be needed in the drier climates. Soil: Requires a well‐drained, aerated soil. A pH of 5‐5.8 is optimal for growth and yield. Drainage: Waterlogging will kill trees. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐2,500m); Mean Annual Rainfall (300‐
2,500mm); Mean Annual Temperature (‐4‐40°C). 261 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Seed Collection: Collect fresh seeds; do not let dry out. Seed Storage: Seeds are only viable for a few days. Seed Treatment: Remove seed coat, put base in ground with point being exposed. Beds: Spacing of 60cm between rows; 30‐45cm between plants in a row. Note: Graft after 6 months (or pencil thick diameter), shield bud after grafting; outplant after 12 months; ball roots when moved from nursery in a 25cm diameter; 25­40cm deep ball of soil. Management Establishment: In commercial groves, trees are planted from 5‐7m in rows and 7‐9m between rows. Pruning during the first two years encourages lateral growth and multiple framework branching. Grafted plants will produce within 2 or 3 years. Fruit generally does not ripen until it is picked or falls from the tree. Strong winds or a heavy crop easily breaks limbs. May require irrigation and shading in excessively hot or dry areas. Resistance: Susceptible to termite attack. Uses/Benefits Edible (fruit); house posts, light construction, furniture, cabinet making, carving, instruments (wood); fodder (surplus fruit); medicine (leaves, seed) indelible ink (seed) Conservation Agroforestry: May be used in homegardens, but is limited in agricultural use due to the fragility of the wood. 262 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Pithecellobium dulce Common Name: Madras Thorn Origin: Central America Description Height: 5‐20m. Form: Crooked multi‐stemmed with spreading branches and a broad crown. Bark: Grey, becoming rough, furrowed, and eventually peeling. Thorns: Short thorns at the base of each leaf. Leaves: Bipinnate, with 2 pairs of 2 kidney‐shaped leaflets each ~2x2cm. New leaf growth coincides with the loss of old leaves, giving the tree an evergreen appearance. Flowers: Small white heads 1cm in diameter. Fruit: Pods are 10‐15 x 1.5cm; spiraling and the color becoming reddish‐brown as they ripen. Each pod contains 5‐10 shiny black seeds. Tightly coiled seed pods are characteristic of this tree. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Denuded land of low fertility in the arid and semiarid tropics. Grows in both wet and dry areas under full sunlight; can tolerate an 8 month dry season. Soil: Found in most soils, including clay, limestone, and wet sand with a brackish water table. Tolerant to soil salinity and impoverished soils; grows best on deep, fertile loamy agricultural soils. Drainage: Can tolerate varied drainage, but prefers well‐drained sites. 263 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Biophysical Limits: Altitude (900‐1,800m); Mean Annual Rainfall (250‐
1,650mm); Mean Annual Temperature (0‐48°C). Nursery Specifics Seed Collection: Collect pods from trees; dry in shade until they open, releasing seeds. Seed Storage: May store for up to 6 months (6,460‐6,700 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: None needed. Beds: Broadcast in raised beds. Beds must have well‐pulverized organic soil that is well‐watered. Pots: Broadcast in polyurethane bags; requires 2‐4 months in the nursery. Note: Direct seeding should be used in the formation of hedges. Management Establishment: Young plants need the shelter from hot and dry winds; readily out‐competes weeds. Resistance: Shade‐tolerant. Uses/Benefits Edible (pods); firewood, rafters, posts, general construction (wood – hard, but brittle); fodder (pods, leaves, seeds); medicine (bark, leaves, seeds, roots); good bee forage. Conservation Soil: Green manure; nitrogen fixing, erosion control (extensive surface root system) Agroforestry: Used in boundary planting, as trimming produces a dense, almost impenetrable, thorny hedge; useful in the formation of shelter belts. 264 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Propsopsis africana Common Name: Iron Wood Origin: Africa Description Height: 4‐20m. Form: Open crown and slightly rounded buttresses. Bark: Very dark, scaly with orange to red‐brown slash with white streaks. Leaves: Foliage drooping; leaves alternate and bipinnate. Flowers: Greenish white to yellow; fragrant in dense clusters that are 6‐10cm long. Fruit: Pods are dark brown, cylindrical, thick, and shiny; approximately 10 seeds per pod. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Occurs frequently on fallow lands or abandoned fields. Overexploitation has caused it to disappear from large areas of the southern Sahel and adjacent Sudan savannas. Soil: Prefers sandy/clayey soils over laterite, but tolerant of most soil types. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (≤1,000m); Mean Annual Rainfall (≤500mm); Mean Annual Temperature (0‐40°C). Nursery Specifics Germination Time: 2 weeks. Seed Collection: Collect seeds from pods. Seed Storage: Behavior is orthodox (7,500‐8,000 seeds/kg). 265 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Seed Treatment: Pods must be crushed to get the seeds out. Pre‐treat by placing them in boiling water for 15 minutes, allowing them to cool and soaking overnight. Pots: Requires approximately 3‐4 months in the nursery. Requires root pruning due to long taproot. Management Establishment: Should be pruned when young to get a clean bole. Coppice/Pollard: Responds well to coppicing. Uses/Benefits Edible (fruit, pods, seeds); chewing sticks, firewood, charcoal, tools, heavy carpentry (wood); fodder (pods); tannin (bark); medicine (various) Conservation Soil: Provides useful mulch. Agroforestry: Erosion control; shade/shelter; nitrogen fixing, intercropping. 266 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Psidium guajava Common Name: Guava Origin: Central America Description Height: 3‐10m. Form: Slender multi‐stemmed shrub with low, drooping branches and a broad spreading crown. Bark: Light to reddish brown, thin, smooth, and continuously flaking. Leaves: Opposite, simple; 3‐10mm long, somewhat thick and leathery; dull grey to yellow‐green above, veins prominent. Flowers: 4‐5 white petals, filaments pale white, stigma green. Fruit: Ovoid or pear‐shaped berry, 4‐12cm long; weighing up to 500g; skin yellow when ripe; juicy pulp, creamy‐white or creamy‐yellow to pink or red. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Appears to have evolved in relatively open areas, such as savannah/shrub transitional zones or in frequently disturbed areas. Drought resistant, but requires evenly distributed rainfall throughout the year. Soil: Prefers loamy soil. Grows poorly in heavy soils, but can tolerate rocky soils. Not tolerant of salinity. Drainage: Will tolerate flooding and waterlogged soils. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (≤2,000m); Mean Annual Rainfall (1,000‐
2,000mm); Mean Annual Temperature (15‐45°C). 267 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Germination Time: 3‐5 weeks. Seed Collection: Collect seeds from the mature fruits; de‐pulp by soaking, and air dry. Seed Storage: Behavior is orthodox. Seed Treatment: None needed; use fresh seed. Beds: May also propagate from cuttings or layering by bending or burying the tip ends of the lower branches. Pots: Requires approximately 1 year in the nursery. Management Establishment: Can withstand partial shading. Irrigate during the dry season and frequently prune lightly. Spacing/Rotation: Intensively managed orchards may be spaced at 4x6m; seedlings for fruit processing are spaced 10x8m. Coppice/Pollard: Responds well to coppicing. Resistance: Once established, trees are fire resistant. Uses/Benefits Edible, wine (fruit); chewing sticks, firewood, charcoal, (wood); fodder (fruit); tannin (bark); dye (leaves, fruit) medicine (bark, leaves); bee forage (flowers) Conservation Soil: Reforestation of rocky sites, good for erosion control. Agroforestry: Interplanting, border planting, windbreak, staking (i.e. yams). 268 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Samanea saman Common Name: Raintree Origin: South America Description Height: 20‐45m. Form: Long branches radiating from a short, thick trunk. Bark: Distinctly grey‐brown, yellow or cream brown; smooth, becoming fissured with age. Leaves: 15‐40cm long; 4‐8 pair of leaflets; bright green, oblong, smooth, stalkless, finely hairy underside. Flowers: White below, pink above, solitary or in small clusters at the ends of shoots. Fruit: Pods, more or less straight with thickened edges, 12‐20cm long; numerous seeds imbedded in the pulp. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Native to the grass savanna of northern South America and is widely cultivated in the tropics. Soil: Normally found on neutral to moderately acid soils; grows on light or heavy soils and tolerates infertility. Drainage: Tolerates waterlogged conditions. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,300m); Mean Annual Rainfall (600‐
3,000mm); Mean Annual Temperature (20‐35°C). 269 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Pick the pods from the ground and dry in the sun; rub to remove seeds. Seed Storage: Will store several years in air‐tight container (5,000‐7,400 seeds/kg). Germination: 2‐3 weeks. Seed Treatment: None needed, but may pour boiling water over seeds, stir, pour off in 3 minutes; replace with temperate water and soak for 24 hours. Propagation: Cuttings – use 5cm or larger diameter of any length; place 25 cm in ground and tilt at 60 degree angle. Pots: Requires 4‐6 months in the nursery. Management Establishment: Light demanding, but will suppress grasses and weeds. Spacing/Rotation: Spacing of 1.5‐2m. Close planting produces straighter boles. Coppice/Pollard: Responds well. Pollard until the main stem is large enough to cut for timber. Uses/Benefits Edible (sweet pulp, seeds as coffee substitute): firewood (excellent), carvings, poles, construction, boat building, fence posts (wood); pods, young leaves (fodder); gums, resins (tannin) Conservation Soil: Can be used as green manure; increases nitrogen in immediate area, though probably not nitrogen fixing. Agroforestry: Good for roadside plantings and as shade for crop trees (cocoa, vanilla, etc.). 270 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Sesbania grandiflora Common Name: Grandiflora Origin: Southest Asia Description Height: 8‐15m. Form: Loosely branching with a thin, spreading crown. Bark: Yellow or cream brown; becoming fissured with age. Leaves: Alternate and compound; borne only on terminal ends of branches; turn bright yellow before shedding. Flowers: Red or white; hang at leaf base with 2‐5 large flowers; about 3cm wide before opening. Fruit: Pods are long, narrow, and flat; hang down 30‐50cm; seed is bean‐like, with 6‐8 per pod. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Widely distributed; is adaptable to moist and dry sites of the humid and sub‐humid tropics; tolerates a dry season of 6‐7 months. Soil: Grows on a wide range of soils, including poor and waterlogged; tolerates saline, alkaline, and acidic soils (to 4.5pH). Drainage: An outstanding ability to tolerate waterlogging. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,000m); Mean Annual Rainfall (2,000‐
4,000mm); Mean Annual Temperature (22‐30°C). 271 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics C Collection: Collect pods just prior to maturation, as pods will shatter when dry. Germination: Direct sow into well‐worked soil at beginning of rainy season; establishes in 1 month. Seed Storage: Viability may be maintained for over 2 years, if stored at room temperature; (17,000‐30,000 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: None needed, but may soak in cold or tepid water for 24 hours. Propagation: May be propagated by stem or branch cuttings. Pots: Requires 2‐4 months in the nursery (polythene bags). Management Establishment: Weeding and irrigation may accelerate growth; susceptible to browsing and wind damage. Spacing/Rotation: May be planted densely at 3,000 stems/ha, with a 2 year rotation. Coppice/Pollard: Good, but will not tolerate repeated cutting of the main stem above a certain height. Uses/Benefits Edible (young leaves, pods, flowers, seeds); firewood (poor), charcoal (wood); fodder (leaves, pods); tannin (bark); gum. Conservation Soil: Green manure; used for soil reclamation projects, nitrogen fixation, erosion control, and rehabilitating agricultural lands. Agroforestry: Shading, hedges, and field borders; open crowns allow for the passage of sunlight. 272 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Sesbania sesban Common Name: Common Sesban Origin: Tropical Africa Description Height: 1‐7m. Form: Multi‐stemmed, erect shrub with copious branches. Leaves: Long and narrow with leaflets in many pairs; round and oblong. Flowers: Attractive flowers of yellow, red, purplish, variegated or streaked. Fruit: Pods are pale yellow and linear, usually 10‐20cm long; up to 40 seeds/pod. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Grows well in the subtropics and is significant in extending nitrogen‐fixing forage trees into cooler, higher elevation regions of the tropics. Soil: Tolerates saline, alkaline, and acidic soils. Drainage: Tolerates seasonally or permanently waterlogged soils. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (100‐2,300m); Mean Annual Rainfall (500‐
2,000mm); Mean Annual Temperature (18‐23°C). Nursery Specifics Collection: Collect from mature pods. Germination: Rate of 65% in about 16 days. Seed Storage: Viability may be maintained for over 2 years, if stored at room temperature (85,000‐100,000 seeds/kg). 273 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Seed Treatment: Scarification is recommended; may also apply hot water treatment or soaking in cold water for 24 hours. Propagation: Cuttings are not widely practiced. Direct sowing is the most common method of establishment. Pots: Requires 2‐4 months in the nursery. Management Establishment: Rapid early growth rate. Weed and protect from browsing. Coppice/Pollard: Responds well. Cutting frequencies are generally 3‐4/annum. Cutting heights may influence yield, survival, and productivity. Uses/Benefits Edible (leaves, flowers, seeds (soak 3 days and cook ½ hour to remove toxins)): firewood, charcoal, arrows, mats, thatch, (wood); ropes and cordage fiber (bark); fodder (leaves and young branches); gum Conservation Soil: Green manure; intercropping increases nitrogen content of soil; nitrogen fixing; erosion control; homegardens; windbreaks; ornamental. Agroforestry: Support and shade; intercropping; contour line planting. 274 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Tamarindus indica Common Name: Tamarind Origin: Tropical Africa Description Height: 15‐30m. Form: Dense, widely spreading crown; rounded. Bark: Rough, fissured; grayish‐brown. Leaves: Alternate, compound, with 10‐18 pairs of opposite leaflets; fringed with fine hairs; evergreen. Flowers: Attractive pale yellow or pinkish, in small spikes. Fruit: Velvety, rusty‐brown pods; pod‐shell is brittle and seeds are embedded in a sticky pulp; 3‐10 seeds per pod. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Believed to be indigenous to drier savanna regions of tropical Africa; grows well in a variety of climatic condition, but prefers semi‐
arid areas and wooded grasslands. Soil: Grows well on most soils, but prefers alluvial soil. Drainage: Does best on well‐drained soils, but may tolerate periodic waterlogging. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,500m); Mean Annual Rainfall (350‐
2,700mm); Mean Annual Temperature (20‐33°C). 275 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Remove ripe pods from tree by clipping; soak to depulp; air dry. Germination: Approximately 7‐13 days. Seed Storage: Viability may be maintained for several years; (350‐1,000 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: Boil for 7 minutes and cool slowly or soak for 5‐6 days. Propagation: May be propagated asexually; shield and patch budding are fast and reliable methods. Pots: Requires 4‐6 months in the nursery. Management Establishment: Protect from browse damage; weed first year. Prune young trees to establish form. Spacing/Rotation: Pure plantations should be established at 13x13m. Space firebreaks at 3m centers. Uses/Benefits Edible (leaves, flowers, seeds, pods); firewood (good), charcoal, rafters, tools, boat building (wood); fodder (leaves, fruits, seeds, flowers); tannin (bark); dye (wood ash); oil (seeds). Conservation Soil: Green manure; erosion control (windfirm with deep roots). Agroforestry: Windbreaks, shade, shelter, and ornamental. 276 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Tectona grandis Common Name: Teak Origin: Southeast Asia Description Height: 25‐30m. Form: Crown open with many small branches; bole is buttressed and may be fluted. Bark: Bark is brown, distinctly fibrous with shallow, longitudinal fissures. Leaves: Very large, 4‐sided leaves; shed for 3‐4 months during the later half of the dry season, leaving branchlets bare. Flowers: Small, approximately 8mm across, mauve to white and arraned in large flowering heads. Fruit: Drupe with 4 chambers; round, hard, and woody in an inflated, bladder‐
like covering. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Will survive in a variety of climatic conditions, but does not do well in clayey or rocky clays. Soil: Prefers deep, fertile alluvial‐colluvial soil with a pH range of 6.5‐8. Drainage: Does best on well‐drained soils; does not tolerate waterlogging. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐1,200m); Mean Annual Rainfall (1,200‐
2,500mm); Mean Annual Temperature (14‐36°C). 277 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Collect freshly fallen seeds; avoid green seeds; store for a few months before trying to germinate. Germination: 90 or more days, 10 days for burned seeds; rate ranges from 10‐
80%. Seed Storage: Stores for up to 2 years; (800‐2,000 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: Soak 3 days, dry 1 day, soak 1 day; spread on germination bed and cover lightly (i.e. chaff); burn lightly for 5 minutes, then soak in water for 24 hours. Propagation: Stumping (stem @ 3cm and roots @ 20cm); direct sowing; striplings. Pots: Requires 4‐6 months in the nursery. Management Establishment: Weeding; prune for 3‐4 years to remove forked branches; protect from browsing; initial growth is rapid. Spacing/Rotation: Space at 2x2m for plantations; 50 year rotation or shorter is preferred. Coppice/Pollard: Good. Resistance: Young trees intolerable of fire; mature trees re‐sprout quickly. Uses/Benefits Firewood, charcoal, rafters, fence posts (rot and termite resistant)(wood); tannin (dry leaves); dye (dry leaves); oil (seeds). Conservation Soil: Erosion control (wind‐firm with deep roots). Agroforestry: Windbreaks; desirable to plant with leguminous cover crop between plantation rows. 278 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Terminalia catappa Common Name: Tropical Almond Origin: Southeast Asia Description Height: 15‐25m. Form: Tall, erect tree; buttressed at the base with whorls of nearly horizontal and slightly ascending branches. Bark: Grey‐brown; rough with age. Leaves: Deciduous; alternate, spirally clustered at the branch tips. Dark green above, paler beneath, leathery and glossy. Turn bright scarlet, dark red, dark‐
purplish red, or yellow. Flowers: Slightly fetid, greenish white, very small, with no petals. Majority of flowers are male. Fruit: Hard, to 7cm, green‐red, rounded and flattened, egg‐shaped. The cylindrical, oil containing seeds are encased in a tough, fibrous husk within a fleshy pericarp. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: Grows best in moist, tropical climates. Soil: Well‐adapted to sandy and rocky coasts; tolerant to sand and salt. Soil pH is usually moderately alkaline and rich in bases. Drainage: Good drainage is required on clay soils. Biophysical Limits: Altitude (0‐800m); Mean Annual Rainfall (750‐3,000mm); Mean Annual Temperature (15‐35°C). 279 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Nursery Specifics Collection: Collect from ground, dry seeds; may or may not de‐pulp. Germination: Approximately 10‐40 days at 70%. Seed Storage: Stores for 1 year if de‐pulped and dried, fresh seed germinates more readily; (approximately 160 seeds/kg). Seed Treatment: None needed, may soak for 24 hours; keep seedbeds moist until germination. Propagation: Seeds should be set horizontally on the top of the soils, 25x25cm apart in nursery beds; typically nursed in pots. Pots: Requires 4‐6 months in the nursery. Management Establishment: Susceptible to insect damage, weeding is necessary for the first few months post‐planting; known to form natural root grafts and prunes naturally. Spacing/Rotation: Rotation of 10‐15 years. Coppice/Pollard: Good. Resistance: Post‐establishment, competes well with weeds. Uses/Benefits Edible (nut, seed, fruit); firewood (good), construction, boxes, boats (wood); fodder (fruits); tannin (bark, leaves, roots, fruits). Conservation Soil: Useful for erosion control and dune stabilization. Agroforestry: Homegardens; ornamental; shade. 280 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Theobroma cacao Common Name: Cocoa Origin: Tropical Central America Description Height: Average height of 5‐10m. Form: Low tree with a short trunk and branches in whorls of five. Leaves: Semi‐deciduous; simple, 10‐45cm long; generally smooth, sometimes hairy, rounded and obtuse at the base. Flowers: Five petals, joined at the base into a cuplike structure; triangular, whitish or reddish in color. Fruit: Variable in shape, ovoid, oblong; sometimes pointed at the base or almost spherical, with ten furrows. Environment Site/Climatic Zone: In its natural habitat, it is an understory plant of forest in the wet, humid tropics. Prefers climates receiving 1,000‐1,300mm/ per annum. Soil: Requires deep, well‐drained soils, free from high iron concentrations and high in nutrient content and organic matter. Drainage: Requires moderate drainage. Nursery Specifics Collection: Harvested from mature, seed‐producing trees. Seed Storage: Lose viability within 5‐7 days post‐extraction from pod, unless treated. Germination: 7‐10 days; germinates readily when sown and does not require a period of dormancy. Seed Treatment: Remove parchment prior to planting. Propagation: Trees can vegetatively propagated by leaf cutting and bud cutting or grafting. 281 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Management Establishment: Shade for first years of establishment; control weeds throughout the year; plantain is often planted to meet these requirements; mulches and green manure are commonly used. Spacing/Rotation: Farmers plant cocoa at the high densities of 3,000‐4,000/ha. This encourages the growth of tall trees with increased vertical suckers, which results in flowering on the main stem. Coppice/Pollard: Light pruning is recommended to remove hanging, broken, or dead branches. Uses/Benefits Butter, cakes, biscuits, beverages, confectioneries, fuel, and alcohol (beans) Conservation Soil: There is considerable nutrient cycling through the development of a deep leaf litter under the cocoa canopy. Agroforestry: During first years of establishment, may be intercropped with food crops, such as corn, cocoyam, yams, and plantain. 282 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Tree Pests, Diseases, and Biotic Factors Species Agent Description Acacia albida Insects Caterpillars and locusts may destroy the seedlings. Animals Susceptible to browse. Fungi May cause damage to seedlings, branches and stems, or wilting caused by root damage. Damage does not result in death, but may deform or suppress tree growth. Acacia auriculiformis (1) Common disease symptoms are damping‐off, heart‐rot, powdery mildew, stem galls, dieback, leaf spots, and root rot. Acacia nilotica Insects Wood borers may afflict the stems and bruchids may afflict the seeds. Adansonia digitata Insects Insects of concern include: cotton bollworms, cotton stainer bugs, flea beetles, long‐horn beetles and mealy bugs. Animals The tree is also susceptible to browse damage by elephants, though population reductions have reduced this as a serious threat. Insects Sapwood is susceptible to wood borer and termite attack, but is immune to dry rot. Fungus Left standing or as logs, the timber is subject to attack. Insects The tea mosquito (Helopeltis antonii) has been a problem in some areas. It causes inflorescence blight which damages the leaves and fruit. Similar damage may also be caused by Pseudotheraptus wayi. Plants are also susceptible to stem borers, root borers, mites, thrips, and leaf cutting ants. Fungus Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor), has been noted in some areas to cause branch die back. Pythium, Fusarium, and Phytophthora species may bring about the damping off to seedlings. Colletotrichum gloeo‐
sporioides damages false fruits. Annona muricata Insects Wasps: Live in the seeds and emerge from the fully‐grown fruit.
Azadirachta indica (3) Insects Scale insects may feed on the sap of young branches and stems.
Decline Abnormal loss of leaves followed by dieback of branches. Decline is caused by the interaction of specifically ordered abiotic and biotic factors to produce a gradual general deterioration, often ending in the death of trees. Balanites aegyptiaca Insects Susceptible to attack at high levels of infestation from locusts, beetles, and multiple parasites. Butyrospermum parkii Plant Parasite African mistletoe (Tapinanthus), which causes discontinued growth, withering of tree parts, and eventual tree death. Fungus Fusarium wilt is of economic importance, but may be controlled through such control practices as rotation and breeding for resistance. General Susceptible to attack by over 100 pathogens, including fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, fruitflies, and borer species. Albizia lebbeck Anacardium occidentale (2) Moths: Lays eggs in the very young fruit, causing stunting and malformation. (4) Cajanus cajan 283 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Species Agent Description Calotropis procera Insects The sucking of aphids and grasshoppers may cause leaf damage. The caterpillar of the plain tiger butterfly also feeds on this plant, which transfers toxins to the butterfly, protecting it from attack by vertebrate predators. Insects White scales thickly encrust young trees. Xyleborus beetles bore into weak stems and kill the plants. Fruit flies lay eggs in the fruit, causing them to rot. Mites cause leaves to yellow and shed and damage the fruit. Aphids transmit a virus to plants, causing ring spots to form. Grasshoppers and mole crickets cut seedlings at the ground level. Fungus Numerous varieties cause leaf spotting and root, foot, and trunk rot. Insects Susceptible to damage from scale insects; sapwood is susceptible to Lyctus beetles. Animals Preferred species for browse. Fungi May cause root damage and wood rot in young plants. Insects Pests may include the tussock moth, the white‐spotted long‐horned beetle, and the cotton locust. Ants may damage fresh seeds and the wood is susceptible to damage from multiple borer species. Fungus Pruning may allow for infection by fungal pathogens, through transfer via tools. Bacteria Wilt is characterized by the yellowing of the foliage, followed by wilting and death. Ceiba petandra General Citrus (5) Insects Susceptible to a variety of insect defoliators, parasitic plants, and fungal pathogens. Rust mites cause external blemishes and, in extreme infestations, premature falling of fruit and shedding of leaves. Scale insects infest the woody portions of the tree. Mealybugs from white masses underneath and between fruits in the early stages of development and may cause shedding and their excretion of honeydew promotes fungal infection (sooty mold). Aphids cause leaves to curl and become crinkled. Fruit flies are a constant threat to the successful storage of the fruit. Carica papaya Cassia siamea Casuarina equisetifolia Fungi, viruses, and cankers There are a wide variety of pathogens which affect the roots, trunk, branches, foliage, and fruits. Decline This blight is the leading cause of loss with orange trees and is likely to be caused by a variety of factors. Shown to be infectious. 284 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Species Agent Description Cocus nucifera Insects More than 100 species of insects afflict the tree, including the rhinoceros beetle, the coconut mite, the coconut weevil, a variety of beetles, and leaf miners. Fungus Bud rot is caused by the fungus Phtophthora palmivora. Early symptoms are brown sunken spots, yellowing or withering. Most commonly occurs after periods of heavy rains. Palms showing advanced symptoms should be removed and destroyed, since they serve as sources of innoculum. Animals Birds damage the tree in forming nesting cavities and stripping the leaves to use in the construction of nests. Lethal yellowing Suspected to be caused by a tiny, micro‐plasma type organism. Early symptoms include the premature dropping of coconuts and the blackening of flower stalks. Trees usually die within six months of exhibiting the first symptoms. Coffea Arabica (6) Insects Green Coffee Scale
Green coffee scale (Coccus viridis) is a common and serious problem. Scales suck the plant sap resulting in reduced growth and crop yield. Green oval shaped scales about 2 to 3 mm long. Often found concentrated on leaf veins and tips of new shoots. Infestations then produce spots of honeydew, which become covered with a black sooty mould. Defoliation of badly affected trees can occur. Aphids
Aphids (Toxoptera aurantii) can occur in large numbers on new shoots in the rainy season. Aphids suck sap from young shoots and cause damage to these developing shoots. Large numbers of small black aphids (2 to 3 mm long) concentrated on new growth. Often associated with black sooty mold. Coffee Berry Borer
Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) can be a serious problem. The adult is a small black beetle (about 2.5 mm long) and covered in thick hairs. The female beetle bores into berries through the navel region. Cherries are attacked in various stages but tunnelling and laying of about 15 eggs occurs only in hard beans. The eggs hatch in about 10 days and the larvae feed on the beans making small tunnels. Beetles in the cherries either on the plant or on the ground, can survive for more than five months. Fruit drop of young, green cherries. A small hole is evident on the cherry. Cherries that do not drop often have defective, damaged beans. Stem Borers
Causes wilting of leaves and dead trees or branches. Affected branches are easily broken off. When trees are first infested there maybe evidence of frass (sawdust‐like residues) on the ground. The trunk may be ringbarked. The lifecycle is completed during the rainy season, but often damage is more evident during the dry season. Larvae remain inside the tree and are normally not seen. Usually damage is not economically important, although individual trees can be lost. Mealybug
Mealybugs (Planococcus spp.) are small sucking insects (about 3 mm long) covered with a white mealy wax that feed on young shoots and young roots. There are several species similar in appearance to the naked eye. They are generally more of a problem in the dry season when water is lacking. However, serious infestations of mealybug are 285 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Coffea Arabica (continued) (6) often found where there has been use of insecticide sprays, especially highly toxic organo‐phosphate sprays. These kill almost all insects, including natural enemies of mealybug. White waxy colonies are usually found on the underside of tender leaves and in soft stem areas around berries. Also, they are found on young roots near the main root, especially where soil is loose around the trunk. Mealybugs are often associated with a heavy infestation of sooty mold. Leaf Miner Leaf miner (Leucoptera coffeina) is often present, especially in shaded coffee. Transparent areas in the leaf; larvae are present on the underside of the coffee leaf. Fully‐grown larvae are about 6 mm long. Termites Termites (Macrotermes spp.) can be a problem on older coffee and shade trees with dead wood where termites breed. Fungus Damping Off
Brown Eye Spot
Anthracnose
Coffee Leaf Rust
This disease occurs on young coffee seedlings in the germination bed, after germination and before transplanting. It is caused by a Pythium spp. fungus. Patches of coffee die quickly. Coffee stem is soft and rotten. Cercospora leaf spot is a fungus that occurs on leaves when plants are under stress. The fungus can develop both in seedbeds and after plants have been transplanted into bags. It is the most common nursery disease and a sign of poor management. Brown spots on leaves gradually expanding with reddish brown margin.When there are many spots, leaves appear to have been burnt. (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz.) is a minor flower, twig and cherry disease. It can cause three different coffee diseases ‐ twig dieback, brown blight of ripening cherries and leaf necrosis. Twig dieback ‐ yellowing and blight of affected leaves. Twigs wilt, defoliate and die at the tips. Brown blight ‐ brown sunken lesions on fully developed cherries which turn black and hard (can be confused with Cercospora). Leaf necrosis ‐ round brown necrotic spots up to 25 mm diameter. Worse on sun‐burnt or injured leaves. Coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vatatrix) occurs on leaves and can cause leaf drop if severe. The first symptom is the formation of pale yellow spots up to 3 mm in diameter on the underside of the leaves. As the spots expand, they become powdery and yellow to orange in color and may reach 20 mm in diameter. Occasionally the whole leaf becomes covered with rust spots. Older rust spores become brown at the center surrounded by powdery orange spots. Leaf drop occurs, which if severe, can lead to dieback and berry loss and a loss of both yield and quality. Berries tend to be very small, not fully ripe and turn black. 286 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Species Agent Description Diospyros mespiliformis None listed Elaeis guineensis Insects The list of potentially damaging insects includes: oil palm bunch moth, West African oil palm leaf miners, palm weevils, rhinoceros beetles, slug caterpillars, nettle caterpillars, and bagworms. Fungi Fusarium wilt, dry basal rot, and ganoderma trunk rot are the diseases of particular concern, with wilt being the most prominent in West Africa. Other fungal pathogens include: blast, freckle, anthracnose, seedling blight, yellow patch, crown disease, and the rotting of fruit. Nematode Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus is responsible for a serious disease condition, red‐ring disease. Bacterium Spear rot or bud rot.
General Is attacked by nematodes, slugs, snails, mites, insects, birds, and mammals. Eucalyptus camaldulensis General Insects such as termites and aphids and rodents may be troublesome to the tree. Young trees and those weakened by drought can be badly infected by moth larvae, eucalyptus snout beetle, termites, and eucalyptus borer. In the nursery, the species is susceptible to various fungi causing damping‐off and leaf diseases. Eucalyptus microtheca None Listed Gliricidia sepium Fungus Cercosporidium gliricidiasis causes small, light brown, rounded spots with dark borders and is widely recorded. General Other diseases of note include: scab, twig, stem, and branch die‐back, and aphid attack. Fungus Pythium splendens – causes wilting in 1‐2 month old seedlings. Gmelina arborea Fusarium oxysporum – a damping‐off fungus that causes high seedling mortality. Rhizoctonia solani – a root collar disease on 4‐month‐old seedlings. Other – anthracnose, chlorosis, heart rot, root rot, stem and branch canker, and worm disease. Khaya senegalensis Plantation pests Dihammus cervinus – larvae bore longitudinal galleries in the cambial layer of the saplings, causing severe defoliation. Shoot borers Can be severely attacked, resulting in misshapen trees with no timber value. General Also susceptible to attack by long‐horn beetles, powder post beetles, and a bacterial disease (Xanthomonus khaye) resulting in rough, scabby leaf spots and knobby stem cankers. Insects Susceptible to the psyllid Heteropsylla cubana, which can cause serious defoliation and mortality. General Some varieties are susceptible to gummosis, root rot, and leaf spot fungus. Animals avidly consume seedlings. Leucaena leucocephala 287 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Mangifera indica Moringa oleifera Musa sp. (7) Parkia biglobosa Fungus Anthracnose distorts and turns developing leaves black and disfigures the developing fruit. Flower panicles, young fruit, and leaves are susceptible to powdery mildew. Fusarium moniloforme is spread by mites. Insects Rastrococcus invadens, a mealy bug, has recently invaded Africa, causing serious damage to mango and other crops. Thrips often turn the leaves rusty. A long horn beetle (Rhytidodera simulans) bores into the trunk and thick branches. This may kill individual branches, but does not typically kill the tree. The larvae of the mango weevil may also feed on the pulp and damage fruit. Bacteria Bacterial canker is becoming an increasing disease concern. Insects The hairy caterpillar (Iupterote mollifera) may cause defoliation, but can be controlled with spray. Fungus Root rot (Diplodia spp.) and papaya powdery mildew have been observed as pests of this species. Insects Corm weevils attack the base of the pseudostem and tunnel upward. Banana rust thrips stain the peel and cause it to split, exposing the flesh and quickly causing it to discolor. Fungus Leaf spot is most prevalent on shallow, poorly drained soils, and in areas where there is heavy dew. Small, pale spots gradually become dark purplish black spots with gray centers. When the entire plant is affected, it appears as though burned. Bunches will be of poor quality and will not mature uniformly. Black leaf streak is a fungus that is spread via wind. Spray treatments are only moderately effective. Banana wilt is a fungal pathogen which originates in the soil, travels to the secondary roots, and enters the corm only through fresh injuries, where in passes into the pseudostem. From there, the oldest leaves begin to yellow and the interior leaves turn bronze and droop. The pseudostem turns brown inside. Nematodes Wherever bananas and plantains are grown, nematodes are a major problem. Varieties may include: spiral nematodes, banana root‐lesion nematodes, burrowing nematodes, and root‐knot nematodes. These may serve as vectors that promote further fungal attacks. Nematacides, properly applied, may protect the crop. Bacteria Moko disease is transmitted by insects, tools, plant residues, soil, and root contact with the roots of sick plants. General Other pests may include the banana spider mite, the banana silvering thrips, the rind‐chewing caterpillar, and the fruit fly. Other diseases may include black‐end, cigar‐tip rot, cucumber mosaic virus, Cordana leaf spot, bunchy top, and swelling and splitting (caused by issues relating to irrigation). Insects A weevil and the pyralid moth have been observed on the fruits. The moth eats both the pulp and the seed.The leaves are attacked by lepidoptera of 4 different families. The timber is attacked readily by termites. Fungus Attacks cause discoloration and considerably reduce the value of the wood. General Insects, small rodents, and animals may readily damage the seedlings.
288 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Parkinsonia aculeate Insects Termites may damage young plants. Fungus New growth is subject to die‐back during the winter months in humid climates. Insects Many attack this tree, but they seldom limit fruit production. Currently, the most economically significant include: avocado looper, pyriform scale, dictyospermum scale, avocado red mites, borers, avocado lace bugs and red‐banded thrips. Fungus Avocado root rot occurs most frequently in areas with poorly drained soils or areas that are prone to flooding. Leaves may be pale green and wilted. Necrotic and terminal branches may die off in the advanced stages of the disease. Sun blotch is caused by a viroid, symptoms may include sunken yellow or whitish streaking or spotting and the distortion of twigs, leaves, and fruit. Disease is transmitted through buds, seeds, and the root‐grafting of infected trees. Spot infection appears on fruits and leaves as small, angular, dark brown spots with a yellow patches that come together to form irregular patches. Fruit lesions frequently serve as the points of entry for other decay organisms. Scab fungus readily infects young, succulent tissues of leaves, twigs, and fruit. These tissues become resistant as they mature. Lesions appear as small, dark spots. Pithecellobium dulce Insects Larval may attack the fruit and seeds and bore into the bark. Fungus Pathogens causing leaf spot may include Cercospora mimosai, Collectotrichum dematium, Collectorichum pithecellobii, Phyllosticta ingae‐dulcis, and Phyllosticta pithecoelobii. Prosopis africana None listed. Psidium guajava Insects Numerous and, in some cases, severe. Fruit fly maggots may be especially troublesome. Aphids feed on young growth, causing the curling of leaves. The red‐banded thrip; adult and larval forms puncture leaves of the infested trees, forming brownish stains. Complete defoliation may occur with heavy infestations. May also be seriously damaged by the citrus flat mite, bark‐eating caterpillars, scales, weevils, guava fruit worms, citron plant bugs, fruit‐sucking bugs, false spider mites, and the coconut mealybugs. Fungus The uncontrollable Glomerella cingulata mummifies and blackens immature fruits and rots mature fruits. Fruits punctured by insects are also subject to mucor rot (Mucor hiemalis). Other fungal pathogens may include Phytophthora parasitica, Botryodiplodia sp., Dothiorella sp., Macrophomina sp., and Gliocladium roseum. Algae Spotting of leaves and fruits may occur (Cephaleuros virescens). Animals Birds and bats may cause severe losses if preventative action is not taken. Insects Lepidoptera caterpillars may defoliate trees and seedlings in many places as they leaf out, but rarely cause serious stress to healthy trees. Ants may defoliate and deform leaves by burrowing into the twigs. Beetles may oviposit in fruits and damage seeds. Tree is also susceptible to borer attack, which attacks the sapwood of stresses trees. Persea Americana (8) Samanea saman (9) 289 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees Animals Preferred for browse by livestock. Fruits may be consumed be various birds. Insects Drosopholid flies (Protostegana lateralis) may bore into tender shoots of mature plants, causing a gradual wilting of affected parts. Weevils (Alcidodes buko) may cause serious damage to young crops both in the adult and larval stage. Other insects (Azygophleps scalaris cause damage through tunneling into the plant stem and eating the contents, leaving only the epidermis. Nematodes Described as very susceptible. Insects Commonly attack the seeds of the tree. Caterpillars and weevils are known to attack the leaves and branches. Bacteria and Fungus
May attack the stems and foliage. Insects Scale insects (Aonidiella orientalis) may suck the sap of buds and flowers and accordingly reduce crop vigor. Mealybugs (Planococcus lilacinus) cause leaf‐fall and sometimes the shedding of young fruits. White grubs (Holotrichia insularis) may feed on the roots of young seedlings. Other damage may occur from caterpillars, the black citrus aphid, the whitefly, thrips, and cow bugs. Fruit may be affected by a variety of beetles, the tamarind seed borer, the rice weevil, the rice moth, and the fig moth Fungus Damage may occur due to saprot, brownish saprot, and white rot.
Nematodes Xiphinema citri and Longidorus elongates may affect the roots of older trees. Tectona grandis (13) Insects The most common insects that cause serious problems are defoliators and stem borers. Defoliators are capable of reducing growth rates, apical dominance, and production capacity. These may include Hyblaea puera and Eutectona machaeralis. Outbreaks may occur more than once per growing season. Stem borers may cause severe damage in young plantations. In older plantations, the beehole borer (Xyleutes ceramicus) is the most important and persistent. Terminalia cattapa Insects Plants are susceptible to termite attack. The leaves may be attacked and eaten by various insects and larvae. The fruits may also be a host for various species of fruit flies, as well as a fruit‐piercing moth. Theobroma Cacao Insects Of most concern in West Africa are various species of mealybugs and mirids. Insects of concern in other parts of the growing range may include: cocoa beetles, cocoa pod borers, cocoa thrips, and leaf‐cutting ants. In addition, a variety of beetles and weevils may attack the seeds while they are in storage. Fungus Worldwide, black pod, witches’ broom, and monilia are considered to be the “big three” fungal diseases of economic importance. Virus The major virus of concern in West Africa is the Swollen Shoot Virus (CSSV). Samanea saman (continued) (9) Sesbania grandiflora (10) Sesbania sesban (11) Tamarindus indica (12) (14) 290 A Farmer’s Friend | Trees References: 1.
http://www.winrock.org/fnrm/factnet/factpub/factsh/ACACIA.TXT 2.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5043E/x5043E06.htm 3.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/u8520e/u8520e09.htm 4.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/W3735E/w3735e17.htm 5.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/orange.html 6.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/008ae939e0b.htm 7.
http://www. hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/banana.html 8.
http: www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/guava.html 9.
http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/ samanea­raintree.pdf 10. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Sesbania_Grandiflora.html 11. http://www.treesftf.org/resources/pops/Sesbania%20sesban.pdf 12. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/tamarind.html 13. http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/AC773E/ac773e08.htm 14. http://www.oardc.ohio­state.edu All Others: Trees Grown in Ghana 291 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Maps Anthropic Landscapes of West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/anthland.html) Map 9 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Anthropic System Tension Zones of West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/hotspots.html) Map 10 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Biomes of West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/biomes.html) Map 11 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Vulnerability to Desertification in West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/desert.html) Map 12 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Water Erosion Vulnerability of West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/erosh2o.html) Map 13 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Inherent Land Quality of West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/landqual.html) Map 14 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Major Stresses of West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/stresses.html) Map 15 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Phosphorus Levels in West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/phos.html) Map 16 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Population Density of West Africa (1994) (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/popden.html) Map 17 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Source: http://www.sage.wisc.edu/ Map 18 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Source: http://www.sage.wisc.edu/ Map 19 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Source: http://www.sage.wisc.edu/ Map 20 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Risk of Human‐Induced Desertification in West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/dsrtrisk.html) Map 21 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Risk of Human‐Induced Water Erosion in West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/eh2orisk.html) Map 22 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Risk of Human‐Induced Wind Erosion in West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/ewinrisk.html) Map 23 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Soil Inorganic Carbon of West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/sic.html) Map 24 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Soil Moisture Regimes of West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/smr.html) Map 25 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Soil Organic Carbon of West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/soc.html) Map 26 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Soil Temperature Regimes of West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/str.html) Map 27 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Water Holding Capacity of Soils in West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/whc.html) Map 28 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Wetlands of West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/wetlands.html) Map 29 A Farmer’s Friend | Maps Wind Erosion Vulnerability of West Africa (Adapted from the Natural Resources Conservation Service ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/eroswind.html) Map 30 A Farmer’s Friend | Country Statistics ‐ 2006 Country Arable Rank Population Rank Permanent (x1000) Cropland (1,000 Ha) 2,215 9 7,863 9 Population Growth Rate (%) Rank Land (sq km) Rank Water Area (sq km) Rank Largest City Population 2.73 6 110,620 10 2,000 9 Burkina Faso 3,850 6 13,903 4 3 2 273,800 6 400 11 Cote d’Ivoire Gambia 7,350 2 17,655 3 2.03 15 318,000 5 4,460 6 235 15 1,642 14 2.84 5 10,000 15 1,300 10 Ghana 5,809 3 22,410 2 2.07 13* 230,940 8 8,520 4 Guinea 1,485 10 9,690 8 2.63 8 245,857 7 n/a Guinea‐
Bissau Liberia 350 14 1,442 15 2.07 13 28,000 14 8,120 5 595 11 3,042 13 4.91 1 96,320 11 15,050 2 Mali 4,674 4 11,717 7 2.63 8* 1,222,000 2 20,000 1 Mauri‐
tania Niger 500 13 3,177 12 2.88 4 1,030,400 3 300 12* 4,500 5 12,525 5 2.92 3 1,266,700 1 300 12 Nigeria 30,850 1 131,860 1 2.38 10 910,768 4 13,000 3 Senegal 2,400 8 11,987 6 2.34 11 192,000 9 4,190 7 Sierra Leone Togo 550 12 6,006 10 2.30 12 71,620 12 120 14 2,630 7 5,549 11 2.72 7 54,385 13 2,400 Total 67,993 260,468 6,061,410 United States 179,000 298,444 2.70 (average) 0.91 9,161,923 Benin 292 Rank Fertility Rank (children born/woman)
194,000 (Porto‐Nova) 824,000 (Ouagadou‐
gou) 2,793,000 (Abijan) 14 5.2 10 8 6.47 3 2 4.50 13 186,000 (Serrekunda) 1,673,000 (Accra) 1,558,000 (Conakry) 233,000 (Bissau) 15 5.30 9 4 3.99 15 6 5.79 7 12 4.86 12 962,000 6 (Monrovia) 919,000 7 (Bamako) 694,000
10 (Nouakchott) 6.02 5 7.42 2 5.86 6 587,000 (Niamey) 10,287,000 (Lagos) 1,708,000 (Dakar) 699,000 (Freetown) 13 7.46 1 1 5.49 8 3 4.38 14 9 6.08 4 8 662,000 (Lome) 11 4.96 11 78,360 n/a 469,497 16,332,000 (New York) 5.59 (average) 2.09 A Farmer’s Friend | Country Statistics ‐ 2006 Country Benin Burkina Faso Cote d’Ivoire Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea‐
Bissau Liberia Mali Maurita
nia Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Togo Total United States Literacy Rate (% of age 15 or older can read and write) Rank Electricity Rank
Consumption (100,000 Oil Rank
Consump‐
tion (x1000 barrels/day) Known Rank Mammal Species Threat‐
Rank
ened Mammal Species Carbon Rank
Dioxide Emissions (x 1,000 metric tons) Water Rank Availability Per Capita (x1,000 cubic meters/person) 33.6 26.6 11 13 538.2 349.3 8 10 12 8 6 9 188 147 8 10 9 6 10 13 1,654.7 1,080.9 6 10 2.25 0.86 8 11 50.9 5 3,418 3 20 5 230 2 18 2 7,144.1 2 6.87 5 40.1 74.8 35.9 42.4 9 1 10 6 130.2 5,081 720.8 52.1 14 2 6 15 2 39 8.4 2.45 15 2 8 14 117 222 190 108 13 3 7 14 4 13 11 4 14* 4* 7 14 280.3 5,921.8 1,336.3 286.2 15 3 8 14 0.4 1.87 10.13 19.15 12 9 4 3 57.5 46.4 41.7 4 6 7 473.8 762.6 172.6 9 5 13 3.4 4.25 24 13 12 4 193 137 61 5 11 15 11 13 14 7* 4 3 424.3 568.3 3,137.5 13 12 5 58.85 0.4 0.18 1 12 14 17.6 68 40.2 29.6 14 2 8 12 263.9 14,460 1,239 242.4 11 1 4 12 5.4 310 31 6.51 11 1 3 10 131 274 192 147 12 1 6 9 11 26 13 9 7* 1 6 10* 1,195.9 48,145.7 3,928.2 572 9 1 4 11 ‐0.33 2.26 0.96 21.97 15 7 10 2 60.9 44.4 (average) 99 3 654.3 28,558.2 7 8.5 484.91 7 196 4 8 12 1,608.9 77,285.1 7 2.71 6 8.56 (average) 3,656,000 20,030 428 35 5,762,05
2 7.09 KWh) 293 A Farmer’s Friend | Country Statistics ‐ 2006 Current Environmental Concerns Country Concerns Benin inadequate supplies of potable water; poaching threatens wildlife populations; deforestation; desertification Burkina Faso recent droughts and desertification severely affecting agricultural activities, population distribution, and the economy; overgrazing; soil degradation; deforestation Cote d’Ivoire deforestation (most of the country's forests ‐ once the largest in West Africa ‐ have been heavily logged); water pollution from sewage and industrial and agricultural effluents Gambia deforestation; desertification; water‐borne diseases prevalent Ghana recurrent drought in north severely affects agricultural activities; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; poaching and habitat destruction threatens wildlife populations; water pollution; inadequate supplies of potable water Guinea deforestation; inadequate supplies of potable water; desertification; soil contamination and erosion; overfishing, overpopulation in forest region; poor mining practices have led to environmental damage Guinea‐
Bissau Liberia deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing; overfishing Mali deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; inadequate supplies of potable water; poaching Mauritania overgrazing, deforestation, and soil erosion aggravated by drought are contributing to desertification; very limited natural fresh water resources away from the Senegal, which is the only perennial river; locust infestation Niger overgrazing; soil erosion; deforestation; desertification; wildlife populations (such as elephant, hippopotamus, giraffe, and lion) threatened because of poaching and habitat destruction Nigeria soil degradation; rapid deforestation; urban air and water pollution; desertification; oil pollution ‐ water, air, and soil; has suffered serious damage from oil spills; loss of arable land; rapid urbanization Senegal wildlife populations threatened by poaching; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification; overfishing Sierra Leone rapid population growth pressuring the environment; overharvesting of timber, expansion of cattle grazing, and slash‐and‐burn agriculture have resulted in deforestation and soil exhaustion; civil war depleting natural resources; overfishing Togo deforestation attributable to slash‐and‐burn agriculture and the use of wood for fuel; water pollution presents health hazards and hinders the fishing industry; air pollution increasing in urban areas United States air pollution resulting in acid rain in both the US and Canada; the US is the largest single emitter of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels; water pollution from runoff of pesticides and fertilizers; limited natural fresh water resources in much of the western part of the country require careful management; desertification tropical rain forest deforestation; soil erosion; loss of biodiversity; pollution of coastal waters from oil residue and raw sewage 294 A Farmer’s Friend | Country Statistics ‐ 2006 Non‐agricultural Natural Resource Commodities Country Benin Concerns small offshore oil deposits, limestone, marble, timber Burkina Faso manganese, limestone, marble; small deposits of gold, phosphates, pumice, salt Cote d’Ivoire petroleum, natural gas, diamonds, manganese, iron ore, cobalt, bauxite, copper, gold, nickel, tantalum, silica sand, clay, hydropower Gambia fish, titanium (rutile and ilmenite), tin, zircon, silica sand, clay, petroleum Ghana gold, timber, industrial diamonds, bauxite, manganese, fish, rubber, hydropower, petroleum, silver, salt, limestone Guinea bauxite, iron ore, diamonds, gold, uranium, hydropower, fish, salt Guinea‐Bissau fish, timber, phosphates, bauxite, clay, granite, limestone, unexploited deposits of petroleum Liberia iron ore, timber, diamonds, gold, hydropower Mali gold, phosphates, kaolin, salt, limestone, uranium, gypsum, granite, hydropower Mauritania iron ore, gypsum, copper, phosphate, diamonds, gold, oil, fish Niger uranium, coal, iron ore, tin, phosphates, gold, molybdenum, gypsum, salt, petroleum Nigeria natural gas, petroleum, tin, iron ore, coal, limestone, niobium, lead, zinc, arable land Senegal fish, phosphates, iron ore Sierra Leone diamonds, titanium ore, bauxite, iron ore, gold, chromite Togo phosphates, limestone, marble, arable land United States coal, copper, lead, molybdenum, phosphates, uranium, bauxite, gold, iron, mercury, nickel, potash, silver, tungsten, zinc, petroleum, natural gas, timber 295 A Farmer’s Friend | Country Statistics ‐ 2006 Country Benin Burkina Faso Cote d’Ivoire Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea‐
Bissau Liberia Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Togo Total United States Population Rank Density (Number of people/square kilometer) 57 6 42.28 10 Level of Rank Life Corruptness Expectancy (10=least, (Total Pop.) 0= most) Rank Infant Rank Adult AIDS Rank Mortality Prevalence Rate (Infant Rate (%) deaths/1000) Health Spending Per Person/Year ($USD) Rank 2.9 3.4 4 2 53.04 48.85 6 9 85.88 98.67 9 6 1.9 4.2 10 6 12 9 8 10* 54 7 1.9 10* 48.82 10 97.1 7 7 2* 28 2 133.63 82.11 30.66 44.09 1 4 11 9 2.7 3.5 n/i n/i 6 1 54.14 58.87 49.5 46.87 4 2 7 12 73.48 52.22 91.82 108.72 11 15 8 5 1.2 3.1 3.2 10 12 9 8 1 13 19 19 n/i 7 4* 4* n/i 30.35 8.55 2.51 7.86 124.98 52.35 73.95 12 13 15 14 2 8 5 2.2 2.9 2.4 1.9 3.2 2.4 9 4* 7 10 3 7* 39.65 49 53.12 43.76 47.08 59.25 40.22 15 8 5 13 11 1 14 130.51 117.99 72.35 122.66 70.49 56.53 166.0 2 4 12 2 13 14 1 5.9 1.9 0.6 1.2 5.4 0.8 7 4 10* 15 12* 5 14 2 n/i 11 19 5 30 23 8 n/i 9 4 13 1 3 12 93.43 55.85 (average) 29.77 3 n/i 2.67 (average) 7.6 57.42 49.97 (average) 77.85 3 79.0 94.89 (average) 7.0 10 4.1 3.83 (average) 0.6 7 9 15.77 (average) 4,271 10 296 A Farmer’s Friend | Country Statistics ‐ 2006 Country Labor Force Rank Benin Burkina Faso Cote d’Ivoire Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea‐
Bissau Liberia Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Togo Total n/i 5,000,000 United States 4 % of Labor Force in Agriculture n/i 90 Urbanization in 1975 (%) 21.9 6.3 6,950,000 3 n/i 400,000 10,620,000 3,000,000 480,000 12 2 7 11 n/i 3,930,000 786,000 n/i 57,210,000 4,820,000 1,369,000 Rank Rank Projected Rank 40 yr Urbanization in Urbanization 2015 (%) Shift (%) 6 53 4 +31.1 15 23.1 14 +16.8 Rank 5 14 Current Urbanization (%) 43 17 32.1 2 44 5 50.9 5 +18.8 10 75 60 80 82 17 30.1 16.3 16 7 3 9 12 31 36 28 32 11 8 13 10 40.5 42.4 35.5 43 11 9 12 7 +23.5 +12.3 +19.2 +27 8 13 9 4 n/i 6 10 n/i 1 5 9 70 80 50 90 70 70 n/i n/i 16.2 20.3 10.6 23.4 34.2 21.4 n/i 11 8 13 4 1 6 46 31 59 21 45 48 37 3 11 1 14 4 2 7 n/i 40.7 73.9 29.1 55.5 57.4 46.7 n/i 10 1 13 3 2 6 n/i +24.5 +53.6 +18.5 +32.1 +23.2 +25.3 n/i 7 1 11 2 9 6 1,740,000 96,305,000 8 34 37 (average) 9 42.7 45.3 (average) 8 77 81 +26.4 +25.2 (average) 7.3 5 16.3 20.2 (average) 73.7 9 149,300,000 n/i 74 (average) 0.6 297 3 12 A Farmer’s Friend | Country Statistics ‐ 2006 Religious Groupings by Country Country Religious Groupings Benin indigenous beliefs 50%, Christian 30%, Muslim 20% Burkina Faso Muslim 50%, indigenous beliefs 40%, Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 10% Cote d’Ivoire Muslim 35‐40%, indigenous 25‐40%, Christian 20‐30% (2001) Gambia Muslim 90%, Christian 9%, indigenous beliefs 1% Ghana Christian 63%, Muslim 16%, indigenous beliefs 21% Guinea Muslim 85%, Christian 8%, indigenous beliefs 7% Guinea‐Bissau indigenous beliefs 50%, Muslim 45%, Christian 5% Liberia indigenous beliefs 40%, Christian 40%, Muslim 20% Mali Muslim 90%, indigenous beliefs 9%, Christian 1% Mauritania Muslim 100% Niger Muslim 80%, remainder indigenous beliefs and Christian Nigeria Muslim 50%, Christian 40%, indigenous beliefs 10% Senegal Muslim 94%, Christian 5% (mostly Roman Catholic), indigenous beliefs 1% Sierra Leone Muslim 60%, indigenous beliefs 30%, Christian 10% Togo indigenous beliefs 51%, Christian 29%, Muslim 20% United States Protestant 52%, Roman Catholic 24%, Mormon 2%, Jewish 1%, Muslim 1%, other 10%, none 10% (2002 est.)
298 A Farmer’s Friend | Country Statistics ‐ 2006 Country Highways per Capita (km/1,000 people) Rank Benin Burkina Faso Cote d’Ivoire Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea‐Bissau Liberia Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Togo Total United States 0.89 0.93 2.91 1.79 1.80 3.23 3.11 3.65 1.32 2.50 0.83 1.51 1.24 n/i n/i 1.98 (average) n/i 12 11 4 7 6 2 3 1 9 5 13 8 10 n/i n/i Airports Rank Motor Vehicle Abundance (per square km) 5 14 0.41 34 4 0.22 35 3 1.41 1 15 1.83 12 11 0.66 16 10 0.15 28 6 0.46 53 2 0.37 29 5 0.1 25 8 0.23 28 6 0.2 69 1 2.69 20 9 0.64 10 12 0.35 9 13 2.12 374 0.79 (average) 14,858 46.6 299 Rank Motor Vehicles (per 1000 people) Rank 8 12 4 3 5 14 7 9 15 11 13 1 6 10 2 10 5 3 7 5 2 11 7 9 11 1 4 2 6 12 n/i n/i 5 6 13 1 5 4 1 18 11 n/i 7 (average) 765 A Farmer’s Friend | Country Statistics ‐ 2006 International Disputes as of 10‐30‐2006 Country Benin Burkina Faso Cote d’Ivoire Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea‐Bissau Liberia Mali Mauritania Niger Disputes two villages remain in dispute along the border with Burkina Faso; accuses Burkina Faso of moving boundary pillars; much of Benin‐Niger boundary, including tripoint with Nigeria, remains undemarcated, and ICJ ad hoc judges have been selected to rule on disputed Niger and Mekrou River islands; several villages along the Okpara River are in dispute with Nigeria; a joint boundary commission continues to resurvey the boundary with Togo to verify Benin's claim that Togo moved boundary stones two villages are in dispute along the border with Benin; Benin accuses Burkina Faso of moving boundary pillars; Burkina Faso border regions have become a staging area for Liberia and Cote d'Ivoire rebels and an asylum for refugees caught in regional fighting; the Ivoirian Government accuses Burkina Faso of supporting Ivoirian rebels continuing rebel fighting extends to neighboring states and has kept out foreign workers from nearby countries; the Ivorian Government accuses Burkina Faso and Liberia of supporting Ivorian rebels attempts to stem refugees, cross‐border raids, arms smuggling, other illegal activities, and political instability from separatist movement in southern Senegal's Casamance region Ghana must still deal with refugees and returning nationals escaping rebel fighting in Cote d'Ivoire domestic fighting among disparate rebel groups in Guinea, domestic fighting among disparate rebel groups, warlords, and youth gangs in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone have created insurgencies, street violence, looting, arms trafficking, ethnic conflicts skirmishes, deaths, and refugees in border areas; in 2003, Guinea and Sierra Leone established a boundary commission to resolve a dispute over the town of Yenga attempts to stem refugees and cross‐border raids, arms smuggling, and political instability from a separatist movement in Senegal's Casamance region domestic fighting among disparate rebel groups, warlords, and youth gangs in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone have created insurgencies, street violence, looting, arms trafficking, and ethnic conflicts and refugees in border areas; the Cote d'Ivoire Government accuses Liberia of supporting Ivorian rebels none Mauritanian claims to Western Sahara have been dormant in recent years Libya claims about 25,000 sq km in a currently dormant dispute; much of Benin‐Niger boundary, including tripoint with Nigeria, remains undemarcated, and ICJ ad hoc judges have been selected to rule on disputed Niger and Mekrou River islands; Lake Chad Commission continues to urge signatories Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria to ratify delimitation treaty over the lake region, which remains the site of armed clashes among local populations and militias 300 A Farmer’s Friend | Country Statistics ‐ 2006 International Disputes as of 10‐30‐2006 (continued) Country Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Togo Disputes ICJ ruled in 2002 on the entire Cameroon‐Nigeria land and maritime boundary but the parties formed a Joint Border Commission to resolve differences bilaterally and have commenced with demarcation in less‐contested sections of the boundary, starting in Lake Chad in the north; Nigeria initially rejected cession of the Bakasi Peninsula; the ICJ ruled on an equidistance settlement of Cameroon‐Equatorial Guinea‐Nigeria maritime boundary in the Gulf of Guinea, but imprecisely defined coordinates in the ICJ decision, the unresolved Bakasi allocation, and a sovereignty dispute between Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon over an island at the mouth of the Ntem River all contribute to the delay in implementation; several villages along the Okpara River are in dispute with Benin; Lake Chad Commission continues to urge signatories Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria to ratify delimitation treaty over lake region, which remains the site of armed clashes among local populations and militias. The Gambia and Guinea‐Bissau attempt to stem refugees, cross border raids, arms smuggling, and political instability from a separatist movement in Senegal's Casamance region n/i n/i 301 A Farmer’s Friend | Site Assessments Site Assessments Conducting a Site Assessment is an important first step in determining the existing conditions of agricultural practices in a particular area. To obtain the best possible information it is important to first develop a local contact that is respected in the geographic area of interest. This contact should not only be respected by the community, but they should also be familiar with the local customs and language(s). In making a selection for the local contact it is important to consider the local cultural views on gender and tribal differences. The individual(s) should be considered trustworthy and have some familiarity with the local practices. Even under the best circumstances obtaining accurate information for a Site Assessment may be difficult simply due to cultural taboos. For example, it is not uncommon for farmers to avoid yielding information about the number of the livestock they care for. This is out of a fear that if they count them then something bad may happen to them. As the majority of agricultural production in West Africa occurs in the rural areas, it should not be surprising that many of the local customs and beliefs of the ancestors are still strictly adhered to, even if this is not at first evident. While it is unlikely that a thorough understanding of these belief systems will emerge through the process of a Site Assessment, understanding that they exist is an important consideration when trying to discern some of the variability in agricultural practices that occur throughout this region of the world. This cannot be over‐emphasized. Upon entering an area to conduct Site Assessments, it is also extremely important to make first contact with the local leaders of an area. This should occur at two levels: 1) government leaders, and 2) tribal leaders. Respect of position and age is paramount in this region of the world; therefore, contacting the appropriate government leaders prior to conducting work in an area will show that you respect their position of leadership. Contacting the local‐(village) level leaders not only helps to inform them of your intentions, but may serve to better inform other community members prior to your arrival. The former is oftentimes found in the nearest large city, while the later is often located within the village. In any case, take all of the appropriate steps to avoid promoting an image of disrespect to either government or tribal leaders. In general, rural farmers of West Africa are not highly educated; however, they often know their business well and have valuable insights about agricultural practices in their site‐specific area. As a result, when conducting a Site Assessment it should be expected that questions may need to be modified to be understood by the farmer. Likewise, responses to these questions may not fit neatly into the assessment and some translating may need to be done to get the information that is desired. To obtain all of the information that is contained in a Site Assessment, the conductor may find it useful to not only interview the landlord, but also to include other family members (including the women). Many of the local farm tasks may be divided by gender and it is likely that the women will be better informed in these areas. To avoid some of the cultural influences of an area, it may be necessary to interview the different genders separately. The Site Assessment is a tool that may be used to obtain information for a particular area in an attempt to better understand the local practices. It is meant to serve as a baseline, yielding clues that may help to ascertain what may be working well in a particular area and what may not be working so well. It is best utilized in the field, when visiting the farmer that is providing the information. The results of one farmer should not serve to represent all of the farmers of a particular area; rather numerous Site Assessments should be conducted in one area. This may help in determining which of the conclusions may be representative of the area as a whole, in comparison to the differences that may exist between individual farmers. SA 1‐11 Agricultural Site Assessment Name: Date: Village/Site: Region/Country: Crop Production Primary Crops List the Five Main Crops Grown in the Last Growing Season 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Crop #1 Number of acres/hectares planted: Amount of seed used for planting: Where was the seed obtained from: What was the final yield: Was the yield stored: Was the crop grown for resale or consumption: If so, how: If for resale, how much was sold and where: Was the land owned or rented: How was labor divided for the production of this crop: If rented, what was the rent: Describe the cultural practices associated with the production of this crop: SA‐2 of 11 Crop #2 Number of acres/hectares planted: Amount of seed used for planting: Where was the seed obtained from: What was the final yield: Was the yield stored: Was the crop grown for resale or consumption: If so, how: If for resale, how much was sold and where: Was the land owned or rented: How was labor divided for the production of this crop: If rented, what was the rent: Describe the cultural practices associated with the production of this crop: Crop #3 Number of acres/hectares planted: Amount of seed used for planting: Where was the seed obtained from: What was the final yield: Was the yield stored: Was the crop grown for resale or consumption: If so, how: If for resale, how much was sold and where: Was the land owned or rented: How was labor divided for the production of this crop: If rented, what was the rent: Describe the cultural practices associated with the production of this crop: SA‐3 of 11 Crop #4 Number of acres/hectares planted: Amount of seed used for planting: Where was the seed obtained from: What was the final yield: Was the yield stored: Was the crop grown for resale or consumption: If so, how: If for resale, how much was sold and where: Was the land owned or rented: How was labor divided for the production of this crop: If rented, what was the rent: Describe the cultural practices associated with the production of this crop: Crop #5 Number of acres/hectares planted: Amount of seed used for planting: Where was the seed obtained from: What was the final yield: Was the yield stored: Was the crop grown for resale or consumption: If so, how: If for resale, how much was sold and where: Was the land owned or rented: How was labor divided for the production of this crop: If rented, what was the rent: Describe the cultural practices associated with the production of this crop: SA‐4 of 11 Supplemental Crops What other crops are grown by the farmer during the traditional growing season: Does the farmer grow any crops in the off‐season: If so, what: Does the farmer have a “home‐garden”: If so, what type of crops or vegetables are produced there: Inputs Water Management In a typical growing season, how many months is there rain: How much rain typically falls during this time: Are the rain events in this area consistent: Are any of the crops irrigated: If so, which crops and how often is irrigation necessary: What is the source of the water used for irrigation by the local people: Can this source of water be relied upon on a consistent basis: Does the water for irrigation come from the same source as the water used by local households: SA‐5 of 11 Soil Management Are any efforts made to enhance the soil where crops are grown: Are soil additives natural (manure, compost, etc.) or synthetic (fertilizer): Does the farmer incorporate soil conservation practices (i.e. strip farming, no‐till, contour planting, etc.): How are the crop residues utilized: Are the fields burned over after harvesting is complete: Pest and Disease Management Of the crops grown, are there any major pests or diseases that effect yields: Are these present every year: What techniques are used to reduce the damage they cause: What symptoms are related to these and at what stage of growth do they appear: Does the farmer rotate crops: SA‐6 of 11 Tree Management Common Tree Species Found in the Area Local Uses Are the trees managed individually or in reserves: Are any of the trees of religious significance: Has the farmer planted any trees in the re‐
If so, list the following: cent past: Year Type What was the survival rate of the seedlings planted: What was the major cause of seedling mortality: Where were these seedlings planted: Were any efforts made to protect the seedlings from browse damage: If so, what type of protection: SA‐7 of 11 Number Planted Tree Management (continued)
Were any efforts made to water the seedlings: If so, how often and what was the source of water: Are there any local suppliers of seedlings: If so, where and what types of seedlings are available; How is the “ownership” of trees (and the related goods) determined: Does the farmer incorporate any agrroforestry practices (intercropping, alley cropping, windbreaks, etc.): Livestock Type of Livestock in Pos‐
session Current Value Number Do any of the animals have religious significance: Who cares for the livestock: SA‐8 of 11 Local Uses Livestock (continued) What are the local customs relating to the care of the various livestock (i.e. free‐range, tethered, kraal, etc.) by type: Type of Live‐
Local Customs stock Do these methods vary by season: What are the main types of livestock feed by type: Type of Live‐
stock Type of Feed Do the types of feed vary by season: Are any crops or grasses harvested and stored specifically for feeding livestock: If so, what and how much is reserved: SA‐9 of 11 Livestock (continued) Is any of the livestock manure used for soil enrichment: Does the farmer practice composting: What are the major illnesses or parasites that affect the local livestock: How are these treated: Cultural, Social, and Economic Describe the land tenure system in the local area: How many people make up the farmer’s “household”: Do all of these people rely on the crops, trees, and livestock associated with this assessment: Do any members of the “household” contribute income from outside sources: If so, where else do they work: Where is the nearest market to the “household”: Is the this the market that is most often used to buy and sell goods: What crops are used to produce the main food(s) of the local area: SA‐10 of 11 Cultural, Social, and Economic (continued) Is it possible for a family to grow enough food in a typical year to feed themselves for the year: Has the farmer attempted any new farming practices recently: Level of activity in local farming groups or co‐operatives (past or present): Proximity to the nearest agricultural station or school: Availability of improved seed/seedling varieties: What is the main source for the fuel that is needed for cooking: How far must the collectors go for firewood: Is charcoal available locally: What is the dominant local language: What is the dominant social group (tribe): For what radius (km) are these dominant: Are the surrounding tribes known for any varying agricultural practices or production: What role do the women and children have in agricultural production: SA‐11 of 11 References Introduction to West African Farming Systems Brandle, J.R., L. Hodges, and X.H. Zhou. Windbreaks in North American Agricultural Systems; New Vistas in Agroforestry: A Compendium for the 1st World Congress of Agroforestry, 2004. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 2004. Pages 72‐75. Cherry, Stefan D. and Erick C.M. Fernandes. Live Fences. Agroforestry at Cornell. 2007. Address: http://ppathw3.cals.cornell.edu/mba_project/livefence.html Food and Fertilizer Technology Center: An International Center for Farmers in the Asia Pacific Region. Integrated Management of Slopeland Orchards in Asia. 2007. Address: http://www.agnet.org/library/article/ac1997c.html Garcia‐Barrios, L. and C.K. Ong. Ecological Interactions, Management Lessons and Design Tools in Tropical Agroforestry Systems; New Vistas in Agroforestry: A Compendium for the 1st World Congress of Agroforestry, 2004. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 2004. Page 225. Huxley, Peter. Tropical Agroforestry. Blackwell Science. 1999. Pages 8, 9, 43, 59‐60, 137, 235, 256, 267‐268, and 283. Huxley, Peter and Helen Van Houten. The Overstory #75: Glossary for Agroforestry Practices. Hosted by: Agroforestry.net. Page last updated on January 2, 2006. Address: http://agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory75.html International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. Definition of Taungya. 2007. Address: http://www.iita.org/info/trn_mat/irg26/irg264.htm Kumar, B.M. and P.K.R. Nair. The Enigma of Tropical Homegardens; New Vistas in Agroforestry: A Compendium for the 1st World Congress of Agroforestry, 2004. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 2004. Page 136. Lassoie, James P. and Louise E. Buck. Development of Agroforestry as an Integrated Land Use Management Straregry; North American Agroforestry: An Integrated Science and Practice. The American Society of Agronomy. 2000. Pages 1‐31. Lombardi, Cathryn L. and John M. Hollingsworth. Africa (3rd ed). Edited by Phyllis M. Martin and Patrick O’Meara. Indiana Universtiy Press. 1995. Pages 11, 29, and 30. National Agroforestry Center (in cooperation with the Natural Resources Conservation Service, Watershed Science Institute, and Wildlife Habitat Management Institute); United States Department of Agriculture. Working Trees for Livestock. Agroforestry: Silvopasture in the Southeast. National Agroforestry Center (in cooperation with the Natural Resources Conservation Service, Watershed Science Institute, and Wildlife Habitat Management Institute); United States Department of Agriculture. Working Trees for Wildlife. Raintree, J.B. Agroforestry pathways: land tenure, shifting cultivation and sustainable agriculture. FAO Corporate Document Repository; Unasylva – Number 154. 2007. Address: http://www.fao.org/docrep/50630e/50630e02.htm Rockwood, D.L., C.V. Naidu, D.R. Carter, M. Rahmani, T.A. Spriggs, C.Lin, G.R. Alker, J.G. Isebrands, and S.A. Segrest. Short‐
Rotation Woody Crops and Phytoremediation: Opportunities for Agroforestry; New Vistas in Agroforestry: A Compendium for the 1st World Congress of Agroforestry, 2004. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 2004. Page 51. University of Nebraska Lincoln: Extension Forestry. Agroforestry for Rural Living. 2006. Address: http://snr.unl.edu/forestry/agroforestryintro2.htm Von Kaufmann R., B.N. Okigbo, and E.N.N. Oppong. Integrating Crops and Livestock in West Africa. Food and Agriculture Organization. Rome. 1983. Address: http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/004/X6543E/X6543E00.htm#TOC Winrock International. FACT Net. Trees in Livestock Systems. Description of Fodder Banks. 2007. Address: http://www.winrock.org/fnrm/factnet/factpub/Slidesho/Ivstcksytm.htm Winrock International. FACT Net. Temporal Systems and Woodlots. Description of Taungya. 2007. Address: http://winrock.org/fnrm/factnet/factpub/Slidesho/Tempwood.htm World Agroforestry Centre: Southern Africa Programme. 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Tropical Soils: Characteristics and Management (SSC 701). North Carolina State University (Soil Science Department). 2001. Address: http://www.soil.ncsu.edu/lockers/Smyth_J/PhysProp/PHYSPROP.HTM Address: http://www.soil.ncsu.edu/lockers/Smyth_J/images/soils/entpelg.gif University of Idaho: College of Agricultural and Life Sciences. The Twelve Soil Orders: Soil Taxonomy; Aridisols. 2007. Address: http://soils.ag.uidaho.edu/soilorders/aridisols.htm University of Idaho: College of Agricultural and Life Sciences. The Twelve Soil Orders: Soil Taxonomy; Inceptisols. 2007. Address: http://soils.ag.uidaho.edu/soilorders/inceptisols_06.htm Von Kaufmann R., B.N. Okigbo, and E.N.N. Oppong. Integrating Crops and Livestock in West Africa. Food and Agriculture Organization. Rome. 1983. Address: http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/004/X6543E/X6543E01.htm All Crops Akinyosoye, V.O. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa. Macmillan Publishing. 1976. Pages 83‐101, 107‐112, 117‐118, and 122‐124. 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21, 23‐33, 35‐43, 48, 50‐53, 55‐57, 60, 62‐65, 68‐69, 71‐73, 76‐77, 113‐115, and 119‐124. Protobase: Access to webdatabase on useful plants of Tropical Africa. Search Protabase (English) – onion, groundnut, red pepper, egusi, hungry rice, yams, soybeans, okra, tomato, African rice, polished rice, pearl millet, sesame, eggplant, native potatoes, Guinea corn, Bambara bean, cowpea, and maize. Purdue University: Center for New Crops and Plant Products_Cowpea. 2007. Address: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/1492/figs/cowpea‐fig36.gif Smartt, J. and N.W. Simmonds. Evolution of Crop Plant.. Longman Scientific & Technical. 1995. Page 492. Additional Resources Address: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Koeh‐190.jpg/250px‐Koeh‐190.jpg Address: http://chefkochbuch.de/assets/bilder/Image107.gif Address: http://nal.usda.gov/fmc/foodcomp/cgi‐bin/list_nut_edit.pl Address: http://www.junglephotos.com/africa/afplants/cultivated/cottonboll.jpg 295 Address:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Koeh‐071.jpg/250px‐Koeh‐071.jpg Address: http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/generalbotany/images/barkfeatures/Heveatappingcup.jpg Address: http://ecofog.cirad.fr/FLG/images/25.jpg Address: http://www.unu.edu/unupress/food/8F024e/8F024E0U.GIF Address: http://content.answers.com/main/content/img/Gardeners/f0172.jpg Address: http://www.yale.edu/agrarianstudies/sylla/syllapix/sp028.gif Address: http://www.ntbg.org/gardens/images/limahuli_tour/8.gif Crop Species Quick Guide Allium cepa Photos: http://database.prota.org 1.
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West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 115‐116. Fieldbook of Natural History. Palmer, Lawrence E. and Seymour Fowler. McGraw‐Hill Book Company. 1975. pp 371. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa, V.O. Akinyosoye, Macmillan Publishing, 1976, pp 99. http://www.uga.edu/vegetable/onion.html http:www.nutritiondata.com/facts‐C00001‐01c20eL.html http://database.prota.org Ananas comosus Photo 1: http://www.fao.org/inpho/content/compend/img/ch33/AE614e12.gif Photo 2: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/images/Figure6.jpg 1. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa, V.O. Akinyosoye, Macmillan Publishing, 1976, pp 117‐118. 2. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 98‐101. 3. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 76‐77. 4. Fieldbook of Natural History. Palmer, Lawrence E. and Seymour Fowler. McGraw‐Hill Book Company. 1975. pp 368. 5. http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts‐C00001‐01c20WZ.html Arachis hypogaea Photos: http://database.prota.org/dbtw‐wpd/exec/dbtwpub.dll 1. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 193‐199. 2. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa, V.O. Akinyosoye, Macmillan Publishing, 1976, pp 97‐98. 3. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 40‐43. 4. Fieldbook of Natural History. Palmer, Lawrence E. and Seymour Fowler. McGraw‐Hill Book Company. 1975. pp 218. 5. http:www.nutritiondata.com/facts‐C00001‐01c218F.html 6. http://databaseproto.org Capsicum frutescens Photos: http://database.prota.org 1. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 111‐113. 2. Fieldbook of Natural History. Palmer, Lawrence E. and Seymour Fowler. McGraw‐Hill Book Company. 1975. pp 293. 3. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa, V.O. Akinyosoye, Macmillan Publishing, 1976, pp 100‐101. 4. http://www.fao.org/inpho/content/documents/vlibrary/ad420e/AD420e02.htm 5. http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/shrubs/Capsicum%20frutescens.pdf 6. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 68‐69. 7. http://database.prota.org 296 Citrullus lanatus Photos: http://database.prota.org/dbtw‐wpd/exec/dbtwpub.dll 1. Lost Crops of Africa, Volume II, Vegetables, National Research Council, The National Academy Press, 2006, pp. 155‐
172. 2. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 185. 3. http://databaseproto.org Citrullus vulgaris Photo 1: Lost Crops of Africa, Volume II, Vegetables, National Research Council, The National Academy Press, 2006, pp. 154. Photo 2: http://chefkochbuch.de/assets/bilder/Image107.gif 1. Fieldbook of Natural History. Palmer, Lawrence E. and Seymour Fowler. McGraw‐Hill Book Company. 1975. pp 308. 2. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 106‐107. 3. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 73. 4. http:www.nutritiondata.com/facts‐C00001‐01c20XQhtml Cola acuminate Photo 1: http://www.desert‐tropicals.com/Plants/Sterculiaceae/Cola_acuminata2.jpg Photo 2: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Koeh‐190.jpg/250px‐Koeh‐190.jpg 1. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa, V.O. Akinyosoye, Macmillan Publishing, 1976, pp 107‐108 . 2. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 22‐23 . 3. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 113‐115. Digitaria exilis Photos: http://database.prota.org 1. Lost Crops of Africa, Volume I, Grains, National Research Council, The National Academy Press, 1996, pp. 59‐75. 2. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 148‐149. 3. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 33. 4. http://database.prota.org Dioscorea spp. Photos: http://database.prota.org/dbtw‐wpd/exec/dbtwpub.dll 1. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa, V.O. Akinyosoye, Macmillan Publishing, 1976, pp 91‐94. 2. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 160‐173. 3. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 8‐12. 4. http://nal.usda.gov/fmc/foodcomp/cgi‐bin/list_nut_edit.pl 5. http://databaseproto.org Glycine max Photos: http://database.prota.org 1. Fieldbook of Natural History. Palmer, Lawrence E. and Seymour Fowler. McGraw‐Hill Book Company. 1975. pp 219. 2. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 208‐209. 3. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 48. 4. http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts‐C00001‐01c218Z.html . 5. http://databaseproto.org 297 Gossypium spp Photo 1: http://www.cieer.org/geirs/illustrations/Gossypium_barbardense_ill.jpg Photo 2: http://www.junglephotos.com/africa/afplants/cultivated/cottonboll.jpg 1. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa, V.O. Akinyosoye, Macmillan Publishing, 1976, pp 124‐126. 2. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 48‐54. 3. Fieldbook of Natural History. Palmer, Lawrence E. and Seymour Fowler. McGraw‐Hill Book Company. 1975. pp 249. 4. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 50‐53. 5. http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts‐C00001‐01c209D.html Hevea brasiliensis Photo 1: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Koeh‐071.jpg/250px‐Koeh‐071.jpg Photo 2: http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/generalbotany/images/barkfeatures/Heveatappingcup.jpg 1. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa, V.O. Akinyosoye, Macmillan Publishing, 1976, pp 122‐124. 2. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 35‐38. 3. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 119‐124. Hibiscus esculentus Photos: http://database.prota.org 1. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 71‐72. 2. Lost Crops of Africa, Volume II, Vegetables, National Research Council, The National Academy Press, 2006, pp 287‐
301. 3. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa, V.O. Akinyosoye, Macmillan Publishing, 1976, 99. 4. http://database.prota.org Ipomoea batatas Photo 1: http://www.fao.org/WAIRdocs/x5425f/x5425f0d.htm Photo 2: http://www.fao.org/inpho/content/documents/vlibrary/AE620s/Pfrescos/CAMOTE.HTM 1. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 180‐184. 2. Fieldbook of Natural History. Palmer, Lawrence E. and Seymour Fowler. McGraw‐Hill Book Company. 1975. pp 284. 3. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 19‐20. Lycopersicum esculentum Photos: http://database.prota.org 1. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa, V.O. Akinyosoye, Macmillan Publishing, 1976, pp 99‐100. 2. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 109‐110. 3. Fieldbook of Natural History. Palmer, Lawrence E. and Seymour Fowler. McGraw‐Hill Book Company. 1975. pp 293. 4. http://database.prota.org Manihot utilissima Photo 1: http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5032E/x5032E00.GIF Photo 2: http://ecofog.cirad.fr/FLG/images/25.jpg Photo 3: http://www.unu.edu/unupress/food/8F024e/8F024E0U.GIF 1. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa, V.O. Akinyosoye, Macmillan Publishing, 1976, pp 94‐95. 2. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 153‐159. 3. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 13‐16. 4. http:www.nutritiondata.com/facts‐C00001‐01c20cX.html 298 Nicotiana tabacum Photo 1: http://www.fao.org/docrep/x2230e/x2230e72.jpg Photo 2: http://content.answers.com/main/content/img/Gardeners/f0172.jpg 1. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa, V.O. Akinyosoye, Macmillan Publishing, 1976, pp 110‐112. 2. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 55‐61. 3. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 55‐57. 4. Fieldbook of Natural History. Palmer, Lawrence E. and Seymour Fowler. McGraw‐Hill Book Company. 1975. pp 294‐
295. Oryza glaberrima Photos: http://database.prota.org 1. Lost Crops of Africa, Volume I, Grains, National Research Council, The National Academy Press, 1996, pp. 18‐37. 2. http://database.prota.org Oryza Sativa Photos: http://database.prota.org 1. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 130‐135. 2. Fieldbook of Natural History. Palmer, Lawrence E. and Seymour Fowler. McGraw‐Hill Book Company. 1975. pp 389. 3. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 27‐30. 4. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa, V.O. Akinyosoye, Macmillan Publishing, 1976, pp 86‐88. 5. http://database.prota.org Pennisetum glaucum Photos: Photos: http://database.prota.org 1. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 31‐32. 2. Lost Crops of Africa, Volume I, Grains, National Research Council, The National Academy Press, 1996, pp. 77‐109. 3. http://database.prota.org Saccharum oficinale Photo 1: http://www.yale.edu/agrarianstudies/sylla/syllapix/sp028.gif Photo 2: http://www.ntbg.org/gardens/images/limahuli_tour/8.gif 1. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 62‐67. 2. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa, V.O. Akinyosoye, Macmillan Publishing, 1976, pp 108‐110. 3. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 62‐65. 4. Fieldbook of Natural History. Palmer, Lawrence E. and Seymour Fowler. McGraw‐Hill Book Company. 1975. pp 346. Sesamum indicum Photos: http://database.prota.org 1. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 71‐74. 2. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 60. 3. http:www.nutritiondata.com/facts‐C00001‐01c20os.html 4. http://databaseproto.org Solanum aethiopicum Photos: http://database.prota.org 1. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 71‐74. 2. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 60. 3. http:www.nutritiondata.com/facts‐C00001‐01c20os.html 4. http://databaseproto.org 299 Solenostemon rotundifolius Photos: http://database.prota.org 1. http://database.prota.org 2. Lost Crops of Africa, Volume II, Vegetables, National Research Council, The National Academy Press, 2006, pp 137‐
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285. 2. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 185. 3. http://databaseproto.org Vigna subterranea Photos: http://database.prota.org 1. Lost Crops of Africa, Volume I, Grains, National Research Council, The National Academy Press, 1996, pp. 127‐158. 2. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 35‐39. 3. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa, V.O. Akinyosoye, Macmillan Publishing, 1976, 88‐90. 4. http://database.prota.org Vigna unguiculata Photos: http://database.prota.org 1. http://database.prota.org 2. Lost Crops of Africa, Volume II, Vegetables, National Research Council, The National Academy Press, 2006, pp. 53‐73. Xanthosoma spp. Photo 1: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0646e/T0646E0U.GIF Photo 2: http://www.fao.org/inpho/content/compend/img/ch13/g00035.jpg 1. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 174‐179. 2. An Agricultural Notebook. Phillips, T.A. Longmans of Nigeria. 1966. pp 21. 3. http://www.pjbs.org/pjnonline/fin766.pdf Zea Mays Photos: http://database.prota.org 1. West African Crops. Irvine, F.R. Oxford University Press. 1969. pp 125‐129. 2. Senior Tropical Agriculture for West Africa, V.O. Akinyosoye, Macmillan Publishing, 1976, pp 83‐86. 3. Fieldbook of Natural History. Palmer, Lawrence E. and Seymour Fowler. McGraw‐Hill Book Company. 1975. pp 341‐
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http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/Sites/TreeDBS/aft/botanicSearch.asp Samanea saman Photo: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac775e/AC775E72.jpg 1.
http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/Sites/TreeDBS/aft/speciesPrinterFriendly.asp?Id=1641 2.
Allmaras, Colleen and Steve Nemeth. Trees Grown in Ghana: An Informational Handbook. pp 73. 307 Sesbania grandiflora Photo: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac775e/AC775E181.jpg 1.
http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/Sites/TreeDBS/aft/speciesPrinterFriendly.asp?Id=1641 2.
Allmaras, Colleen and Steve Nemeth. Trees Grown in Ghana: An Informational Handbook. pp 75. Sesbania sesban Photo: http://www.fao.org/ag/Agp/agpc/doc/Publicat/Gutt‐shel/x5556e06.gif 1.
http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/Sites/TreeDBS/aft/speciesPrinterFriendly.asp?Id=1522 2.
Allmaras, Colleen and Steve Nemeth. Trees Grown in Ghana: An Informational Handbook. pp 77. Tamarindus indica Photo: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac775e/AC775E181.jpg 1.
http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/Sites/TreeDBS/aft/speciesPrinterFriendly.asp?Id=1641 2.
Allmaras, Colleen and Steve Nemeth. Trees Grown in Ghana: An Informational Handbook. pp 79. Tectona grandis Photo:http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac775e/AC775E194.jpg 1.
http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/Sites/TreeDBS/aft/speciesPrinterFriendly.asp?Id=1603 2.
Allmaras, Colleen and Steve Nemeth. Trees Grown in Ghana: An Informational Handbook. pp 81. Terminalia catappa Photo: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac775e/AC775E196.jpg 1.
http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/Sites/TreeDBS/aft/speciesPrinterFriendly.asp?Id=1616 2.
Allmaras, Colleen and Steve Nemeth. Trees Grown in Ghana: An Informational Handbook. pp 83. Theobroma Cacao Photo: http://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/MigratoryBirds/Research/Cacao/Images/Image10.gif 1.
Photo: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/1492/figs/cupuacu_fig23.gif 2.
http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/Sites/TreeDBS/aft/speciesPrinterFriendly.asp?Id=1641 Cover Crops The information for this section was compiled from: Tropical Forages: an interactive selection tool. (www.tropicalforages.info) Address: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Andropogon_gayanus.htm Address: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Axonopus_compressus.htm Address: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Cenchrus_ciliaris.htm Address: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Chloris_gayana.htm Address: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Cynodon_dactylon.htm Address: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Cynodon_spp.htm Address: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Eragrostis_curvula.htm Address: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Melinis_minutiflora.htm Address: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Panicum_maximum.htm Address: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Pennisetum_clandestinum.htm Address: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Pennisetum_purpureum.htm Address: http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Setaria_sphacelata.htm Maps Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment. University of Wisconsin – Madison. Atlas of the Biosphere: 1.
Average Annual Temperature (Africa). 2.
Annual Total Precipitation (Africa) 308 3.
Elevation (Africa) Address: http://www.sage.wisc.edu/ Natural Resources Conservation Service: Global Anthropic Landscapes Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/anthland.html Natural Resources Conservation Service: Anthropic System Tension Zones Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/hotspots.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Assessment of Water Holding Capacity of Soils Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/whc.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Global Desertification Vulnerability Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/desert.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Global Distribution of Wetlands Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/wetlands.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Global Major Land Resource Stresses Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/stresses.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Global Population Density Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/popden.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Inherent Land Quality Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/landqual.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Major Biomes Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/biomes.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Phosphorus Retention Potential Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/phos.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Risk of Human‐Induced Desertification Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/dsrtrisk.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Risk of Human‐Induced Water Erosion Map Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/eh2orisk.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Risk of Human‐Induced Wind Erosion Map Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/ewinrisk.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Soil Inorganic Carbon Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/sic.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Soil Moisture Regimes Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/smr.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Soil Organic Carbon Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/soc.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Soil Temperature Regimes Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/str.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Vulnerability to Wind Erosion Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/eroswind.html Natural Resources Conservation Service. Water Erosion Vulnerability Map. Address: http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/mapindex/erosh2o.html Country Statistics Address: http://www.nationmaster.com/index.php 309