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Impact of Climate Change on Rivers with Special Reference to River-linking …
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Impact of Climate Change on Rivers with Special
Reference to River-linking Project
K.W.G. Rekha Nianthi and Zahid Husain
Department of Geography
North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, 793 022 (India)
Abstract
The main aim of the proposed river-linking project of India is to initiate
regional cooperation and harness the ‘surplus’ water resources of the GangaBrahmaputra basin for mutual benefit of the nation. The grand proposal on
interlinking the rivers envisages retrieving flood waters of the Himalayan
Rivers, which otherwise going waste to the sea, and distribute it to water scarce
areas of the South and West. This is because some parts of the country receive
high rainfall leading to floods, especially the Ganga-Brahmaputra river basin,
at the same time large chunk of peninsular India, especially the south-eastern
areas, receive low rainfall leading to droughts. Thus river-linking is considered
as a remedy to droughts on one hand, while a solution to floods on the other.
Climate change is only one of the multitudes of factors likely to affect the
natural systems and thus future development of human society. Rivers of the
world are one of the most vulnerable environments that are going to be affected
by the process of climate change. Considerable efforts have been made in recent
years to estimate future changes in global climate which might influence the
river systems. One of the most adverse effects of climate change has been
noticed in the form of receding snow fields and glaciers, which are likely to
affect the hydrological regime. So we question the very premise of ‘surplus’
water in the Himalayan rivers because under the influence of receding glaciers
and snow fields the very source of these rivers is going to be depleted, and in
future it may happen that we do not get sufficient water even to meet the
demands with in the basin. Then how we can think of transferring the so-called
‘surplus’ water from the Himalayan rivers.
Changing global climate and weather patterns are not only influencing
snow cover in the Himalaya Mountain but the spatial distribution of
precipitation (particularly snow fall) which has gone through significant
irreversible changes too. Shifting pattern of precipitation and run off associated
with climate change, as well as inability to predict and manage the quantity and
quality of water, may affect availability of water in the rivers. Water level in
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some rivers may also drop in late summer and autumn due to increased
evapotranspiration.
Therefore, the paper highlights the point that while thinking about linkingrivers we have to keep in mind the likely adverse impact of climate change on
the water regime of the Himalayan rivers, for a decline in the discharge has
been estimated due to global warming and resultant retreating of the Himalayan
glaciers which are the main source of its perennial rivers. The main objective of
this paper is to discuss the impact of climate change on the proposed RiverLinking Project from the point of view of depleting snow cover/glaciers and
consequently reduced run off in the Himalayan rivers.
Introduction
Frankly speaking influence of climate change is seen on almost every thing.
That means different elements/components of both physical and human systems
are under the influence of climate change though the degree and nature of
influence may vary from place to place and time to time. Water resource is
important aspect of the world’s social, economic and ecological system. Rivers
of the world are one of the most vulnerable environments that are influenced by
the process of climate change. Scenario for climate change, based on Hadley
Centre Climate Models (HCCM), indicated that climate change may exaggerate
water resources stresses in many parts of the world, particularly in Southern
Asia, Northern and Western Africa and the Middle-east. During the last two
decades the world has faced apparent increase in the frequency and severity of
drought. Therefore, water resources will be a key issue of this century in South
Asia and Indian subcontinent will be no exception to it.
Considerable research has been done throughout the world to find out
possible consequences of climate change on physical environment including the
river systems. Scientists have been able to establish a close link between the
global warming and reducing source of water in the world, especially in the
form of receding glaciers, decreasing snow corers and declining precipitation.
There is also the question as yet unanswered of the significant changes that are
likely to take place in hydrological flows due to climate change and glacial
recession. The climate change may also affect the water resources and water
yield from the mountain watersheds or drainage basins. Changing global climate
and weather patterns are not only impacting snow cover in the Himalaya
Mountain but the spatial distribution of precipitation has also gone through
significant irreversible change. All these are going to have deleterious influence
on the perennially and discharge of water from snowfields. Undoubtedly, the
Himalayan rivers, known for their perennial characteristics, are going to be
affected and that is a warning signal for that before making any plan of utilising
water of the Himalayan rivers the future scenario under the influence of climate
change should be kept in mind.
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Figure 1: Brhamaputra River Basin
Primary Objectives of the River-Linking Project
The vital objective of the project is to transfer ‘surplus waters’ from high
rainfall zones or regularly flood affected areas to drought-prone-areas. The
project hopes to transfer 'surplus waters’ of the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers
and their tributaries to the drought prone Western and Southern parts of India.
Various links between rivers are being considered for the purpose. The project
will, therefore, entail the construction of several major dams and lengthy canals
cutting across various river basins. Frustrated by recurrent floods in the East and
droughts in the West and South, India has for long fancied using the flood
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waters of the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin to water drier western India and
southeastern parts of the peninsular India. Dismissed hitherto as too grandiose,
the idea has now acquired a new life. The project has been planed to complete
by 2016 and it will cost US $ 120 billion to link 37 Himalayan and peninsular
rivers. Completion of this mammoth work will form a gigantic South Asian
water supply grid which will handle 178 sq km of inter-basin water transfers,
build 12,500 km of canals, generate 35 Giga-watts of hydro-power and add 35
mha to India’s irrigated areas.
But the project’s biggest fallacy is rooted in the assumption that for all
times to come the Himalayan Rivers will have enough flow to enrich the waterstrapped peninsular rivers. Majority’s question is `While climate is being
changing drastically with uncertain predictions, consequently “Are there truly
'surplus waters’ anywhere” …..? ...in this world……..?
The Ganga-Brahmaputra River Basin
All the Himalayan South Asian countries depend on the vast river system of the
Ganga-Brahmaputra (Figure 1). The Ganga River originates from the Garhwal
Himalaya and drains vast plains of the Indian subcontinent. Whereas the
Brahmaputra is one of the largest rivers in the world. It originates from a glacier
east of Mansarowar, and after traversing 1625 km in Tibet, enters India near
Tuting in Arunachal Pradesh. It is mostly fed by the summer melt of the winter
snow and the precipitation caused by the south west monsoon. The Brahmaputra
and its tributaries emerge from mountains such as the Himalaya, Patkai-Bum,
Naga Hills, Mikir Hills, North-Cachar Hills and the Meghalaya Plateau. The
Brahmaputra is one of the leading sediment transporting rivers of the world and
carries on an average 2.12 million metric tonnes of sediments per day during the
monsoon.
Global Warming, Melting of Ice and the Himalaya River
Systems
The extent of changes in climate over the last 100 years or so is greater than
what was formerly believed. Both temperature and rainfall have shown trends
which led periodically to great fluctuations in glaciers, lakes and river discharge.
Climate change during the 20th Century has significantly affected the
Cryosphere too. According to the UNEP (United Nations Environmental
Program) global average temperature has risen by 0.6 Celsius in the last century,
affecting the ice cover over the poles and glaciers in the mountains. For
example, glaciers have retreated worldwide (Haeberli, 1995), and the
temperature of the permafrost layer in the European Alps now appears to change
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remarkably (Haeberli and Beniston, 1998). Lonnie Thompson, the Director of
the Byrd Polar Research Centre at Ohio State University, Ohio has observed that
some glaciers, like those of the Alps, were already retreating before the green
house effect made its impact on the world temperature (i.e., before the 20th
century), but the rate of melting in the last decades of the 20th century in Peru,
Tibet and many other places also accelerated far beyond the pre industrial pace
(Revkin, 2002).
The Himalayan glaciers have been receding dangerously fast under the
influence of the temperature increase. Firstly, in the beginning it led to an
increased discharge in the rivers, which caused over filling of the temporary
glacial lakes, leading to their burst followed by the flash flood down stream.
Secondly the receding of the glaciers means less water flowing in the Himalayan
Rivers, causing shortage, especially in the dry winter months. As per a study by
the GSI the Zemu glacier of Sikkim has receded by 13.2 m every year during the
mid-1980s. International Communication on Ice and Snow (ICIS) mentioned
that the Himalayan glaciers are receding faster than other glaciers of the world,
and if the present rate continues, they may disappear by 2035 (Kundu, 2002). It
may bring doom for the countries depending on the snow melt water of the
Himalaya, incidentally where a large percentage of humanity lives. Based on
scientific studies, the Geneva based UN (AFP) has warned that the faster
melting of snow and ice due to temperature increase is rapidly filling at least 44
glacial lakes which could burst any time and cause unprecedented disaster down
the valleys (Times of India, 2002).
The glaciers in the Himalaya are receding due to global warming and
human activity (Figure 2). The Indus river is entirely glacial ice-fed. Eighty per
cent of the water flowing in the Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers comes
from melting of snow and ice. Indian glaciers have latitudinal and longitudinal
differences. Himalayan glaciers are in middle latitudes. So they are more
vulnerable to impact of climate change they are surrounded by arid and semiarid
environments. The water resources are sustained only because of the high
elevation where solid from of water is stored. The perennial characteristic of
these rivers is dependent entirely on glaciers and snow fields. Therefore, we
have to think that for how long we can sustain the water supply, if ice is not
replenished in the particular river system? Our immediate problem is receding
mountain glaciers that are water reservoirs- crucial for survival in the future.
There is a progressive retreat of the Siachen glacier which can be seen when
satellite images taken in 1978, 1994 and 2001 are compared. The Siachen
glacier will vanish quicker than Biofa where there is no army presence (Times
of India, 5.6.2002:8). With melting, initially the discharge hydrograph will go up
definitely. But what will happen some 50 years later? There will be acute water
scarcity in the system because of negative mass balance and increasing ice free
areas. We need to look at the ability of those rivers to sustain the inter-linking,
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especially those with their sources in the glaciers and snow covers of the
Himalaya Mountain.
It is evident from Figure 3 that how global warming affects the ice and
snow covers in the huge Himalayan river systems. It will influence in two ways,
one in the short term and the second in the long term. In the short run water
flow, storage and discharge will be increase tremendously in the entire river
system but in long run water flow, storage and discharged of the water will be
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decrease due to receding of the mountain glaciers and snow cover in the
Himalayan river basins.
Figure 3: Conceptual Framework for the Global Climate Change in the
Himalayan River Systems
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It seems that the River-Linking Project has not reflected on long term
impacts of climate change on the whole river systems. In this way, the plan to
divert the `surplus water’ does not stand on firm grounds. Network of numerous
reservoirs and canals, which is going to be constructed, will become redundant if
their will not be the so-called surplus water’. In all possibility discharge in the
Himalayan rivers may also decline to such a level that it may become difficult to
meet demands of the Himalayan basins themselves in future. Such changes in
the natural system will drastically change entire ecosystems and its functioning;
hence the system will get more complicated than the natural capacity. It is being
already happening in the many river systems of the world.
Changing Precipitation and Runoff
The hydrological system is potentially very sensitive to change in climate.
Changes in precipitation affect the magnitude and timing of runoff and the
frequency and intensify of floods and droughts. Changing global climate and
weather patterns are not only impacting snow cover in the Himalaya Mountain
but the spatial distribution of rainfall has gone through significant irreversible
change too. In the event of shifting pattern of precipitation and runoff associated
with climate change as well as an inability to predict and manage the quantity of
water, India will have a big crisis during bad years of monsoon. In 2002, for
example India incurred a loss of rupees 250 billion just on account of crop loss
because of drought.
Relationship between river discharge and the climate change provides insight
in to long term trends in discharge over a large area. Change in river runoff will
affect the yield of both direct river abstractions and reservoirs based supply
system, and changes in ground water recharge will affect ground water yield too.
Therefore, the changing water quantity will affect the amount of suitable water
available to a supply system. There is also the question, as yet unanswered, of
the significant changes that are likely to take place in hydrological regime due to
climate change and associated recession of glaciers and depleting snow covers.
What 'surplus waters’ will still be left is an open question.
The publication by UNESCO in 1971 of many carefully selected discharge
records for some of the world’s major rivers enables one to see the way in which
river discharge have fluctuated in response to the climate change (both in terms
of temperature and precipitation). In many parts of the tropics and sub-tropics
the period corresponding to the warming phase of higher latitudes was a time of
decreased precipitation.
There are several effects of global warming process on the amount of water
available within a river basin or water supply area. Effect of global warming will
change river runoff, ground water recharge, water quality and evaporation. The
impacts on water supply are related with direct water abstraction, reservoir
system and ground water supply system. These are summarised in Table 1.
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Table 1: Summary of effects of Global Warming on water supply
Effects of Global warming
Change in river runoff
Chang in ground water recharge
Change in water quantity
Change in evaporation
Impacts on water supply reliability
Yield in direct water abstraction
Yield in reservoir system
Yield of ground water supply system
Yield of abstraction systems
Yield of reservoir system
Source: Climate Change Report, 1995.
South Asian region had noticeable changes in rainfall around 1890 to 1895.
This change in region is well illustrated by precipitation at Jaipur (Rajasthan).
Rainfall decline is seen in the tropics from 1874 to 1911. Northwest India also
shows a very similar picture. In the Northwest India the summer monsoon
rainfall has decreased steadily by more than 50 per cent since 1957. This
decline resulted from a shortening of the wet season and a narrowing of the
rainfall belts.
The major rivers of northern India and Pakistan will flow strongly for the
next 40 year, but thereafter they will be reduced to mere trickle. This is the
message of the long term analysis of the rivers, which are fed by the glaciers of
the Himalaya. The analysis has been conducted by researchers from the Kerala
based Calicut University, New Delhi based Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU),
and Nepal based International Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (ICEH).
Several sites were studied: six in the upper Indus basin, seven in the
Brahmaputra basin and eight in the Ganga basin. The river flow was simulated
for 100 years, with 1991 as base year. The researchers considered variations in
the levels of precipitation, evaporation and glacial melt rate to simulate their
results. Changes during four temperature scenario were projected per year as,
rise of 0.03 C, 0.06 C, 0.10 C and 0.15 C. As per the findings, initially the flow
of the rivers would not be affected (under any temperature scenario). In some
cases, it may increase with temperature rising, glaciers will melt at a very fast
pace, impacting the water flow. But in the long run, there will be no ice/snow
left to melt: this will lead to the drying up of the rivers. The mean flow of the
upper Indus basin is expected to increase by 14-90 per cent in the first decades,
but it will decline by 30-90 per cent henceforth. The headwaters of the
Brahmaputra will also decline gradually. The situation will be no different in
the Ganga basin (Figure 4).
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Source: Down To Earth, 2004:33
The results also underscore the role of precipitation in protecting the
glaciers from rapid ice mass loss: a thick covering of snow resulting from a
strong monsoon would insulate the glaciers. But a weak monsoon would make a
glacier more vulnerable. Catchments of the rivers in the Eastern Himalaya,
which benefit from a good monsoon, are less vulnerable to global warming than
those in the west (Down to Earth, July 15, 2004).
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Climate Change Impacts on River Water Supply: Examples
From Different Places in the World
Retreating Glaciers
The last little Ice Age had largely ended by the end of the nineteenth century.
Since then many mountain glaciers have been retreating, often at very fast rates.
Some have disappeared altogether and in the tropics, for example, six glaciers
have disappeared from Ruwenzori since middle of the last century and at the
present rate Mount Speke will be completely de-glaciated within less than four
decades (Whittow, et al., 1963). The Elena Glacier on Ruwenzori averaged a
retreat of 5 m/ year between 1900 and 1952, but this accelerated between 1952
and 1960 to a rate that reached between 6.5 and 25 m per year.
Another example for consequences of the greater warmth was that the
length of ice cover on rivers and lakes in high latitudes declined appreciably
until the 1930s or later. The Mjosa lake in Norway is the one which shows the
greatest decline in ice cover, with an average of 71.6 days of ice per year for the
decade after 1910 falling to only 22.8 days in the 1930s. Femund is another lake
in Norway which shows the decline in ice cover. In 1920 days of ice per year
were 168.2 which declined to 161.8 in 1940. Bolmen, Siljan and Storsjon lakes
of Sweden also recorded the greatest decline in ice cover from 1910 to 1940. It
was 105.2 to 93.9, 120.2 to 102 and 155.8 to 144.6, respectively (Goudie, 1983).
An unreliable "cold" season and a projected decrease in snowfall of from 20 to
80 per cent with the biggest change to the north of the lower lakes would
substantially reduce the ski season for southern Quebec and virtually eliminate it
in southern Ontario. While higher temperatures would reduce the extent of sea
ice, some scientists think that greater snow accumulation on Arctic ice caps and
longer, warmer seasons at their edges might increase the calving of icebergs.
Changing water level and storage
Scientists found that the Colorado River reservoirs systems will also be not able
to meet all of the demands placed on it, including water supply for Southern
California and the inland Southwest. The reservoir level will be reduced by
more than one-third. The greatest affect will be on lower reservoir levels and
flows would also result in reduction in hydropower generation by as much as 40
per cent. Even in the central valley of California it will be impossible to meet
current water system performance levels. Impact will also be felt in the form of
reduced reliability of water supply deliveries and in stream flow (Down To
Earth, 2003).
Water level is being changing drastically in Lake Rudolf, East Africa, Lake
Victoria, East Africa and Dead Sea too (Figure 5). Lake Rudolf shows the low
levels from 1930 to 1960 and the relatively high levels around 1900 and since
1960. Lake Victoria shows the marked stepwise rise in level since 1960. Dead
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Sea shows the generally positive hydrological budget from the start of the
century to around 1930s and the highly negative budget during the 1960s
resulting in part from the diversion of Jordan water for irrigation. This will be
applicable to any lakes which will change the water level.
Source: Cited from Goudie, 1983.
According to researchers, the average temperature in the Great Lakes basin
could go up by about 4.5°C by 2055, with slightly larger increases in winter than
in summer. Higher rates of evaporation and drier soils would reduce runoff, and
water levels in the Great Lakes could fall by an average of between 0.5 m and
1.0 m, according to typical scenarios. The St. Lawrence River outflow also
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could be reduced by 20 per cent. Drying up of the mighty Aral Sea in the
erstwhile Soviet Union is just one example of what river tempering may have in
store. Already the Yalu and Colorado rivers no longer reach the ocean. Only ten
per cent of the Nile reaches the Mediterranean. And Ganga and the Yangtse do
not completely drain out into the ocean. Given the likely impact of interfering
rivers’ natural flow, there is a need for a global treaty that forces each country to
honour its ecological obligation towards the great oceans. If previous attempt at
linking of Beas and Sutlej rivers is any indication, the experiment had literally
failed to maintain levels in the historic Bhakra reservoir. The Bhakra Beas
Management Board (BBMB) is now wondering if an earth-fill dam upstream of
the reservoir can overcome the shortfall.
Other impacts
The river-linking project will involve construction of major dams and canals
which might devastate large areas of forest and other natural ecosystems, disrupt
wildlife corridors and migratory routes, fragment natural ecosystems into small
unviable sizes, lead to hydrological and micro-climatic changes, restrict the
migration of aquatic fauna; introduce mono-cultural cash cropping in command
areas leading to disappearance of critical crop and livestock diversity and
displace people, resulting not only in massive social disruption like people will
be displaced by development projects but also due to ecological destruction.
Importance Of Small Scale River-Linking Projects
Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru is credited with having called large dams “temples of
modern India”. But no textbook recalls what he said soon thereafter. He said,
"For some time past, however, I have been beginning to think that we are
suffering from what we may call “disease of gigantism”. We want to show that
we can build big dams and do big things. This is an unconfident outlook
developing in India. The idea of having big undertakings and doing big tasks for
the sake of showing that we can do big things is not a good outlook at all. We
have to realise that we can also meet our problems much more rapidly and
efficiently by taking up a large number of small schemes, especially when the
time involved in a small scheme is much less and the results obtained are rapid.
Further, in those small schemes you can get a good deal of what is called
“public co-operation”, and therefore, there is that social value in associating
people with such small schemes.
Recent recharging of the Sabarmati with Narmada waters needs to be
viewed in this light. Isn’t it a paradox that when community action could revive
five long-forgotten rivers in the dry region of Alwar, similar principles were not
applied for recharging the parched Sabarmati? During the independence
movement, many a historic decisions were taken on the banks of the Sabarmati
when the river used to be in its untouched glory with an annual flow of 3,200
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million cubic metres. Post independence, no one even questioned the failure of
the historic river, leave alone emulating the Alwar experience of regenerating
dead rivers. Communities in Alwar tapped their portion (less than 200 mm) of
the 420 mham of rainfall that the country receives each year. They impounded
the same into thousands of village ponds, using it for agriculture and associated
operations and getting the groundwater recharged as an unintended outcome.
Accumulated groundwater over a period of time helped refresh the dead rivers.
Despite spatial variations in rainfall, every village in the country can replicate
people of Alwar in meeting its own water needs. The Delhi-based Centre for
Science and Environment has long been arguing that all it needs to store a
million litres of water in each village in a one hectare plot. Studies have further
shown that smaller the catchments the better its rainfall collection efficiency.
While a small catchments of 0.1 hectare has 15 per cent rainfall collection
efficiency, a 300 hectares catchment nets only 3 per cent rainfall. It clearly
means that bigger the catchments (like a river valley project) larger the loss of
water from it. No wonder, the mood of the country in the recent past has been in
favour of smaller water- harvesting initiatives.
Report in Los Angeles Times, Saturday points out that even in the Indian
capital of New Delhi, 48 per cent of residents lack municipal water connections,
and tens of millions in other cities do not have water regularly. In southern
India, riots occasionally break out as farmers and urbanites in the boomtown of
Bangalore battle over the rights to the Cauvery River’s water. India has also
disputes with the neighbours- Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan etc. over sharing
waters of the trans-border rivers of the subcontinent.
Suggestions
The entire proposal to Inter-Link Rivers should be re-examined. Climate
change impact should be counted and especial focus on the ice and snow covers
should be overlook. A second, related database of Himalayan river systems has
to be created. Third automatic weather stations should be set up for data
acquisition. Fourth, hydro-metric stations should be set up at glacier snouts.
Information collection and up to date analyses is very important. Only then, can
viable models be created to help save the Himalayan ecological system. The
problem is we `re so adept at ad-hocism. Why can’t the funds set aside for the
river garland project is used to develop a viable database to better understand
what we `re up against? After that may be even 10 years later the river linking
proposal could be examined seriously. We have to raise the consciousness of
people about what’s really happening in Siachen and Gangotri. Environmental
impact assessment should be done for varies sectors in related to function of
river basins. However any fair measures of success in large scale projects will
ultimately depend on how much more we know and understand the mechanisms
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of the general circulation in the atmosphere, the terrestrial heat budget, boundary
layer exchange systems, and cloud physics.
Conclusions
Taking into account all above collisions, there is a possibility the proposed
linking of the Himalayan and the peninsular rivers at an estimated cost of Rs
5,56,000 crore will disrupt the entire hydrological cycle as well as nation’s
money in the country. Upon completion of the project, a majority of the rivers
may never drain into the ocean. The ecological impact of reversing a natural
process has yet to be fully understood. A mega scheme to link India's major
rivers, essentially to transfer what has been termed “surplus waters” to dry
areas has aggravated doubtfulness. It does not take much technical knowledge to
understand why the inter-linking of rivers is ridiculous idea and a incriminating
project. Before one can think of bringing water from long distances, one must
first store at least the water which is falling over one's head. It has been found
that the cost of rainwater harvesting is on an average 1/5 of the cost of
harnessing the same water by bringing it over large distances after storing it in
large dams. Therefore, it makes no sense to think about bringing water from far,
unless one is being able to save and utilize the rainwater falling in the area.
Moreover, such a project would involve enormous social and environmental
outburst and enormous conflict between States. If the Cauvery dispute which is
only between 3 states on the sharing of water of one river is any indication,
imagine what will happen when water from several rivers is taken to other rivers
across several states. It will also be an administrative nightmare. Thinking of all
above impacts: Consequently, any attempt at river diversion may indeed bring
short-term benefits but sustaining water supplies in the long run will remain an
unanswered question.
References
Down To Earth, 2003, January 15.
Down To Earth, 2004. An assessment of the potential impacts of de-glaciations
on the water resources of
the Himalaya, page 33, graph 1. (15 July).
Goudie, Andrew, 1983. Environmental Change, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Haeberli, W., 1995. Climate change impacts on glaciers and permafrost, In:
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Climate Change in the Alps and
Fennoscndian Mountain, Guisan, A., Holten, J.I.,
Spichiger, R. and
Tessier, L. (eds.), Conserv Jard Bot, Geneva.
Haeberli, W. and Beniston, M., 1998. Climate change and its impact on glaciers
and permafrost in the Alps, Ambio……….
Kundu, A., 2002. Glaciers receding, Times of India, New Delhi, dated
29.05.2002: 7.
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Revkin, A.C., 2002. Calamities linked to global warming, Times of India, New
Delhi. pp. 1.(29.8.2002)
Times of India, New Delhi, 05.06.2002:8
Times of India, New Delhi, 17.04.2002:13
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the glaciers of the
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