Download AP Bio Final Exam Review

AP Bio Final Exam Review ☺
f.
Analyze the following phylogenic tree: What are some conclusions you can draw from this tree about
species A, B, C, D and E. Also explain x and y.
Big Idea #1 – The process of evolution drives the diversity and unity of life.
Change in the genetic makeup of a POPULATION over time is evolution
1. What is the major mechanism for evolution?
a. Describe Darwin’s theory of natural selection by discussing how the following play a role in
the theory - competition for limited resources, differential survival, phenotypic variations and
reproduction
b. How is evolutionary fitness measured?
c. Describe the two major sources for genetic variation.
d. Why is genetic variation so important in maintaining the survival of a species?
e. Explain the role of genetic drift in evolution. Provide a specific example.
f. What size population is most susceptible to the effects of genetic drift and WHY?
g. Explain the environments role in evolution.
h. Explain an adaptation and how it relates to evolution.
i. What does it mean to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
j. What five conditions must be met in order for this equilibrium to be maintained?
k. In a population that is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the frequency of a recessive allele for a certain
hereditary trait is 0.20. What percentage of the individuals in the next generation would be expected to
show the dominant trait?
2. Does natural selection act on genotype or phenotype and WHY?
a. Use the peppered moth example to explain how environmental change can act as a selective
mechanism on a population.
b. How are new phenotypic variations created in a population? (2 main ways).
c. Explain how sickle cell anemia affects an individual’s fitness and the overall population’s fitness?
d. Explain how artificial selection by humans or the overuse of antibiotics has impacted the variation of
other species. Provide an example.
3. How do random processes play a role in evolution?
a. Explain the effects of genetic drift on a small, medium, and large size population.
b. Explain how genetic drift can create differences between populations of the same species and
potentially lead to speciation. Give an example.
4. What are evidences that are used to support biological evolution?
a. Explain how each of the following scientific evidences are used to support evolution:
i. Geographical
ii. Geological
iii. Physical
iv. Chemical
v. Mathematical
b. How does the dating of fossils and rocks add to our understanding of the evolution of a species?
c. Explain how morphological similarities such as homologous structures provide evidence for evolution.
d. What is a vestigial structure and how does it provide evidence for evolution?
e. Explain how DNA and Protein sequencing can be used as an evidence for evolution and ancestry.
(BLAST)
Organisms are linked by lines of descent from common ancestry.
1. What are some conserved core processes that are widely distributed among organisms today?
a. What 3 common processes occur using DNA and/or RNA in all living organisms?
b. What are the major features of the genetic code that are shared by all living organisms?
c. Explain how the metabolic process of glycolysis is conserved in all domains and provides
evidence for common ancestry.
d. What are 3 examples of structural evidence that shows the relatedness of all eukaryotes?
2. What are two major graphical representations that are used to demonstrate the evolutionary history of
organisms?
a. Draw a cladogram or phylogenetic tree that depicts a derived characteristic. You the number
of heart chambers in an animal in your drawing.
b. Describe how a phylogenetic tree or cladogram shows that speciation has occurred. How are
species linked on a phylogentic tree or cladogram?
c. Explain how morphological similarities and molecular sequence similarities can be used to
create a phylogenetic tree or cladogram. (BLAST Lab)
d. Why are phylogenetic trees and cladograms under constant revision?
Life continues to evolve within a changing environment.
1. What is the difference between speciation and extinction? How are they linked?
a. How does adaptive radiation and niche availability affect speciation?
b. Give 2 examples in past history where rapid extinction has occurred?
c. How are humans directly impacting the extinction of species?
d. Describe the two rates at which speciation can occur.
2. What causes speciation?
a. Describe how a geographic barrier can lead to speciation? Give an example.
b. Discuss the two forms of reproductive isolation? Provide an example of each.
c. Explain how both geographic and reproductive isolation prevent gene flow.
d. Explain sympatric speciation. Give a specific example.
3. At what level of organization does evolution occur?
a. Explain how chemical resistances such as antibiotic resistance, pesticide resistance, or
herbicide resistance demonstrate that evolution is still occurring.
b. Explain how the heart chambers in eukaryotic animals demonstrate that evolution has
occurred.
The origin of living systems is explained by natural processes.
1. Explain the hypothesis by which the origin of life on Earth occurred.
a. What inorganic molecules were present in primitive Earth?
b. What molecule was absent from the atmosphere of the primitive Earth?
c. What formed from these early atmospheric conditions?
d. What most likely was the first genetic information of living things?
2. What evidences support the hypothesis by which the origin of life on Earth occurred?
a. How old is the earth?
b. How old is the earliest known fossil?
c. Explain the Stanley Miller experiment and its importance to the hypothesis regarding the
origin of life.
d. What molecular and genetic evidence suggests that all organisms share a common ancestor?
e. Describe a few characteristics of the universal common ancestor.
LABS and Calculations:
BLAST Lab
Brine Shrimp Natural Selection Lab
Hardy-Weinberg Calculations
AP Lab Simulation #8 – Population Genetics
Big Idea 2: Biological systems utilize free energy and molecular building blocks to grow,
to reproduce and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.
Growth, reproduction and maintenance of the organization of living systems require free energy and
matter.
1. Why do living organisms require a constant input of free energy?
a. How is order maintained within a living system?
b. What happens to a living system if the flow of free energy stops?
c. Explain a biological process that offsets entropy to maintain order.
d. What is the second law of thermodynamics?
e. Explain the difference in a reaction that has a negative free energy change and one that has a
positive free energy change.
f. How does the coupling of reactions maintain order and power cellular processes?
g. What is the main energetically favorable exergonic reaction that occurs in cells to increase the
order of the system?
h. Explain how energy is involved in the following pathways: Krebs cycle, glycolysis, calvin
cycle and fermentation.
i. Explain how endotherms use energy to help regulate body temperature.
j. Explain how ectotherms use energy to help regulate body temperature.
k. How do organisms maximize free energy availability for reproduction and raising offspring?
l. How is a multicellular organism’s size (body mass) related to its metabolic rate?
m. How do organisms store excess energy? Distinguish between plants and animals.
n. What would happen immediately to an organism that did not have sufficient free energy to
maintain biological processes? Long term?
o. How does a change in free energy availability affect a population size? Be specific.
p. Draw a trophic level diagram indicating the type of organism that would be found at each
level.
q. How would a decrease in the number of producers affect the number and size of each trophic
level? WHY?
r. How would a decrease in sunlight affect the number and size of each trophic level? WHY?
2. How do organisms capture and store free energy for use in biological processes?
a. What is the name for an organism that can capture free energy?
b. What type of organisms capture free energy from sunlight?
c. What type of organism can capture free energy from small inorganic molecules in the
environment without oxygen?
d. What type of organism must capture free energy via organic compound which other
organisms have produced?
e. What 3 organic compounds can be metabolized as a source of free energy?
f. What process produces organic compounds and free energy in the absence of oxygen?
g. What is the electron acceptor in the electron transport chain in the light reactions of
photosynthesis?
h. What is the electron acceptor in the electron transport chain in cellular respiration?
i. What are the reactants and products of the light dependent reactions of photosynthesis?
j. Where do the products of the light reactions go and what do they help produce?
k. What is the name and function of the pigment involved in the light reactions of
photosynthesis? (study and understand figure 10.11)
l. Where is the location and what is the role of photosystems I and II in the light reactions of
photosynthesis?
m. Explain the process that occurs when the electrons are moved through the electron transport
chain between the photosystems. (study and understand figure 10.13)
n. Explain how ATP is generated by the light reactions of photosynthesis? (study and understand
figure 10.17)
o. What powers the production of carbohydrates in the Calvin cycle?
p. Where does the Calvin cycle occur?
q. What organisms were first capable of photosynthesis? What evidence supports this?
r. What affect did early photosynthetic prokaryotes have on the Earth?
s. How did eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms arise from photosynthetic prokaryotes?
t. What are the reactants and products of glycolysis? Where does this process occur?
u. What must happen to pyruvate before the Krebs cycle can occur?
v. What are the reactants and products of the Krebs cycle? Where does this process occur?
w. What are the 2 electron carriers that bring electrons from the Krebs cycle to the ETC of
cellular respiration? Where does the ETC occur?
x. What is the function of the ETC?
y. Where (3 places) is an ETC found? What does this suggest?
z. Complete the following chart:
Photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration
Source of electrons
Final Electron Acceptor
Location of ETC
aa. Describe the process of chemiosmosis to produce ATP in both Photosynthesis and Cellular
Respiration.
bb. In cellular respiration what is a byproduct of the production of ATP? Why is this important in
endotherms?
cc. What is the purpose of creating ATP via cellular respiration? Give some specific examples of
how ATP is used.
3. Why do organisms require a constant exchange of matter with the environment?
a. Why do living organisms need molecules and atoms from the environment?
b. What atom is necessary to build organic compounds in living things? Where is it found and
how does it enter living things?
c. What are the 4 organic compounds necessary for an organism’s survival?
d. What atom is necessary to build both nucleic acids and proteins? Where is it found and how
does it enter living things?
e. What atom is needed to build nucleic acids and some lipids? Where is it found and how does
it enter living things?
f. What are the main characteristics of water that makes it so important to living things? (2)
g. Explain the role of water in the following:
i. Cohesion
ii. Adhesion
iii. High specific heat capacity
iv. Universal solvent to support chemical reactions
v. Heat of vaporization
vi. Heat of fusion
vii. Thermal conductivity
viii. Transpiration
h. As a cell increases in volume, what happens to its relative surface area? What is the
consequence of this? Explain how the following help combat this problem. Be specific in the
role of each structure:
i. Root hairs
ii. Cells in the alveoli of the lungs
iii. Cells of the villi and microvilli
i. What size cell has the most efficient exchange of nutrients and waste with the outside
environment? WHY?
Growth, reproduction and dynamic homeostasis require that cells create and maintain internal
environments that are different from their external environments.
1. What is the function of the cell membrane?
a. How does the cell membrane separate the internal environment of the cell from the external
environment?
b. Describe the structure of the cell membrane (fluid mosaic model) and explain how its
structure contributes to its selective permeability. (study and understand the structures and
functions of figure 7.7)
c. Draw and label the cell membrane – Include the structures and functions of the following in
your drawing:
i. Phospholipids
ii. Transmembrane proteins
iii. Cholesterol
iv. Glycoproteins
v. Glycolipids
d. Distinguish between the hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions of the membrane.
e. Distinguish between the hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions of an imbedded membrane
protein.
f. How do small non-polar molecules cross the membrane? Give an example.
g. How do larger charged molecules cross the membrane? Give an example.
h. How does water cross the cell membrane?
i. What is the structure and function of a cell wall in a plant, fungi, and prokaryote?
2. How is dynamic homeostasis maintained across a membrane?
a. Describe passive transport.
b. How does passive transport allow the passage of nutrients and the removal of wastes? Give an
example.
c. Describe facilitated diffusion. Give an example.
d. Describe what would happen to a cell placed in the following solutions:
i. Hypotonic
ii. Isotonic
iii. hypertonic
e. Describe active transport. Give an example.
f. What is required for both facilitated diffusion and active transport?
g. Describe endocytosis and exocytosis. Give an example of each.
3. How do eukaryotic cells accomplish compartmentalization?
a. What is the purpose of internal cell membranes such as that of the endoplasmic reticulum?
b. Explain how isolating chemical reactions within a membrane makes a cell more efficient.
Discuss the following cell structures and their functions as examples:
i. ER
ii. Mitochondria
iii. Chloroplasts
iv. Golgi
v. Nuclear Envelope
c. Which two domains lack internal membranes and compartmentalization?
Organisms use feedback mechanisms to regulate growth and reproduction, and to maintain dynamic
homeostasis.
1. How do organisms maintain homeostasis of internal environments and respond to external
environmental changes?
a. What process maintains dynamic homeostasis for a given condition by returning the changing
condition back to its original target set point?
b. Describe how the following demonstrate negative feedback:
i. Operons in gene regulation
ii. Temperature regulation in animals
iii. Plant responses to water
c. Explain positive feedback.
d. Describe how the following demonstrate positive feedback:
i. Lactation in mammals
ii. Onset of labor in child birth
iii. Fruit ripening
e. Explain the consequences of a feedback mechanism that does not function properly. Use the
following examples to illustrate your point:
i. Decreased insulin
ii. Decreased antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
iii. Hyperthyroidism
2. How do organisms respond to their external environments?
a. Explain the following and what external condition the organism is responding to:
i. Photoperiodism
ii. Phototropism
iii. Hibernation
iv. Migration
v. Taxis
vi. Kinesis
vii. Circadian rhythms
viii. Shivering and sweating in humans
Growth and dynamic homeostasis of a biological system are influenced by changes in the system’s
environment.
1. How do biotic and abiotic conditions affect cells, organisms, populations, communities, and
ecosystems?
a. How are cell activities affected by the following:
i. Cell density
ii. Temperature
iii. Water availability
iv. Sunlight
b. How are organisms affected by the following? Give an example of each.
i. Mutualism
ii. Commensalism
iii. Parasitism
iv. Predation
v. Competition
vi. Water and nutrient availability (temp, pH, salinity)
c. How does water availability affect a population?
d. How do food chains and food webs demonstrate community interactions?
e. Give an example of an abiotic and biotic factor that would affect species diversity. Describe
specifically how species diversity would be affected.
f. How does an increased population density affect a population?
2. How do homeostatic demonstrate both common ancestry and adaptations to different environments?
a. Explain how continuity between homeostatic mechanisms demonstrates shared common
ancestry. Give an example.
b. Describe a change in an environmental condition that would trigger a disruption of a
homeostatic mechanism.
c. Explain how the following organisms obtain nutrients and eliminate wastes.
i. Plants
ii. Single celled organisms
iii. Animals
d. Explain how homeostasis is maintained using the following examples:
i. Excretory system
ii. Osmoregulation in fish (freshwater and saltwater)
iii. Osmoregulation in plants
iv. Circulation in mammals
v. Thermoregulation
3. How do disruptions to homeostasis affect biological systems?
a. How is an organism’s health affected by the following?
i. Toxins
ii. Dehydration
iii. Pathogens or allergens
b. Describe how the following disrupt the homeostasis of an ecosystem?
i. Invasive species
ii. Humans
iii. Natural disasters
iv. Drought
v. Change in salinity
4. How do plants and animals chemically defend themselves against infections?
a. Explain the nonspecific defense immune response in both plants and animals.
b. Distinguish between the cell mediated and humoral immune response.
c. Explain the role of cytotoxic T-cells in the cell mediated response.
d. Explain the role of B-cells in the humoral immune response.
e. Describe the roles of antigens and antibodies in an immune response.
f. What is an antibody and where is it produced?
g. Distinguish between a primary and secondary immune response. (study diagram 43.13)
Many biological processes involved in growth, reproduction and dynamic homeostasis include
temporal regulation and coordination.
1. How are timing and coordination necessary for the normal development of an organism?
a. Explain how all cells in an organism can contain the same DNA, yet not all cells develop into
the same type to group to form tissues.
b. What is responsible for activating gene sequences during development?
c. What is the role of homeotic genes during development?
d. How does embryonic induction ensure proper developmental results?
e. How does temperature and water availability affect seed germination?
f. How do genetic mutations affect the development of an organism?
g. What is the role of microRNA’s in the development of an organism?
h. Describe the role of apoptosis in the following examples:
i. Development of fingers and toes
ii. Immune function
iii. Flower development
2. How are timing and coordination of physiological events regulated?
a. Explain the following physiological events in response to external stimuli:
i. Phototropism in response to light
ii. Photoperiodism in response to the change in the length of the night that results in
flowering
b. In animals how are environmental cues and physiological responses regulated by internal and
external signals? Use the following examples to describe:
i. Circadian rhythms
ii. Diurnal/nocturnal cycles
iii. Jet lag
iv. Seasonal responses like hibernation
v. Release and reaction to pheromones
3. How are timing and coordination of behavior important in natural selection?
a. How do individuals within a population act on information and communicate it to others?
b. Explain innate behaviors. Give an example.
c. How do organisms learn? Give an example.
d. Explain how phototropism enhances a plants reproductive fitness therefore leading to natural
selection.
e. Explain how photoperiodism (flowering regulation) enhances a plants reproductive fitness
therefore leading to natural selection.
f. Explain how the following animal behaviors are vital to the animals survival are reproduction:
i. Hibernation
ii. Estivation
iii. Migration
iv. Courtship
g. Explain how the following cooperative behaviors between populations (mutualism) contribute
to the survival of the populations:
i. Resource partitioning
ii. Lichens
iii. Bacteria in the digestive tract of humans
iv. Pollination
LABS and Calculations:
Diffusion and Osmosis
Photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration
Water Potential
Rate
Surface Area to Volume Ratio
Gibbs Free Energy
Dilution
AP Lab Simulation #1 – Diffusion and Osmosis
AP Lab Simulation #4 – Plant Pigments and Photosynthesis
AP Lab Simulation #5 – Cellular Respiration
Big Idea 3: Living systems store, retrieve, transmit and respond to information essential
to life processes.
Heritable information provides for continuity of life.
1. What are the primary sources of heritable information?
a. How is genetic information transmitted from one generation to the next?
b. Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA.
c. What is a plasmid? Who has them? Why are they important?
d. Explain the scientific contribution (experiment) that each of the following scientists made into
the discovery that DNA is the carrier for genetic information:
i. Watson and Crick
ii. Wilkins
iii. Franklin
iv. Avery-MacLeod-McCarty
v. Hershey-Chase
e. Explain DNA replication. Mention the enzymes needed to replicate DNA.
f. Why is DNA replication semi-conservative?
g. Compare and contrast the leading and lagging strands that form during DNA replication.
h. Describe how retroviruses differ in their use of genetic information. Give a specific example.
i. Describe the structure of DNA and RNA.
j. Complete the following chart:
DNA
RNA
Sugar
Bases
Strands
Location
Types
k. What does it mean to say that DNA is antiparallel?
l. What are the purine nitrogenous bases? Their structure?
m. What are the pyrimadine nitrogenous bases? Their structure?
n. How do the nitrogenous bases in DNA always pair?
o. What are the functions of the following types of RNA:
i. mRNA
ii. tRNA
iii. rRNA
iv. RNAi
p. Describe the process of transcription mentioning the enzymes needed and the function. Where
does transcription occur?
q. Describe the 3 major modifications that mRNA undergoes before leaving the nucleus.
r. Describe translation? Where does it occur?
s. Explain the role of each of the following in translation:
i. mRNA
ii. tRNA
iii. rRNA
iv. amino acids
v. peptide bond
vi. codon
vii. anticodon
viii. start and stop codons
t. What is phenotype and how is it determined?
u. Explain the following protein activities and use a specific example for each:
i. Enzymatic reaction
ii. Protein transport
iii. Synthesis
iv. Degradation
v. How do scientists manipulate DNA for practical purposes?
w. Explain the following techniques in detail:
i. Electrophoresis
ii. Plasmid-based transformation
iii. Restriction enzyme analysis of DNA
iv. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
x. Explain how the following products are made using the processes above and give an example:
i. Genetically modified foods
ii. Transgenic animals
iii. Cloned animals
iv. Pharmaceutical products
2. How is genetic information passed to the next generation?
a. Describe the cell cycle and its checkpoints.
b. What are the stages of interphase and the function of each?
c. What is the role of Mitosis-Promoting Factor in the cell cycle?
d. How does cancer apply to the cell cycle?
e. Explain the role of cyclin and CDK’s in the cell cycle.
f. What is mitosis and how is it different from interphase?
g. How and when does a cell exit the cell cycle?
h. What is the function of mitosis? Where does it occur?
i. When does mitosis occur?
j. What directly follows mitosis?
k. Name and describe in order the phases of mitosis.
l. What is the function of meiosis? Where does it occur?
m. Complete the following chart:
Mitosis
Meiosis
DNA Replications
Number of Phases
Genetic component in daughter
cells
Function
Homologous Chromosome
Pairing?
Number of cells produced
Crossing over?
Independent assortment?
Genetic Variation?
n. Explain crossing over. Why is this an important process?
o. Explain fertilization. How does fertilization increase genetic variation?
3. How are genes passed from parents to offspring?
a. Explain how probability can be used to predict the offspring from parents Aa x Aa to produce
offspring aa?
b. Explain how segregation and independent assortment contribute to genetic variation?
c. What must be true if genes undergo segregation and independent assortment?
d. How can a scientist tell if genes are linked?
e. What are the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the following crosses:
i. Bb x BB
ii. TtYy x TTyy
iii. XhXh x XHXh
f. Explain the following disorders and their genetic inheritance:
i. Sickle cell anemia
ii. Tay-Sachs disease
iii. Huntington’s disease
iv. Color blindness
v. Down syndrome
vi. Klinefelter’s syndrome
g. Describe at least 3 social, ethical, and medical issues regarding human genetic disorders.
4. What are some patterns of inheritance that are not explained by Mendelian genetics?
a. What does the following data suggest?
F2 Phenotype
Male
Female
Bronze eyes, stunted wings
2,360
2,220
Bronze eyes, normal wings
220
300
Red eyes, stunted wings
260
220
Red eyes, normal wings
2,240
2,180
b. Calculate the recombinant frequency from the data above.
c. Explain why sex-linked diseases (such as hemophilia) are more common in males than
females?
d. Explain the mode of inheritance of the mitochondria and chloroplast.
Expression of genetic information involves cellular and molecular mechanisms.
1. How is differential gene expression leading to cell specialization regulated?
a. What are regulatory gene sequences?
b. Explain the role of each of the following in gene regulation of transcription:
i. Promoter
ii. Terminator
iii. Enhancer
c. Explain how positive and negative control help regulate gene sequences in bacteria. Use a
specific example for each.
d. What is the role of repressors and inducers in bacterial gene regulation?
e. What genes are always expressed (turned on) in bacterial cells?
f. Explain the role of transcription factors in eukaryotic cells.
g. What two functions can a transcription factor perform?
h. How is it possible for two organisms with similar genes to be phenotypically varied?
2. How do intercellular and intracellular signal transmissions affect gene expression?
a. Explain how the following examples demonstrate signal transmission and gene expression
within and between cells:
i. Cytokines
ii. Mating pheromones
iii. Ethylene
iv. Seed germination
b. Explain how changes in the p53 gene or HOX gene demonstrate signal transmission and cell
function within a cell.
The processing of genetic information is imperfect and is a source of genetic variation.
1. What results from changes in genotype?
a. What is a mutation?
b. What are the 3 possible effect of a mutation?
c. What are some causes for mutations?
d. Why are mutations evolutionarily significant?
e. Explain how mutations during meiosis affect an organism.
f. Give an example of a disease caused by a mutation during meiosis.
g. When is a mutation selected for evolutionarily?
h. Explain how the following mutational disorders have been affected by natural selection:
i. Antibiotic resistance
ii. Pesticide resistance
iii. Sickle cell disorder
i. What is the result of natural selection of a mutation?
2. What biological processes increase genetic variation?
a. How does DNA replication lead to increased genetic variation?
b. Explain how the following increase genetic variation in prokaryotes:
i. Transformation
ii. Transduction
iii. Conjugation
iv. Transposable elements
c. Explain the role of sexual reproduction in increasing genetic variation in eukaryotes. Include
the following in your discussion:
i. Gamete formation
ii. Crossing over
iii. Independent assortment
iv. Random fusion of gametes
3. How does viral replication affect genetic variation?
a. Explain how viral replication and reproduction differs from prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
b. Compare and contrast the lytic and lysogenic cycles.
c. Explain mutation rates in viruses’ compared to prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
d. Explain how HIV invades and replicates within a host cell.
e. Explain the role of viruses in the following processes:
i. Transduction in bacteria
ii. Transposons
Cells communicate by generating, transmitting and receiving chemical signals.
1. How do cell communication processes demonstrate shared ancestry?
a. What are the two affects of a communication signal?
b. Explain how natural selection is involved in signal transduction.
c. Explain using the following examples, how signal transduction pathways influence a single
celled organism to respond to its environment:
i. Population density (quorum sensing)
ii. Pheromones
iii. Cell movement
d. Explain how the following examples demonstrate signal transduction pathways in
multicellular animals:
i. Epinephrine and glycogen breakdown
ii. DNA repair mechanisms
2. How do cells communicate with one another?
a. Explain how cell communication is accomplished using cell to cell contact. Use the following
examples to explain:
i. Antigen presenting cells and helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells
ii. Plasmodesmata
b. Use the following examples to demonstrate local communication between cells:
i. Neurotransmission
ii. Plant immune response
iii. Morphogens during embryonic development
c. Explain how long distance cell communication is accomplished.
d. Explain the role of the following hormones in cell communication:
i. Insulin
ii. Human growth hormone
iii. Thyroid hormones
iv. Testosterone
v. Estrogen
3. How is signal reception linked to cellular response in cell communication?
a. How is a ligand or chemical messenger detected?
b. What happens to a receptor protein after the messenger is detected?
c. Explain how the following receptor proteins work:
i. G-protein linked receptor
ii. Ligand-gated ion channels
iii. Receptor tyrosine kinase
d. What is a signaling cascade and how does it affect cellular response?
e. Name at least 2 second messengers and explain their role in a signaling cascade.
f. How do signal transduction pathways accomplish the following?
i. Protein modifications
ii. Phosphorylation cascades
4. How do changes in signal transduction pathways alter cellular responses?
a. Explain how the following examples demonstrate a disruption in signal transduction:
i. Diabetes
ii. Heart disease
iii. Cancer
iv. Autoimmune disease
v. Toxins
vi. Drugs – antihistamines
Transmission of information results in changes within and between biological systems.
1. How do individuals act on information and communicate it to others?
a. How do organisms respond to internal changes and external cues?
b. Explain the following behavioral responses:
i. Fight or flight response
ii. Predator warnings
iii. Production of young
iv. Plant interactions due to herbivory
v. Avoidance responses
c. Explain how the following behaviors lead to differential reproductive success:
i. Herbivory responses
ii. Territorial marking
iii. Flower coloration
d. How do animals establish territory and ensure reproductive success?
e. Explain how the following demonstrate and organisms ability to ensure reproductive success:
i. Bee dances – waggle dance
ii. Bird songs
iii. Territory marking
iv. Pack behavior in some mammals
v. Herds, flocks, and schools of animals
vi. Predator warnings
vii. Insect colonies
viii. Coloration
2. Why is responding to information and communication so important for natural selection and
evolution?
a. Explain the following examples and how they increase survival and reproduction:
i. Parent and offspring interactions
ii. Migration patterns
iii. Courtship and mating rituals
iv. Foraging
v. Avoidance behaviors
b. Why does cooperative behavior increase an individual’s fitness and help the survival of a
population? Explain how the following are beneficial to both an individual and a population:
i. Pack behavior
ii. Herds, flocks, and schools
iii. Predator warnings
iv. Colony and swarming behavior in insects
3. How do animals detect signals, transmit and integrate information, and respond?
a. What is the basic structure of the nervous system?
b. Draw a neuron and label the structures and functions of the following:
i. Cell body
ii. Axon
iii. Dendrites
iv. Myelin sheath
c. Explain how a neuron detects, generates, transmits, and integrates a signal.
d. Explain the role of Schwann cells, myelin sheath, and the gaps between them in nerve
transmission.
e. What is an action potential?
f. Explain how an action potential is stimulated.
g. Explain how the membrane potential of an axon is maintained when there is no action
potential.
h. Explain the role of Na+ and K+ in an action potential.
i. How does the sodium potassium pump play a role in a neuron?
j. What is a neurotransmitter and its function?
k. Explain the specific functions of the following neurotransmitters:
i. Acetylcholine
ii. Epinephrine
iii. Norepinephrine
iv. Dopamine
v. Serotonin
l. What are the two possible responses to a neurotransmitter?
m. What roles to the regions of the brain perform in communication?
n. Describe the region of the brain that controls each of the following:
i. Vision
ii. Hearing
iii. Muscle movement
iv. Abstract thought and emotion
v. Neuro-hormone production
o. What functions are associated with the following sections of the brain:
i. Right hemisphere
ii. Left hemisphere
iii. Forebrain (cerebrum)
iv. Midbrain (brainstem)
v. Hindbrain (cerebellum)
Labs and Calculations:
Cell Division – Mitosis and Meiosis
AMGEN Labs – Biotechnology
Laws of Probability
Chi Square
AP Lab Simulation #3 – Mitosis and Meiosis
AP Lab Simulation #6 – Molecular Biology
AP Lab Simulation #7 – Genetics of Organisms
Big Idea 4: Biological systems interact, and these systems and their interactions possess
complex properties.
Interactions within biological systems lead to complex properties.
1. How do the subcomponents in molecules determine the properties of the molecule?
a. What is the monomer of a nucleic acid?
b. What are the components within the monomer of a nucleic acid?
c. How do the components differ between DNA and RNA? How does this alter their function?
d. What is the function of nucleic acids?
e. What are the monomers of proteins?
f. Explain the primary structure of a protein and include the bond that holds it together.
g. Explain how the secondary structure of a protein forms and include the bonds that hold the
secondary structure together.
h. Explain tertiary structure in proteins. What bond holds tertiary structure stable?
i. What is quaternary structure and do all proteins reach this level? What holds quaternary
structure together?
j. What level of protein structure determines the function of the protein?
k. What are some functions of proteins?
l. What are the components of lipids?
m. How does a phospholipid differ in structure from a general lipid?
n. What is unique about the function of a phospholipid compared to a general lipid?
o. What is the monomer of a carbohydrate?
p. What are the functions of carbohydrates?
q. Compare the functions of starch, cellulose, and glycogen.
r. Describe in general how polymers form from monomers.
s. Describe in general how monomers form from polymers.
t. How does the direction of a polymer influence is function?
u. Explain the difference between the 5’ and 3’ ends of DNA? Why is this significant in DNA
replication and transcription?
v. Explain the difference between the amine end (NH2) and the carboxyl end (COOH) of a
protein. How do these ends influence the formation of a peptide bond between amino acids?
w. What type of bond connects monosaccharide sugars?
x. How does this influence the function of the carbohydrate?
2. How does the structure of subcellular components affect the function, interaction, and processes of
the cell?
a. What is the structure and function of a ribosome?
b. What is the structure and function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
c. What is the structure and function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
d. What is the structure and function of the Golgi apparatus?
e. What is the structure and function of a vesicle?
f. What is the structure and function of a lysosome?
g. What is the structure and function of the mitochondria?
h. Why does the mitochondrion have a double membrane?
i. What is the significance of the shape of the inner membrane of the mitochondria?
j. What process occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane?
k. What is apoptosis and what cell organelle is responsible for initiating the process?
l. What is the structure and function of a vacuole?
m. What is unique about the vacuole in plants?
n. What is the structure and function of the chloroplast?
o. What pigment is contained in the chloroplast and what it its function?
p.
q.
r.
s.
t.
What is the function of photosynthesis?
Why does a chloroplast have a double membrane?
What structures are located within the chloroplast? What part of photosynthesis occurs here?
What is step 2 in photosynthesis? Where in the chloroplast does it occur?
What products from step 1 are needed for step 2 of photosynthesis?
3. How do external stimuli interact with gene expression to specialize cells, tissues, and organs?
a. What causes differentiation in development?
b. What triggers cells to group together to form certain tissues and organs?
c. How does the environment affect gene expression in a mature cell?
4. How do complex properties arise from interactions between smaller parts?
a. How do organs coordinate to perform biological activities?
b. Explain how the following organs work together:
i. Stomach and small intestine
ii. Kidney and bladder
iii. Roots, stems and leaves
c. How do organ systems coordinate to perform essential functions within an organism?
d. Explain how the following organ systems work together:
i. Respiratory and circulatory
ii. Nervous and muscular
iii. Plant vascular system and leaf
5. How do populations interact within communities?
a. What determines the structure of a community?
b. Explain why the predator prey graph fluctuates the way it does? (see figure 52.21)
c. Explain how the following interactions impact a community. Provide an example of each:
i. Symbiosis
ii. Introduction of a new species
iii. Global climate change
d. Draw and describe the exponential population growth model.
e. What conditions are necessary to maintain exponential growth?
f. Draw and describe the logistic population growth model?
g. What conditions trigger a change from exponential growth to logistic?
h. What is age structure and what does it tell us about human populations? (study figure 52.25
and explain what is going on in each graph)
6. How do interactions among organisms and the environment result in the exchange of matter and
energy?
a. What flows and what is recycled?
b. How is primary productivity affected by regional and global climates?
c. How does atmospheric composition affect primary productivity?
d. Compare and contrast food chains and food webs. (see figure 53.12 and 53.13) What to the
arrows represent?
e. What organisms in a food web/chain do the rest depend on?
f. How does competition for resources affect the population size of organisms in a food web?
g. Explain the difference between density dependent inhibition and density independent
inhibition regarding population sizes. Give an example of each.
h. How do human activities impact ecosystems?
i. How has increased human population size impacted other species habitats?
j. How has increased human population size impacted the population size of other species?
k. Explain how the following organisms are adapted to harness energy directly from the
environment. Give an example of each:
i. Photosynthetic organisms
ii. Chemosynthetic organisms
Competition and cooperation are important aspects of biological systems.
1. How do interactions between molecules affect their structure and function?
a. How does changing the structure of a molecule affect its function? Give a specific example.
b. Explain how the shape of an enzyme is essential to its function. Use the following in your
explanation:
i. Active site
ii. Induced fit
iii. Substrate
c. How do cofactors and coenzyme affect an enzyme?
d. How are enzymes regulated?
e. Compare and contrast competitive and non-competitive (allosteric) inhibition.
f. Describe how an enzymes activity can be measured.
g. Analyze the following graph and explain what is occurring from point A to B and why there is
a change from point B to C.
2. How do cooperative interactions within organisms promote efficiency in the use of energy and
matter?
a. Explain how compartmentalization within a cell helps maintain the efficiency of the cell.
b. Give an example of compartmentalized parts within the cell contributing to the overall
function of the cell.
c. Explain how cooperative interactions among organs contribute to the overall efficiency of the
organ system.
d. Explain the organs involved in the following functions within an organism. Make sure to
identify the organism you are referring to:
i. Exchange of gasses
ii. Circulation of fluids
iii. Digestion of food
iv. Excretion of wastes
e. How does the interaction among unicellular organisms in a population lead to increased
efficiency of utilizing matter and energy?
3. How do interactions between and within populations influence patterns of species distribution and
abundance?
a. Explain how each of the following affects population dynamics?
i. Competition
ii. Parasitism
iii. Predation
iv. Mutualism
v. Commensalism
b. For each symbiotic relationship listed above indicate which organisms is benefiting (+) which
is harmed (-) or which is neutral (0)
c. How do individuals within a population contribute to the overall properties of the population?
d. Explain how the following affect species distribution and abundance:
i. Loss of a keystone species
ii. Dutch elm disease
iii. Influx of resources
iv. Increased human activity
4. How does the distribution of local and global ecosystems change over time?
a. Explain how the following human activities alter ecosystems:
i. Logging
ii. Slash and burn farming
iii. Road development
iv. Urbanization
v. Dams
b. How does introducing a non native species change an ecosystem?
c. How does introduction of a new disease affect a native species? Use the following examples
to explain:
i. Dutch elm disease
ii. Small pox
iii. Potato blight
d. How doe geological and meteorological events impact an ecosystem distribution? Explain
using the following examples:
i. El Niño
ii. Continental drift
iii. Meteor impact on the dinosaurs
Naturally occurring diversity among and between components within biological systems affects
interactions with the environment.
1. How does variation within molecules provide a wider range of functions within the cell?
a. Use the following examples to explain how slight variations in the molecules provide slightly
varied function:
i. Phospholipids in the cell membrane
ii. Hemoglobin
iii. MHC proteins
iv. Chlorophylls
v. Antibodies
b. How can gene duplication or multiple alleles provide new phenotypes?
c. Describe how a heterozygote may have an advantageous genotype over the homozygotes.
2. How do environmental factors influence the expression of an organism’s genotype?
a. Explain how environmental factors either directly or indirectly influence traits using the
following examples:
i. Height and weight
ii. Flower color
iii. Seasonal fur color
iv. Increased UV light and melanin production
b. How does an organism’s adaptation to a local environment reflect its genome? Give an
example.
3. How does variation within a population affect the population dynamics?
a. Explain how genetic diversity and survival of a population are related.
b. Why do different members of a population respond differently to environmental changes such
as disease outbreak?
c. How can allele frequencies within a population be represented?
4. How does the diversity of species within an ecosystem influence the stability of the ecosystem?
a. How do ecosystems with less species respond to drastic environmental changes?
b. How does a keystone species affect an ecosystem, especially if removed?
c. Why are producers so important in the stability of an ecosystem?
Labs and Calculations:
Energy Dynamics Lab
Transpiration Lab
Animal Behavior Lab
Enzyme Activity Lab
Population Growth
Exponential Growth
Logistic Growth
AP Lab Simulation #2 – Enzyme Catalysis
AP Lab Simulation #9 – Transpiration
AP Lab Simulation #11 – Animal Behavior
AP Lab Simulation #12 – Dissolved Oxygen