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Contents
1 Main Variables (Polity)
1.1 General variables
1.2 Social Complexity variables
1.2.1 Social Scale
1.2.2 Hierarchical Complexity
1.2.3 Professions
1.2.4 Bureaucracy characteristics
1.2.5 Law
1.2.6 Specialized Buildings: polity owned
1.2.7 Information
1.2.8 Other
1.3 Warfare variables
1.3.1 Military Technologies
1.3.2 Military Organization
1.3.3 General Characteristics of Warfare
1.3.3.1 Types of Warfare
1.3.3.2 Cultural distance
1.3.3.3 Intensity of warfare
1.3.4 List of Wars
1.4 Ritual variables
1.4.1 Largest scale collective ritual of the official cult
1.4.2 Most widespread collective ritual of the official cult
1.4.3 Most frequent collective ritual of the official cult
1.4.4 Most euphoric collective ritual of the official cult
1.4.5 Most dysphoric collective ritual
2 Other Variables (polity-based)
2.1 Institutional Variables
2.1.1 Limits on Power of the Chief Executive
2.1.1.1 Legal (formal) limits on executive power
2.1.1.2 Customary (informal) limits on executive power
2.1.1.3 Limits on executive power imposed by religious agents
2.1.1.4 Mechanisms of Power Transfer (from one head of state to the next)
2.1.2 Bureaucracy Characteristics
2.1.2.1 State-level officials (central administration)
2.1.2.2 Authority over state-level administrators
2.1.2.3 Source of Support of state-level officials
2.1.3 Local-level officials (provincial, regional, civic administration)
2.1.3.1 Authority over local-level administrators
2.1.3.2 Source of Support of local-level officials
2.1.4 Legal System
2.1.4.1 Accessibility of the Legal System
2.1.4.2 Accessibility of Trials
2.1.4.3 Informal Justice
2.1.5 Property Rights
2.2 Equity
2.2.1 Sex, Class and Race
2.2.2 Discrimination
2.3 Social Mobility
2.3.1 Status
2.3.2 Slavery
2.4 Religion
2.4.1 Deification of Rulers
2.4.2 Religious Aspects of Equity and Prosociality
2.4.3 Religious arguments about slavery and sacrifice
2.4.4 Religious morality
2.5 Well-Being
2.5.1 Economic Well-Being
2.5.2 Public Goods
2.5.3 Entertainment and Knowledge Well-Being
2.5.4 Biological Well-Being
2.5.5 Prosocial Behavior
2.6 Economy variables (polity-level)
2.6.1 State Income
2.6.2 Taxation
2.6.3 Wages and Costs
3 References
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Main Variables (Polity)
General variables
♠ RA ♣ Edward A L Turner ♥
♠ Expert ♣ Garrett Fagan ♥
♠ UTM zone ♣ 33-T ♥
♠ Original name ♣ Roman Empire-Principate ♥
♠ Alternative names ♣ Roman Empire; Roman Principate; Imperium Populi Romani; SPQR; Senatus Populusque Romanus ♥ nb: Senātus Populusque
Rōmānus contains characters that cannot be machine read.
♠ Peak Date ♣ 117 CE ♥ Under Trajan, (98-117 CE). [1]
Temporal bounds
♠ Duration ♣ 31 BCE - 284 CE ♥ Established de facto by Octavian's victory at Actium in 31 BC and established by law in 27 BC when Octavian took the name
Imperator Caesar Augustus and was granted extensive powers (Imperium proconsulare) over the Roman army. This began the legal history of the Principate (after
"princeps," or "leading citizen"). The Principate is generally regarded as ending during or just after the crisis of the III century (235-284 CE). The date of 284 CE
marks the accession of Diocletian.[2] Turchin and Nefedov also suggest a secular cycle from 30 BCE - 285 CE. [3] [4]
♠ Degree of centralization ♣ unitary state ♥
♠ Supra-polity relations ♣ none ♥
Supra-cultural relations
♠ preceding (quasi)polity ♣ Ptolemaic Empire ♥ The core region of this polity was Egypt.
♠ relationship to preceding (quasi)polity ♣ cultural assimilation ♥
♠ succeeding (quasi)polity ♣ Roman Empire Dominate ♥
♠ Supracultural entity ♣ Greco-Roman ♥ covers entire area of Roman Empire, plus much territory in Britain, northern Europe, central and western
Africa, and the Near East and Central Asia
♠ scale of supra-cultural interaction ♣ 17,000,000 ♥ km^2 very rough area of Roman Empire, plus extra territory where Roman 'cultural influence' felt
♠ Capital ♣ Rome ♥
♠ Language ♣ Latin ♥ "Latin was the official language of the army (in official documents and orders) throughout the empire." [5] Latin was the lingua franca of
the western half of the empire, Greek of the eastern half. Within each half, some native languages survived in use for some time after Roman rule began (e.g.,
Egyptian and Aramaic in the east; various Celtic languages in parts of the west, and even Italic languages within Italy itself, such as Etruscan or Oscan). Language
map showing East/West split [6]. Map of languages in pre-Roman Italy which shows the then distribution of Etruscan and Oscan languages. [7]
♠ Linguistic family ♣ Indo-European ♥
Map
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The Stanford Geospatial Network Model of the Roman World [8]
Digital Atlas of the Roman Empire [9]
General description
The Roman Empire-Principate saw expansion of the polity from the Late Roman Republic, to reach its maximum extent under Trajan in 117 CE. At its height the
Roman Emperor presided over five million square kilometers of land in Europe, Africa and Asia and represented about sixty million people under provincial
governors and client kingdoms. The gains were made and protected by well-trained citizen armies heavily supplemented by foreign auxiliaries. They fought at least
74 wars in 300 years and, in come places, built great lines of fortification when the expansion halted. The cultural flowering that began in the Late Roman Republic
continued in poetry, philosophy, science, history, early in the Principate with the likes of Juvenal, Galen and Seneca. The legal system became more professional
with schools and paid specialists, the Institutes of Gaius textbook available from 160 CE. Impressive engineering works of previous times got even grander,
epitomized by the Coliseum amphitheater built by Vespasian (69-79 CE). After Augustus, whose rule was the longest and most productive, Emperors sought to
"leave their mark" in architecture. Sometimes at a cost to the people - example the self-aggrandizing projects of Nero - most often as a legacy of peace and stability
with citizens enjoying markets filled with exotic products, public libraries and baths, theatres and monumental buildings with materials sourced from across the
empire. Christians emerged toward the end of this period in large numbers in Rome. Some of the still pagan emperors were tolerant, others victimized them, since
their loyalty to the empire was suspect.
Loose end: Permanent units (even though personnel rotated): legions, cohorts, and centuries - had history, were decorated, and put battle honors on their standards.
Corporate identity and esprit de corps.
Permanent military bases (along the frontier, eventually often became cities).
Various professions in food production (bakers, vintners, etc) and artisanship [10]. Most new investment went into large farms run by slave labour - market gardens,
olive groves, vineyards, sheep farming (2nd century BCE). Infrastructure maintenance - aqueducts and road building from 4th century BCE.
"Legionaries carried a distinctively Roman shield, a long (4 Roman feet, c 1.17 m) oval type called a scutum, of laminated wood and canvas with an iron rim and
boss. As an offensive weapon, they employed a short-bladed 'Spanish' sword optimized for stabbing. Hastati and principes also carried a pair of pila (singular
pilum), heavy (thus armour-piercing) throwing spears with a long iron head set in a wooden shaft. Pila were thrown at short range before the legionaries engaged
their enemies at close quarters with the sword. This combination of offensive weapons characterized Roman legionaries for almost half a millennium to come, as
similar equipment continued to be used throughout the Principate."[11]
By the Late Antique period the army had changed considerably, with a greater emphasis on fortified positions operating in conjunction with mobile strike forces.
The terminology for the officers also changed (a prefect replaced the legatus legionis; tribunes, prefects, and praepositi appear to be almost interchangeable terms
for mid-level officers), and the whole command structure became highly professionalized. It is believed that some of these changes may been initiated during the
crisis of the III century, between 235 and 284 CE but the details cannot be charted due to poor sources. [12]
Social Complexity variables
♠ RA ♣ Edward A L Turner ♥
♠ Expert ♣ Garrett Fagan ♥
Social Scale
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♠ Polity territory ♣ 4,500,000: 14 CE; 5,800,000: 117 CE; 5,000,000: 211 CE; 4,750,000: 274 CE ♥ KM2. Maximum Area: 5.0 Mm^2. [13] 5m km^2.
Estimates:
14 CE 4476051 km² estimated from google area calculator and a map [14]
117 CE 5819328 km² estimated from google area calculator and a map [15]
211 CE 5039845 km² estimated from google area calculator and a map
274 CE 4750000 estimated from google area calculator and a map
♠ Polity Population ♣ [40,000,000-50,000,000]: 14 CE; [50,000,000-60,000,000]: 117 CE; [55,000,000-75,000,000]: 164 CE; 75,000,000: 200 CE ♥
Inhabitants. The standard population is estimated at 50 to 60 million in 117 CE. The most common estimate for the empire population is around 60 million, but a
figure of 150 million is also conceivable, though highly unlikely. [16] Another estimate is 50 million people (i.e. 5000 administrative units) at height. [17] 14 CE and
164 CE estimate based on: Frier, Bruce W. "Demography", in Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, eds., The Cambridge Ancient History XI:
The High Empire, A.D. 70–192, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 827–54.
Imperial censuses 28 BCE - 48 CE [18] (These numbers (million) refer only to Roman citizens, who were a small proportion of the population):
4,063,000: 28 BCE
4,233,000: 8 BCE
4,937,000: 14 CE
5,894,000: 48 CE
Roman population, by region 14 CE [19][20]
Italy: 6,000,000
Sicily: 600,000
Sardinia-Corsica: 500,000
Iberia: 6,000,000
Narbonensis: 1,500,000
Gaul: 3,400,000
Danube: 2,000,000
Greece: 3,000,000
Asia (province): 6,000,000
Asia Minor: 7,000,000
Syria: 6,000,000
Cyprus: 500,000
Egypt: 5,000,000
Cyrenaica: 500,000
Africa: 6,000,000
Total: 54,000,000
Late Roman Empire: 74.9 million c.200 CE.
"The Late Roman Empire covered vast amounts of territory (estimated at 3.8 million km2; Issawi 1981: 377) and enjoyed a prolonged period of economic
prosperity and demographic expansion between the death of Augustus (14 CE) and the second century. During this phase population density was situated in
the upper possible margins of pre-modern times (at roughly 20 inhabitants per km2) with a total population in the magnitude of 74.9 million (Issawi 1981:
377). The anarchy and general economic disarray of the third century will have taken its toll on the population, but we can safely assume that at the beginning
of the Byzantine period, in the early fourth century, the demographic state of the empire was similar to that in the second century."[21]
♠ Population of the largest settlement ♣ [900,000-1,100,000]: 1 CE; [1,000,000-1,200,000]: 117 CE; 1,000,000: 200 CE ♥ Inhabitants. Rome at its peak had a
population of 1,200,000. [22] What is the peak date for the settlement of Rome - 117 CE? Population of Rome was 1,000,000 by 1 CE. [23] Alexandria (largest
settlement in the Roman province of Egypt) was at most 750,000 people at its height in the mid-second CE. [24] Other estimates of Alexandria's population put it at
around 500,000 people for most of the imperial Principate period.[25]
Peak settlement of Rome generally thought to be c150 CE. By 200 CE about 1 million. [26]
♠ Largest communication distance ♣ 3,052 ♥ KM. Rome (capital) - Caesarea-Maritima (most outlying provincial capital).[27]
Hierarchical Complexity
♠ Settlement hierarchy ♣ 7 ♥
1. The capital (Rome)
2. Provincial capitals (Ephesus, Lugdunum)
3. Client States/Kingdoms (Cappadocia, Egypt, Numidia)
4. Colonies/coloniae (Pompeii in Italy, Cremna in Anatolia, Camulodunum in England) and Municipia (Volubilis in Mauretania)
5. Tributary communities, not necessarily urbanized
6. Village/vici
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7. Pagi (rural settlements)
In lower population density regions there could be no difference between vici and pagi. There could also be some overlap between provincial capitals and
coloniae/municipia. As a result, the code '6 levels' corresponds to more populous regions, whilst in sparser populated regions the code '4 levels' should be used. [28]
[29]
♠ Administrative levels ♣ [8-9] ♥
1. Emperor
"... in 30 BC, Octavian was left in sole control of the Roman empire. As the first Roman emperor, he created a new system of government, taking the name
Augustus ('Revered One')."[30]
"Augustus, like all wealthy Romans, employed procurators, agents of the freedman class, in the administration of his private fortune."[31]
"The rise of the freedman class is one of the most striking social phenomena of the first century of the Empire. higher degree of the freedmen of the
Emperor." [32]
2. Imperial Chamberlain
_ Central government_ Modern reference for central government needed
2. Imperial Bureau (scrinia) e.g. financial chief (a rationibus)
"The power of the imperial freedmen centred in the first century round the great imperial bureaux (scrinia), the 'ab epistulis/' a libellis,' 'a studiis,' and
the great financial post of 'a rationibus.'"[33]
old State treasury (aerarium Saturni), new imperial treasury (fiscus). the fiscus created a "new class of officials" "'a rationibus' down to Hadrian's time
was normally a freedman" [34]
3. Salaried officials and scribes (ab epistulis, a libellis, a studiis) Are these latin terms job titles? What were their responsibilities? How many levels in
their departments?
"The main items of expenditure were the maintenance of the army, the expenses of provincial government, the salaries of officials, the cornsupply and police of Rome, the maintenance of religion, the building of temples and other public works, and the public roads and aqueducts."[35]
4. Financial officials 'praefecti classis,' 'procurators hereditatium,' 'patrimonii' Are these latin terms job titles? What were their responsibilities?
"Freedmen occur in the first century as 'praefecti classis,' 'procurators hereditatium,' 'patrimonii,' etc., whereas after Hadrian knights take
their place."[36]
5. Lower?
"The class on which the Emperors mainly depended for the supply of their financial officials was that of the knights ... "after
Hadrian, they practically monopolized all but those of subordinate importance" however before Hadrian imperial freedman had a
more influence and could aspire to the top posts.[37]
2. Official related to aerarium militare
special military chest founded by Augustus (aerarium militare) [38]
2. Official related to patrimonium
the Emperor's purse (patrimonium) [39]
_Provincial government_
2. Provincial governors[40] of Senatorial provinces (quaestors)
Senatorial and Imperial provinces. In 27 BCE provinces divided between Emperor and Senate. "The old system of quaestors might be continued in the
senatorial provinces; but in the imperial, the financial officer must be no magistrate, but a deputy, depending on the Emperor and on him alone."[41]
"Whilst in the senatorial provinces we still find quaestors, working under the supervision of the proconsuls, in the imperial there appear procurators of
the Emperor, subordinate to, yet not directly dependent on, the legates."[42]
2. Provincial governors[43] of Imperial provinces (procurator Augusti)
"Whilst in the senatorial provinces we still find quaestors, working under the supervision of the proconsuls, in the imperial there appear procurators of
the Emperor, subordinate to, yet not directly dependent on, the legates."[44]
Senatorial and Imperial provinces. In 27 BCE provinces divided between Emperor and Senate. "The old system of quaestors might be continued in the
senatorial provinces; but in the imperial, the financial officer must be no magistrate, but a deputy, depending on the Emperor and on him alone."[45]
"The procuratorships of provinces were posts of high trust and importance, and Augustus must have seen that they could not well be entrusted to
freedmen. He therefore limited the latter to the subordinate positions, and entrusted the head posts to men of equestrian rank, whose superior position
was reflected in the title of 'procurator Augusti,' in contrast to the purely private 'procurator.' The fact of this change is certain, but some details of its
institution remain obscure." However, freedman "occasionally" attained the procuratorship of a province. [46]
3.. Decurions, local magistrates
in 1 CE Decurions were required to be at least 25 years old and meet a property qualification of 'HS 100,000'. There was also an entrance
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[47].
fee.
4. vici magistri (village headmen)
2. Client Kingdoms
_Egyptian government_
2. Prefect
Appointed by Rome[48]
3. Procurators
Appointed by Rome[49]
Includes finance officer dioiketes (and other department heads)
4. Epistrategoi
Appointed by Rome[50]
Regional administrator, 4 in total
5. Strategos
Appointed by Greco-Egyptians[51]
30 in total
5. Accountant
Appointed by Greco-Egyptians[52]
auditor of the nome
6. District scribe
Appointed by Greco-Egyptians[53]
7. Village scribe
Appointed by Greco-Egyptians[54]
8. Village Elders In what way did the village scribe command the village elder?
Elected or co-opted[55]
9. Liturgists
Compulsory public service[56]
♠ Religious levels ♣ 4 ♥
1. Pontifex maximus
2. Colleges (flamines, augurs, pontifices, vestals)
Three colleges of religious officials. 1. augurs 2. decemviri sacris faciundis 3. pontifices
3. high priests of imperial cult in provinces -- this level is present for the Middle Roman Republic. is this not true of the Late Roman Republic?
Principate?
4. priests for a deity (running a specific temple or sanctuary)
"Freelance" religious officials (soothsayers, oracles, seers, etc).
♠ Military levels ♣ 11 ♥
1. Emperor (commander-in-chief) / Imperator
Augustus: "To ensure that he could not be overthrown in another round of civil war, he established himself as commander-in-chief of the army, with
imperium (the power to raise and command armies) greater than that of the senators who typically governed the provinces and commanded armies in the
field. [57]
"At the top of the hierarchy was the emperor himself, commander-in-chief of the Roman army by virtue of his possession of imperium maius, a power to
raise and command armies that out-ranked that of anyone else."[58]
2. legatus Augusti (controlled a military province)
"provinces with a legionary garrison were governed by a legatus Augusti pro praetore, or 'imperial legate with praetor's powers'. He was drawn from
the Senate as a personal appointee of the emperor, governing and commanding in the name of the emperor."[59]
"The governors of a few provinces (notably Egypt, but also Mesopotamia) were equites ('knights'), members of the next wealthiest group in Roman
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order."[60]
society after the senators, the equestrian
3. legatus legionis (commanded a legion)
"If there were multiple legions in a province, they were commanded by men with powers delegated to them by the provincial governors, and
each legionary commander was known as a legatus legionis ('legionary legate')."[61]
"Broadly speaking, paper organization of imperial legions was very similar to that of the late Republican period and remained so until the 3rd
century AD. A legion was still organized in ten cohorts, each typically made up of six centuries of 80 men each."[62]
4. tribunus militum (lead a cohort)
"Cohorts, centuries and contubernia were the regular subunits of the legion". [63]
"Tribunes, like the legionary legate (commander), were drawn from Rome's social and political elite, the senatorial and equestrian orders,
and were not professional soldiers."[64]
"Josephus (Jewish War 6.131) mentions 1,000 men assigned to each tribune during combat in Jerusalem in AD 70."[65]
4. dux, praepositus or legate (lead a vexillation)
"Cohorts, centuries and contubernia were the regular subunits of the legion, but it could also be broken down into vexillations, temporary
(in theory, at least) detachments named after the vexillum (flag) standard they carried in place of the legion's eagle. Using vexillations,
typically 1,000 or 2,000 men drawn from a particular legion, was common practice to avoid moving the whole legion far from its post
when troops were needed to deal with a crisis or mount a campaign in another province. This was particularly common from the 2nd
century AD, when legions tended to settle into long-term locations and permanent fortresses, but we find evidence of their vexillations
across the empire, for example in the Jewish Revolt of AD 66-70." [66]
"Large legionary vexillations, with attached auxiliaries, were typically commanded by senatorial commanders with titles such as dux,
praepositus or legate, or sometimes by very senior centurions. Smaller detachments for policing or construction duties might be
commanded by centurions." [67]
5. praefectus castrorum (prefect of the camp)
"The praefectus castrorum ('prefect of the camp') was effectively third-in-command of the legion (after the senatorial legate and
senatorial tribune) and had special responsibility for fortifications, sieges and artillery."[68]
6. primus pilus
"... the five centurions of the first cohort, the primi ordines ('men of the first rank') were of higher rank than any other
centurion and there was progression within that cohort." "The primus pilus was the highest-ranking centurion in the legion,
followed by the princeps prior, hastatus prior, princeps posterior and finally hastatus posterior." [69]
7. princeps prior
8. hastatus prior
9. princeps posterior
10. hastatus posterior
11. Uncommissioned legionary
6. Centurio
"Each of the ten cohorts in a legion, except for the first, had six centurions ... Most scholars believe that the titles of centurions
in the second to tenth cohorts did not denote any particular rank or seniority.[70]
"The centuries were subdivided into contubernia (singular, contubernium) of eight men. This much is relatively clear,
and implies a legion of 4,800 at full strength." [71]
7. Contubernia (e.g. Optio)
Among ranked men of a legion there was a distinction between principales and immunes. principales: "the title optio
('orderly', typically assisting a centurion), tesserarius (bearer of the password), standard-bearers (aquilifer, signifer,
imaginifer) and senior clerical officials." Activity of the immunes "includes medical orderlies, surveyors, metalworkers,
clerks, musicians and others." [72]
8. legionary (noncommissioned)
"The ordinary soldiers of the legions were known as milites ('soldiers', singular miles)" [73]
Professions
♠ Occupational complexity ♣ ♥
♠ Professional military officers ♣ absent ♥ The highest officers in the Roman military system were usually senators not professionals. There were, however,
professional junior officers at least from the Roman Principate.
"Typically the men who commanded armies and legions were senators. There were no military specialists in Roman government and no imperial high command.
All senators alternated brief periods of military command with administrative posts, participation in domestic politics and careers as legal advocates. As military
commanders they were, to a great extent, amateurs, even though most did a brief spell as a junior officer (tribune) in a legion. They would have depended on the
professional junior officers (tribunes and centurions) as well as the training and discipline of the legionaries themselves to win battles.""[74]
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"Tribunes, like the legionary legate (commander), were drawn from Rome's social and political elite, the senatorial and equestrian orders, and were not professional
soldiers. They alternated military service with political, judicial and administrative duties."[75]
♠ Professional soldiers ♣ present ♥ Professional soldiers were present from the beginning of the Roman Principate. "Augustus' main military reforms had the
effect of turning the army into a standing force of long-service professionals, instead of the part-time citizen force of the Republic." "Augustus' professionalization
of the army entailed creating regular, empire-wide terms of service. In theory, at least, soldiers signed up for a fixed length of service, received regular pay at
standard rates set by the state and retired with a bonus provided by the state."[76] Becoming a legionary involved a choice for a professional career. There were
professional auxiliaries and 'fleet personnel'.[77]
♠ Professional priesthood ♣ present ♥ Early Roman cults were funded by regular public offerings, large individual donations, and payment for services. The
hierarchy could also profit from land ownership. Professionalism of the priesthood likely pre-dates the Roman era as similar patterns are evident in Greek and
Egyptian civilization. When the state provided gifts, it was often in the form of a lavish construction, such as a new temple. Examples: priests of Isis were "fulltime religious professionals" [78]; Vestals were "supported by the state and were full-time professional clergy, along with the Priestess of Ceres and Proserpina."
[79] The Flamen
Dialis (the chief priest of Jupiter) was also a professional. He had to follow so many restrictive rules that he was effectively restricted to priestly
duties. He could for example not touch horses, iron, etc, and he was not allowed to stand for election. Some priests, however, were not professional. These included
the pontifices.
Bureaucracy characteristics
♠ Full-time bureaucrats ♣ present ♥ There were salaried officials who worked in the Imperial Bureaux (scrinia)[80] of the Roman Principate. The new imperial
treasury (fiscus) (the old state treasury was known as aerarium Saturni) created a "new class of officials" ... "'a rationibus' down to Hadrian's time was normally a
freedman." [81] Salaries of officials were part of government expenditure: "The main items of expenditure were the maintenance of the army, the expenses of
provincial government, the salaries of officials, the corn-supply and police of Rome, the maintenance of religion, the building of temples and other public works,
and the public roads and aqueducts."[82]
♠ Source of support ♣ state salary ♥ There were salaried officials who worked in the Imperial Bureaux (scrinia).[83]
♠ Examination system ♣ absent ♥ There was no examination system for the Roman bureaucracy.
♠ Merit promotion ♣ inferred absent ♥ Roman administration was typically formed out of a class of hereditary aristocrats. Distinctions between classes of
legionary and distinctions between age and experience within the army had been eliminated by Marius in 105 BCE[84] and the Illyrian emperors demonstrate that
"low born" individuals could make it to the top of the administrative hierarchy. Since there was no general policy of merit promotion in the Roman bureaucracy and the promotion of low-born individuals to position of power might be considered a matter of "politics" among aristocrats - the code is inferred absent.
♠ Specialized government buildings ♣ present ♥ The first senate building, the Curia Hostilia, existed from about 600 BCE. [85] The first paving of the Roman
Forum occurred around 575-625 BCE. [86] The first coin minted in Rome occurred about 269 BCE (one in Neapolis produced coins slightly earlier, around 281
BCE) and the first state archives was created in 78 BCE. Other buildings include: granaries and storehouses.
Buildings of the imperial bureaucracy, such as the Curia Julia. The Curia Julia was one of the main meeting places of the Roman Senate (later rebuilt under
Diocletian after a fire in 283 CE). [87] The Senate also often met in appropriate temples.[88] The old Roman treasury - the aerarium Saturni - was for a time housed
in the basement of the Temple of Saturn. There were lots of multi-purpose government buildings: basilicas, imperial fora, and porticos, which were utilized for
government functions, such as official meetings or court hearings.Offices of local magistrates and town council buildings were housed in separate buildings. There
were market buildings (the Markets of Trajan in Rome). Bathhouses proliferated. Other buildings include: granaries and storehouses, mints and state archives.
Law
♠ Formal legal code ♣ present ♥ A formal legal code was first founded in the Twelve Tables of 450-449 BCE. Law thereafter was based on precedent. Our
sources of knowledge of Roman law include the forensic speeches of Cicero; the Institutes of Gaius textbook (from 160 CE); and, much later, the sixth century CE
Corpus Ius Civilis of Justinian. Wax tablets and papyri (contracts and wills etc.) also provide information on Roman law. [89] However, before this time restrictions
on funerary extravagance, from the start of the 6th century, may suggest the Twelve Tables laws (of the Early Republic) codified an existing body of law and legal
practices. [90]
The constitutio Antoniniana of 212 CE brought an end to the distinction between civis and peregrius.[91] Social and legal distinctions were redrawn between
honestiores (those with dignitas, public standing) and humiliores (those without). "Mandata" were directions from Emperor to provincial governors and state
official. [92] The range of legal sanctions consisted was determined by social standing: aggravated execution, forced labour, beatings, and torture were reserved for
slaves and humiliore), whereas fines and exile were more common for honestiores. The exception were for conspirators against an emperor who, despite their high
standing, were often brutally tortured and executed. Long-term custodial imprisonment was unknown as a punishment.
♠ Judges ♣ absent ♥ Professional judges did not exist until the Roman Dominate although at that time their precise role vis-a-vis that of Imperial officials is a
matter of debate. [93] Before this time there were no judges as a distinct profession in the Roman system of law. Local magistrates dealt with local matters,
provincial governors dealt with provincial matters, and the praetors often dealt with cases in Rome. The Roman people could be duly convened as a final court of
appeal in cases involving citizens.
♠ Courts ♣ absent ♥ During the Roman Dominate administration of justice was "thoroughly bureaucratized" and "regular courts, special courts were established
to deal with particular matters and categories of persons." [94] Before this time there was no specialised court building. Courts could be held in the basilicas[95]
(introduced by the 3rd Century BCE[96]) where a provincial governor could an hold audience or in the Roman forum. Basilicas were multi-purpose buildings a
place for banking and money-changing and town hall activities. The forum was a multi-purpose building which had existed since the Roman Kingdom.
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♠ Professional Lawyers ♣ present ♥ Law specialists first existed during the Principate when they commanded fees for their expertise. We know this because
Emperor Claudius attempted to "limit the fees of advocates, which had become intolerably heavy" to protect "women and other helpless litigants from the rapacity
of their lawyers." [97] The first law school in Rome, for persons who wished to pursue career in the Imperial civil service, was established late second century CE.
"Professional" lawyers replaced orators during the Roman Dominate period.[98]
Specialized Buildings: polity owned
♠ Communal buildings ♣ present ♥
♠ Special purpose house ♣ present ♥
♠ Utilitarian public buildings ♣ present ♥ Trajan commissioned a new Roman forum, chiselled out of 125 ft of hill, which had to be flattened because it was
only space available (Appolodorus of Damascus was the architect). Greek and Latin libraries, basilica where law cases tried, Trajan's column, Trajan's market (six
story concave shopping mall built into carved hillside, 150 stores) [99]. Publicly accessible bathhouses since third century BCE.
♠ irrigation systems ♣ present ♥ [100] Improved irrigation, Cyrenaica. [101] For irrigation system, particularly North Africa, see Andrew Wilson. For Egypt
irrigation: Rathbone 2008; Blouin 2012
♠ drinking water supply systems ♣ present ♥ At Rome nearly all aqueducts begin in Sabine Hills, in the valley of the river Anio. Waters, such as from the
(previously built) Aqua Marcia, would take 15-20 hours to reach the city. At the city the water would enter a distribution tank, before travelling through the
terracota or lead-pipe network. The best evidence for piped urban water networking has been found at Pompeii. The water had three main destinations: street
fountains, baths and domestic. Most Romans gained their fresh water from street fountains. For domestic use, water supply was controlled by size of bronze
nozzle (adjutage) that connected the masonry channel to the lead pipe that entered the house. Domestic water was probably paid for with a "water tax". [102]
Arsinoe, metropolis in Egypt (capital town of a nome) "had running water supplied by two reservoirs into which water was pumped from an arm of the Nile."
[103] By the 3rd century CE, there were 11 aqueduct lines into Rome [104] which we can infer required maintenance. Under Claudius (41-54 CE) Aqua
Claudius and Anio Novis were built with a gradient which fell several inches every 100 feet. Tunnels were precisely angled and key stone arch used for 6
mile column of arches that carried water into Rome. Waters were distributed to public drinking fountains, public baths and other buildings, and to wealthy
Romans who paid for running water [105].
♠ markets ♣ present ♥ Trajan's market [106].
♠ food storage sites ♣ present ♥ A procurator for grain supply. [107] Archaeological example, the granary of the Roman fort at Housesteads, on Hadrian's
Wall.
♠ Symbolic building ♣ present ♥ Curia Iulia, Basilica Iulia, temple Divus Iulius, portico of Gaius and Lucius, Augustian triumphal arches, forum Augustus. [108]
Trajan column, temple of Jupiter, temple of Venus (both temples were reconstructed after the fighting in Rome in 69 CE. The temple of Jupiter was even more
lavish than before and was opened again in 80 CE). Nero's palace, Domus aurea. Built on urban land which had been cleared by fire. Took four years to build out of
brick and concrete. Lavish. Vaulted ceilings. Studded with gems and precious metals. Man-made lake in gardens. Symbolic of Nero's ego and power of Emperor,
subsequent Emperors covered it over with earth and built new public structures on it. [109] Trajan's column. 125 ft, with relief chronicling conquest of Dacians.
Column same height as amount of hill removed. [110]
♠ Entertainment buildings ♣ present ♥ Amphitheatres, such as the Roman Colosseum (70-80 CE). Completed 80 CE with capacity of 50,000 [111]. Arenas and
theatres [112]. Agrippa and Augustus built public baths, theatres and amphitheatres. [113] The Roman theatre at Augusta Emerita (Merida) in Spain built by Marcus
Agrippa (16-15 BCE). [114]Trajan (98-117 CE) builds public baths over Nero's palace. Baths of Caracella 216 CE. [115] Massive bath complex with olympic sized
pools, hot and cold pools, trimmed in gold, marbled and fine mosaic floors. Track and field areas, libraries, shops, brothels. 2000 capacity. Built in 5 years, using
5000-10000 workers. 5 million gallons water channelled through every day, heated by up to 50 sub-subterranean furnances. [116].
♠ Knowledge/information buildings ♣ present ♥ Augustus built Palatine Library, first in Rome. [117] Augustus and Trajan built libraries. Unlike Greek libraries,
which were storehouses, Roman libraries allowed space for reading and allowed some borrowing of books [118] Public libraries [119] Museums introduced by
Augustus.[120] State archives were located in the Tabularium. [121]
Transport infrastructure
♠ Roads ♣ present ♥ Road building under Augustus. Total road building by all emperors 250,000 miles, 55,000 miles paved (11,000 more than US
highway system). [122]
♠ Bridges ♣ present ♥ "Legionaries' engineering and construction skills were put to use for obviously military purposes (fortifications), but also sometimes
for improving infrastructure by building canals or bridges, or in mining and quarrying."[123] Via Flaminia crossed Nera River with Ponte d'Augusto, spans
from 52-105 feet. Pont-Saint-Martin, east of Aosta, span of 35.6 meters. 104 CE Alcantara bridge, span 28.8 meters, height 62 meters. Puente Romano,
Merida, total length 721 meters (not built in one go, sections added over time) [124] Major repair of roads, bridges and harbours under Trajan (98-117 CE).
[125].
♠ Canals ♣ present ♥ E.g. Late 1st BCE. Ferrara - Padua, built by Augustus. Claudius "employed 30,000 men for eleven years in cutting an outlet to the
Liris for the waters of the Fucine Lake, and thereby saved them from repeated inundation a large area of the Marsian lands" [126] "Legionaries' engineering
and construction skills were put to use for obviously military purposes (fortifications), but also sometimes for improving infrastructure by building canals or
bridges, or in mining and quarrying."[127]
♠ Ports ♣ present ♥ Claudius excavated harbour northern side of estuary of the Tiber, replaced ancient port of Ostia. [128]
The most impressive/costly building(s)
♠ height ♣ 48 ♥ meters. Colusseum.
♠ extent ♣ 189 ♥ Total length (metres). Colusseum.
♠ cost ♣ 96,000 ♥ people-years. Colusseum built by Vespasian (69-79 CE) on drained lake which had been created for Nero's garden. Paid for by sacking of
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Jerusalem, sale of relics from temples. 12'000 captives used as slave labour. 8 years build, became tallest ancient Roman structure. Capacity 70,000 people.
Had 110 drinking fountains, 2 restrooms and a retractable fabric roof operated by sailors. Until redeveloped arena could be flooded for mock sea battles.
[129]. Pont du Gard aqueduct 40-60 CE 15-20 years. 800-1000 workers. Max 20,000 people-years. 30 million sestertius. Height 48.8m. Extent (upper length)
275m. The Pantheon temple, Rome 126 CE. Famous for the Rotunda, domed ceiling with sky hole (oculus). Ceiling had 150ft wide span and was 150ft in
height. [130]. Baths of Caracalla 9000 workers over 5 years. 45,000 people-years. [131]
♠ Special purpose sites ♣ present ♥
♠ Ceremonial site ♣ present ♥
♠ Burial site ♣ present ♥
♠ Trading emporia ♣ present ♥
♠ Enclosures ♣ present ♥
♠ Mines or quarries ♣ present ♥
♠ Other site ♣ ♥
Information
Measurement System
♠ Length ♣ present ♥ Roman foot (= 296.2 mm).[132] Roman weights and measures originated in Ancient Greek weights and measures which suggests first
present with the Roman Kingdom. The Roman foot was called the pes monetalis and the "standard measure was kept in the temple of Juno Moneta at Rome."
The pace and mile were used for road distances. [133]
♠ Area ♣ present ♥ aroura was unit of land area (= 0.68 acre).[134] Roman weights and measures originated in Ancient Greek weights and measures which
suggests first present with the Roman Kingdom. Romans measured area in square actus (actus quadratus or acnua).[135]
♠ Volume ♣ present ♥ artaba (=38.78 L); modius italicus (8.4 L); medimnus (in Eastern part of Empire) (=52.5L).[136] Roman weights and measures
originated in Ancient Greek weights and measures which suggests first present with the Roman Kingdom. The Romans had wet and dry measures for
capacity which could be used for wine and grain. "The amphora ... was the chief unit of liquid measurement, and related to potter vessels whose cubic
capacity actually varied." [137]
♠ Weight ♣ present ♥ libra, Roman pound (= 322g).[138] Roman weights and measures originated in Ancient Greek weights and measures which suggests
first present with the Roman Kingdom. The Roman word for weight was pondus and they divided pounds into ounces.[139]
♠ Time ♣ present ♥ Julio-Claudian calendar in use at this time.[140] "A sun-dial was the first instrument they had to measure time, brought from Sicily,
after the taking of Catana, in the year of Rome 477." Under Quintus Marcus (118 BCE?) Philipus clocks were invented. Five years later Scipio Nasica (111
BCE?) brought into use a water-clock, an invention of Cressibue of Alexandria. [141]
♠ Geometrical ♣ present ♥ Roman architecture very well-developed.[142] Roman weights and measures originated in Ancient Greek weights and measures
which suggests first present with the Roman Kingdom. "Roman priests were familiar with ancient geometry and chose to design their lettering along the same
lines as the old-established nations of the Near East had done." [143]
Writing System
♠ Mnemonic devices ♣ present ♥
♠ Nonwritten records ♣ present ♥
♠ Written records ♣ present ♥
♠ Script ♣ present ♥
♠ Non-phonetic alphabetic writing ♣ absent ♥
♠ Phonetic alphabetic writing ♣ present ♥
Kinds of Written Documents
♠ Lists, tables, and classifications ♣ present ♥
♠ Calendar ♣ present ♥ Julian calendar, in use since 46 BCE. in 8 BCE Augustus renamed Quintilis as Iulius (July) and Sextilis as Augustus (August).
♠ Sacred Texts ♣ present ♥ Inscriptions.
♠ Religious literature ♣ present ♥ Jewish writings - Talmud? Martin Goodman reference. Christian literature. Belief system. James Ribes on Roman
religion.
♠ Practical literature ♣ present ♥ Junius Columella wrote twelve books on agriculture [144] (4 – c70 CE)
♠ History ♣ present ♥ Dio Cassius (155 - c235 CE), Livy (59 BC - 17 CE), Plutarch (50 - 125 CE), Tacitus (56-120 CE) [145]. Pompeius Trogus Historiae
Philippicae, a universal history in forty four books up to 9 CE. Strabo (54 BCE - 24 CE), wrote geographical and historical works. Titus Livius Patavinus
(born Padua, 59-57 BCE) [146] Cornelius Tacitus (probably born Rome, 54-120 CE), work included Germania a treatise on geographical and social condition
of Germany. Histories (concerns years 69-70 CE), Annales (History of Rome, Tiberius to Nero) [147] Suetonius historian, De vita Caesarum. Valerius,
historical anecdotes. Plutarch (born 46 CE, Boeotia) known for Parallel Lives and Moralia.
♠ Philosophy ♣ present ♥ Seneca (born Cordova, 4 CE), work on ethics, some poetical work (tragedies) [148]
♠ Scientific literature ♣ present ♥ Galen (129 - 199CE). Vitruvius Pollio (born 64 BCE), wrote ten books on architecture and engineering. "From it we
gain almost all our knowledge of the Roman canons of architecture in temples, acqeducts and houses, and of the military engines of the period." Cornelis
Celsus, included work on farming, medicine and surgery. [149] Pliny the Elder (23 - 79 CE), Historia Naturalis (77 CE) "20,000 facts from 500 authors",
index to scientific knowledge. Also wrote two histories. [150]
♠ Fiction ♣ present ♥ Albius Tibullus (born 53 BCE), poet wrote Elegies. Sextus Propertius (born in Umbria c58-49 BCE), elegiac poet. Publius Vergilius
Maro (born near Mantua 70 BCE), poet, wrote Eclogues (published before 39 BCE), Georgics, Aeneid (begun 29 BCE, published 17 BCE). Quintus Horatius
Flaccus (born at Venusia 65 BCE) a humourist, wrote Satires (published c34-29 BCE), Odes (published 23-14 BCE), Epodes (poem, published c30 BCE),
Epistles (published c20 BCE), De Arte Poetica (essay publised c13 BCE). Publius Ovidius Naso (born at Sulmo, 43 BCE) poet of elegiac verse, Amores (9
BCE), Heroides, Ars Amandi (2 BCE), Remedia Amoris (1 CE), Fasti, Metamorphoses, Tristia, Epistles from Pontus, and other works. [151] Junius Juvenais,
satirist, (born Acquinum, died 130 CE) [152] Seneca (born Cordova, 4 CE) also wrote some widely read tragedies and dialogues. Lucan, poet (born 39 CE,
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Cordova). Apuleius, Latin prose writer (born c125 CE, a Numidian Berber, from Madaurus). Martial, Latin epigram (38 CE, Bilbilis). Petronius (c27 CE,
Massalia) wrote satirical novel Satyricon.
More: Oxford Latin Dictionary. "Dinner table conversation."
Other
Money
♠ Articles ♣ inferred present ♥ Wheat and other agricultural products were often used as stores of wealth.[153] It is conceivable that they were traded.
♠ Tokens ♣ {present; absent} ♥ Spintria may have been used in the Principate to pay prostitutes although it is also argued that these were gaming pieces.
♠ Precious metals ♣ present ♥ gold was used as a store of wealth (cf J.-M. Carrié 2003 "Solidus et Credit") and conceivably was used for payment.
♠ Foreign coins ♣ inferred present ♥ Rawson states "Rome did not ... impose a common coinage over her sphere of influence, unlike Athens."[154]
However, by the Roman Dominate a common coinage had spread across the Empire. [155]
♠ Indigenous coins ♣ present ♥ Rome produced its first coin about 281 BCE, a Greek-style silver didrachma, minted in Neapolis (and twelve years later
coins were minted in Rome.) Prior to end of Second Punic War (end 201 BCE) many coins were produced by communities other than Rome. Monetary and
economic unity from Rome was achieved by the early 1st century BCE. [156] Roman coins included the silver denarius, silver Sestertius and gold aureus.[157]
♠ Paper currency ♣ absent ♥ The Romans did not use paper currency in any period.
♠ Debt and credit structures ♣ present ♥ Greek coinage was available from the Roman Kingdom so debt and credit structures may have become
established at this time. Money-changers and bankers were to be found in the basilicas and the Roman forum. In the Middle and Late Republic, wealthy
oligarchs (e.g. Marcus Crassus) "would advance money on loan to influential men without distinction of party, and thus acquired a power which none dared
provoke." [158] From the Principate "a range of banking activities (loans, transfer of credit, etc.) facilitated the participation in long-distance commercial
enterprises that involved the use of money either in the form of coins or as credit." [159] Further reading: Samuel Joshua books "Identity and Legal Status at
Rome", "Worth and Profession in the Roman World".
♠ Store of wealth ♣ present ♥ Villa rustica. Cato (d.149 BCE?) recommended farmers should have well-built Villa rustica. Grain storage was used as store
of wealth and olive oil and wine could have been used similarly.[160]
Postal System
♠ Couriers ♣ inferred present ♥ "Before Augustus, Romans wanting to post a letter had to find a courier wherever they could, and work out the
arrangements for delivery ad hoc. But by Cicero's day [i.e. c100 BCE] there had evolved a number of fairly regular means by which one could send a letter."
This included "a private system of letter carriers maintained by the publicani, whose business of collecting taxes in the provinces necessitated a reliable
means of communication over long distances... a private individual could arrange for these couriers, called tabellarri, to carry personal letters along with the
business correspondence of their companies."[161] "The legion also had a detachment of 120 horsemen (equites legionis), typically employed as messengers
and similar roles, rather than as cavalry in combat."[162]
♠ Postal stations ♣ present ♥ Cursus Publicus, established by Augustus. "A series of postal stations connected by wagon and horse relays along the major
trunk roads of the Empire". [163] Carried private and state post.
♠ General postal service ♣ present ♥ Cursus Publicus, established by Augustus. "A series of postal stations connected by wagon and horse relays along the
major trunk roads of the Empire". [164] Carried private and state post.
♠ Fastest individual communication ♣ 13.4 ♥ Days Rome (capital city) - Caesarea-Maritima (most outlying provincial capital). Horse relay to Regium.
Ship to Messana. Ship to Cyrene. Horse relay to Caesarea-Maritima. [165]
Warfare variables
♠ RA ♣ Edward A L Turner ♥
♠ Expert ♣ Garrett Fagan ♥
Military Technologies
Military use of Metals
♠ Copper ♣ present ♥ Shields boss made of iron or copper alloy. [166]
♠ Bronze ♣ present ♥ Shields: "the written evidence of Polybius, and a Republican example found in Egypt, suggests they were made of plywood
laminated with leather and canvas, bound together at the edges with iron or bronze."[167]
♠ Iron ♣ present ♥ pilum spearhead [168] Shields: "the written evidence of Polybius, and a Republican example found in Egypt, suggests they were made of
plywood laminated with leather and canvas, bound together at the edges with iron or bronze."[169]
♠ Steel ♣ present ♥
Projectiles
♠ Javelins ♣ present ♥ "Imperial legionaries were primarily swordsmen who employed a heavy throwing spear (pilum) to disrupt their enemy before
engaging in hand-to-hand combat."[170] According to Josephus, by first century CE only one throwing-spear used. In the 3rd century the lancea (light javelin)
came into use, among similar weapons.[171]
♠ Other thrown weapons ♣ present ♥
♠ Atlatl ♣ absent ♥
♠ Slings ♣ present ♥
♠ Self bow ♣ present ♥
♠ Composite bow ♣ present ♥ Syrian archers used the compound bow.
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♠ Crossbow ♣ present ♥ Each legion had 55 carroballistae bolt-shooters. [172]
♠ Tension siege engines ♣ present ♥ Each legion had 10 onagers. [173]. Roman onagers could be extremely large structures.
♠ Sling siege engines ♣ absent ♥
♠ Incendiaries ♣ present ♥ pitch placed on rams and set ablaze; also burning arrows used in siege warfare[174]
♠ Gunpowder siege artillery ♣ absent ♥
♠ Handheld firearms ♣ absent ♥
Handheld weapons
♠ War clubs ♣ absent ♥
♠ Battle axes ♣ absent ♥
♠ Daggers ♣ present ♥ pugio [175] "legionaries carried a dagger as a secondary weapon."[176]
♠ Swords ♣ present ♥ ladius [177] "Imperial legionaries were primarily swordsmen who employed a heavy throwing spear (pilum) to disrupt their enemy
before engaging in hand-to-hand combat."[178] From the mid-first century CE the stabbing Mainz-type sword type gained a shorter point and became "more
versatile as a cutting weapon."[179] "By the later 2nd or early 3rd century AD, the short stabbing sword was largely replaced by the longer spatha, a cutting
weapon previously used by the Roman cavalry (who no longer required longer swords to cut down their opponents) and probably adopted from Rome's Celtic
enemies."[180]
♠ Spears ♣ inferred present ♥ Cavalry?
♠ Polearms ♣ absent ♥
♠ Other ♣ ♥
Animals used in warfare
♠ Dogs ♣ present ♥ Wardogs were attached to units and were used by sentries and patrols. Garrett will check whether they wer used in battle.
♠ Donkeys ♣ present ♥
♠ Horses ♣ present ♥ "The legion also had a detachment of 120 horsemen (equites legionis), typically employed as messengers and similar roles, rather
than as cavalry in combat."[181]
♠ Camels ♣ present ♥ Bedouin camel troops were used as auxiliaries in North Africa and in the Middle East
♠ Elephants ♣ present ♥ Single elephant used by Caesar in Britain. Claudius (briefly) took several war elephants to Britain. Herd kept near Rome until 200
CE and used occasionally against the Gauls and Britons [182]
♠ Other ♣ mules ♥ Pigeons?
Armor
♠ Wood, bark, etc ♣ present ♥ Shields: "the written evidence of Polybius, and a Republican example found in Egypt, suggests they were made of plywood
laminated with leather and canvas, bound together at the edges with iron or bronze."[183]
♠ Leather, cloth ♣ present ♥ Shields: "the written evidence of Polybius, and a Republican example found in Egypt, suggests they were made of plywood
laminated with leather and canvas, bound together at the edges with iron or bronze."[184] Felt materials: subarmales "padded garments normally worn under
armour." [185]
♠ Shields ♣ present ♥ Scutum, elongated and oval shaped, about 88 by 117 cm. [186]
♠ Helmets ♣ present ♥ Republican Coolus and Montefortino and Imperial-Gallic bowl shape with neck guard. [187]
♠ Breastplates ♣ present ♥ Iron breastplates. [188]
♠ Limb protection ♣ present ♥ manicae arm protection. [189] Greaves for lower-leg protection. [190]
♠ Chainmail ♣ present ♥ Iron mail (lorical hamata) tunicss, as depicted on the Trajan victory monument at Adamklissi. [191]
♠ Scaled armor ♣ present ♥ Scale armour, lorica squamata, as depicted on the Trajan victory monument at Adamklissi. [192]
♠ Laminar armor ♣ unknown ♥ was laminar armour used during the Roman Empire - Principate?
♠ Plate armor ♣ present ♥ lorica segmentata, as depicted on Trajan's Column. "Strips of iron held together and articulated with leather straps and copper
alloy fittings" [193]
Naval technology
♠ Small vessels (canoes, etc) ♣ absent ♥
♠ Merchant ships pressed into service ♣ present ♥ For example, Roman invasion of Britain. Did not have military transport ships.
♠ Specialized military vessels ♣ present ♥ There were two fleets, one based in Misenum and another in Ravenna. They were commanded by a praefectus
classis. Post-Actium battle c800 warships in active service. Augustus created 3 fleets (Praetorian), stationed at Forum Iulil, Ravenna and Misenum. Each fleet
had about 10,000 men, Ravenna more after Vespasian. Provincial fleets later added [194] No evidence for slaves on Roman war-galleys from the Principate.
[195] Galleys were most widely used. No new technology was introduced during this period. 196-197 CE, Septimus Severus formed a new naval unit. All
Italian triremes now manned with heavily armed troops. [196]
Fortifications
♠ Settlements in a defensive position ♣ present ♥ Army camps built all over the Empire. [197]
♠ Wooden palisades ♣ present ♥ There was a wide variety of types of fortification, including temporary marching camps, wooden forts, stone forts,
fortresses for legion concentrations, long walls (e.g., Hadrian's) with mile castles and lookout towers.
♠ Earth ramparts ♣ present ♥
♠ Ditch ♣ present ♥ [198]
♠ Moat ♣ present ♥ A ditch filled with water would not have been beyond the technological capabilities of the Romans during this period but did they
use/need them?
♠ Stone walls (non-mortared) ♣ inferred absent ♥ "Romans were so fond of the texture effect of opus quadratum that they continued to use this technique
even after having developed more effective kinds of masonry." [199] Was opus quadratum used in military fortifications? In this time period? Inferred absent
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because "texture effect" should be irrelevant in a military context and Romans of this period had access to motar.
♠ Stone walls (mortared) ♣ present ♥ [200]
♠ Fortified camps ♣ present ♥
♠ Complex fortifications ♣ present ♥ Hadrian's wall. 15 feet high for 73 miles. Milecastle every Roman mile up to 21 feet high. Milecastle could house 60
troops. Between Milecastles, two watchtowers with centuries. 17 large forts along wall home to 1000 soldiers. Nine foot ditch dug at base of wall while a
Vallum behind (120 ft wide ditch) ran the entire length of the stone wall. 15-20000 men used to build. 5 year build. [201].
♠ Long walls ♣ 119 ♥ km. Hadrian's wall, 123 CE. Built out of stone and turf. Major revision in 124 CE, added vallum, milecastles and turrets [202]. 74
miles in length. 271 CE under Aurelius new walls built around Rome. 19 kilometres in length, 3.5 metres, thick and 8 metres high, with a square tower every
29.6 metres. However the Aurelian walls circumvented a city so do not count as a "long wall."
♠ Modern fortifications ♣ absent ♥
Other technologies
Chemical warfare (i.e. gas) and biological warfare (e.g. the shooting of putrefied corpses into besieged cities, poisoning water supplies, etc) existed during the
period.
"Ancient Siege Warfare" Paul Kern
Military Organization
♠ Standing armies ♣ present ♥ "Augustus' main military reforms had the effect of turning the army into a standing force of long-service professionals, instead of
the part-time citizen force of the Republic." "Augustus' professionalization of the army entailed creating regular, empire-wide terms of service. In theory, at least,
soldiers signed up for a fixed length of service, received regular pay at standard rates set by the state and retired with a bonus provided by the state."[203] Legions
(served 25=>20 y). Normal length of service for legionary was 25 years, although initially Augustus tried shorter periods of 16 and 20 years. Annual salary of 225
denarii by end of Augustus' reign, 300 under Domitian, later still to 450 - 675 denarii. Deductions were made for clothing and equipment. [204] Auxiliaries served
for 25 years, rewarded with citizenship on retirement. One example, Titus Calidius Severus, who started as cavalrymen in the auxilia, and after 25 y. stayed on as a
centurion in the regular legion.
♠ Uniformity of equipment ♣ present ♥ Standardisation pre-dated the Principate (General Marius).
♠ Total army ♣ [300,000-400,000] ♥ Legionaries + auxiliaries: [300,000-400,000]. Legionaries: [125,000-165,000]. "Augustus ... demobilized the large armies of
the triumviral period, reducing the number of legions to 28. There were never more than 33 legions in existence at any one time until the later 3rd century AD, with
a total of about 150,000 legionaries and a similar number of supporting auxiliary troops."[205] Legionary core 1st - 2nd centuries: "some 25 to 33 legions (125,00 to
165,000 men) ... spread throughout the frontier provinces (or close to them), rather than at the centre of the empire."[206]
♠ Professional army ♣ [125,000-165,000] ♥ 125,000-165,000 legionaries. Legionary core 1st - 2nd centuries: "some 25 to 33 legions (125,00 to 165,000 men) ...
spread throughout the frontier provinces (or close to them), rather than at the centre of the empire."[207]
Additionally, there were professional auxiliaries and 'fleet personnel'.[208] Mercenary auxiliaries we do not count because they are only paid for active duty.
However, the size of the professional Roman naval forces might need to be added to this number.
♠ Largest fielded army ♣ [175,000-200,000] ♥ 100,000: 68 CE; [175,000-200,000]: 106 CE. At end of second Dacian war, under Trajan, number of legions and
auxiliaries on the field "approached two hundred thousand, or about half the Roman army." [209] Do we have more specific details? References? At Vesontio (68
CE), Verginius met Vindex with 100,000 men [210]
♠ Maximum logistical lag ♣ [26-44] ♥ Days Rome (capital) to Londinium (provincial capital), June - December, according to the Orbis database. [211]
♠ Sources of recruits ♣ domestic; mercenary; foreign ♥ "Scholars such as Giovanni Forni and J.C. Mann have shown that most legionaries across the empire
were of Italian origin until the reign of Claudius (AD 41-54). Through the reigns of Claudius and Nero, about half were Italian and half of provincial origin. By
Trajan's reign (AD 98-117), legionaires from the provinces outnumbered Italians by four or five to one, although provincial recruits often came from culturally
Roman regions and communities such as coloniae. In the later 2nd and 3rd centuries, recruitment became more localized, and many legionaries were recruited
castris, 'from the camp', typically sons of soldiers." [212]
Mercenaries
Bedouin camel troops. Mercenaries made up the Roman auxiliaries. Armenius, who rebelled and set up the Teutoburg Forest massacre, provides the
infamous example.
The auxilia were made up by noncitizen troops, and they were employed as cavalry, missile troops, or scouts. The auxilia were commanded by a Roman
prefect (which was the equivalent to a tribune).
♠ Procurement of equipment and animals ♣ by the state ♥ Clothing and equipment paid for out of deductions made from salary [213].
General Characteristics of Warfare
Types of Warfare
♠ Inter-polity wars ♣ present ♥
♠ Internal wars ♣ present ♥ Civil wars "became more frequent in the 3rd century AD" [214]
♠ Intra-elite conflicts ♣ present ♥ Vespasian, Vitellius.
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♠ Popular uprisings ♣ absent ♥
♠ Military revolts ♣ present ♥ Niger, Clodius, Elagabalus, Gordian.
♠ Separatist rebellions ♣ present ♥ Palmyrene. Judean Nationalists. Jewish Rebels.
Cultural distance
♠ Wars within same ethnic group ♣ present ♥ Niger, Clodius, Elagabalus, Gordian, Vespasian, Vitellius.
♠ Wars involving groups with different dialects ♣ inferred present ♥ need to check e.g. Palmyrene? One of the military revolts?
♠ Wars involving groups with different languages ♣ present ♥ Parthian Empire.
♠ Wars involving groups with different language families ♣ present ♥ Parthian Empire.
♠ Wars between groups from different archaeological cultures ♣ present ♥ Wars against tribes in northern Europe; also warfare with Parthian Persians and
skirmishes with tribes in southern Egypt and the Saharan zone
♠ Wars between different religious sects ♣ present ♥ Judean Nationalists Jewish Rebels
♠ Wars between different world religions ♣ absent ♥
♠ Wars of world religion against tribal religion ♣ absent ♥
♠ Wars on Civilization/Barbarism frontier ♣ present ♥ Dacians.
♠ Wars on steppe frontier ♣ present ♥ Parthian Empire.
♠ Wars on agricultural frontier ♣ present ♥ skirmishes with nomadic tribes from Saharan Africa (e.g. Musulami revolt led by Tacfarinas under Emperor
Tiberius; revolts of Berber tribes in Morrocco and Agleria in 250s CE; fighting with Garamantes tribes in third c CE ?)
Intensity of warfare
♠ Annexation ♣ present ♥ Annexation of Mauretania (42 CE), Commagene (72 CE), Nabataean kingdom (106 CE) [215]
♠ Looting ♣ present ♥ Dacians 107 CE by Trajan. "100s of tons of gold and silver". [216]
♠ Sack ♣ present ♥ Jerusalem under Vespasian. Ctesiophon 164 CE. Adam Ziolkowski's chapter "Urbs direpta, or how the Romans sacked cities" in Rich, Rich
and Shipley eds. War and Society in the Roman World. "One element of the sack - arson - was certainly not included in the normal range of connotations of
direptio."[217]
♠ Rape ♣ present ♥ "sexual violence was intrinsic to the notion of direptio on a par with looting itself"[218]
♠ Deportation ♣ present ♥ Sarmizagetusa in Dacia (106 CE). Stormed, burned, systematically destroyed, deported the population (presumably enslaved and/or
exposed in the arena). Later refounded as Colonia ... Sarmizagetusa Regia
♠ Expulsion ♣ present ♥
♠ Enslavement ♣ present ♥
♠ Imprisonment ♣ present ♥
♠ Destruction ♣ present ♥
♠ Torture ♣ present ♥
♠ Mutilation ♣ present ♥
♠ Targeted massacre ♣ present ♥ Jewish riots in Alexandria (38 ce). Pogroms. This was done by local population (described by Josephus). Persecution of
Christians in Rome c250 CE.
♠ General massacre ♣ present ♥ Massacre at Verulamium. "No quarter was given to man, woman or child. Roman sources claim 80,000 Britons were killed,
while Roman casualties were just over 400 dead and a similar number wounded."[219]
♠ Extermination ♣ present ♥ 172 CE Germania. Genocidal wars against Marcomanni and other Germanic tribes in Bohemia (180s CE). Settlement destroyed,
population when captured slaughtered.
♠ Ethnocide ♣ present ♥ Jerusalem 136 CE. Completely destroyed and depopulated after Bar Kokhba revolt (136 ce). The city renamed as Aelia Capitolina and
its Jewish population was driven away. The Jews were forbidden to return. Sarmizagetusa in Dacia (106 ce). Stormed, burned, systematically destroyed, deported
the population (presumably enslaved and/or exposed in the arena). Later refounded as Colonia ... Sarmizagetusa Regia
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Archaeological proxies:
♠ Skeletal evidence of violence ♣ absent ♥ NB: much work has been done on Roman-era skeletal data, but all of it seems focused solely on disease, stature, and
life-expectancy data rather than trauma from violence
♠ Mass burials ♣ present ♥ "It is striking, but I suppose not surprising, that tens of thousands of Roman citizens, living packed together in a culture which set a
high value on a proper burial, tolerated the dehumanisation of mass graves. During epidemics, mortality soared. Several ancient writers have left us vivid
descriptions of the spread of infection, the unpredictable incidence of death, the difficulty of burying all the dead quickly, the increasing neglect of traditional burial
rites, the stench of dead bodies, their contamination of the water supply and then further infection. In such circumstances, cremation was too costly, because it
consumed expensive fuel. Mass death involved mass burial; and in a serious epidemic there was no practical alternative to mass graves, into which the human dead
were thrown pell-mell." [220]
♠ Settlement destruction ♣ present ♥ though rare – Rome generally preferred to annex territory rather than destroy it.
♠ Pictorial evidence of warfare ♣ present ♥
List of Wars
Arabian, 31 BCE, Roman Empire-Principate, Nabataen Kingdom Old coding sheet
Moesia, 29 BCE, Roman Empire-Principate, Moesian tribes Old coding sheet
Nubian, 24 BCE, Roman Empire-Principate, Meriotic Kingdom Old coding sheet
Civil War, 31 BCE, Roman Empire-Principate, Octavian Old coding sheet
Conquest of Hispanolia, 29 BCE, Roman Empire-Principate, Iberian tribes Old coding sheet
Garamantes, 19 BCE, Roman Empire-Principate, Garamantes Kingdom Old coding sheet
Germanic, 11 BCE, Roman Empire-Principate, Germanic tribes Old coding sheet
Berber, 5 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Musulamii Old coding sheet
Illyrican Revolt, 6 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Pannonian tribes Old coding sheet
Conquest of Britain, 43 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, British tribes Old coding sheet
Roman-Parthian, 59 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Parthian Empire Old coding sheet
Jewish-Roman, 66 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Judean Nationalists Old coding sheet
Civil War, 69 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Vitellius Old coding sheet
Civil War, 69 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Vespasian Old coding sheet
Gallic Revolt, 21 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Gallic tribes Old coding sheet
Dacian, 87 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Dacian tribes Old coding sheet
Kitos, 115 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Jewish Rebels Old coding sheet
Bar Kokhba, 132 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Jewish Rebels Old coding sheet
Mauretanian, 150 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Unknown Old coding sheet
Marcomanni, 170 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Marcomanni coalition Old coding sheet
Civil War, 193 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Niger Old coding sheet
Civil War, 197 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Clodius Old coding sheet
Civil War, 218 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Elagabalus Old coding sheet
Civil War, 238 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Gordian Old coding sheet
Roman-Persian, 243 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Sassanid Empire Old coding sheet
Gothic, 250 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Gothic tribes Old coding sheet
Alamanni, 259 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Alamanni Old coding sheet
Junthungi, 271 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Junthungi Old coding sheet
Palmyrene, 272 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Palmyrene Empire Old coding sheet
Roman-Gallic, 274 CE, Roman Empire-Principate, Gallic Empire Old coding sheet
Ritual variables
A collective ritual is a ritual in which two or more people participate. With the official cult we refer to the set of collective ritual practices that are most closely
associated with legitimation of the power structure (including elites, if any).
♠ RA ♣ Farrell; Enrico Cioni ♥
♠ Expert ♣ Fagan ♥
Largest scale collective ritual of the official cult
♠ Name ♣ ludi ♥ Ludi included chariot races, theatrical performances, dances, and, generally speaking, any other non-violent form of public entertainment
occurring on the occasion of a religious festival [221]. Regarding chariot races [222]:
"The Circus Maximus was by far the largest stadium in Rome. It was a third of a mile long and could seat potentially up to 350,000 spectators. Unlike the
Flavian Amphitheater, whose 55,000 seats would have been largely occupied by the upper classes, the size of the Circus Maximus meant that all segments of
Roman society could attend races. Admission was free or for a nominal fee. In addition, chariot races were held frequently. Whereas there might have been
only two or three gladiator contests per year, each of the over 100 holidays per year would have included chariot racing. All these factors ensured that chariot
racing was the most popular form of entertainment for the average inhabitant of the city as well as the most accessible.
"[A] race could have a maximum of 12 chariots. [...] The total length of a standard race was about eight kilometers and probably took less than 15 minutes to
complete. [...] There were 24 races per day; thus, one could spend an entire day at the Circus Maximus. The winning charioteer received a crown of palm
leaves and the winner's prize money. These prizes seem to have ranged between 5,000 and 60,000 sesterces for first place, and there were also lesser prizes
for second, third, and fourth place. [...] They developed elaborate cheers and songs that tens of thousands of fans would chant and sing in unison. Often these
chants deteriorated into abuse directed at the fans of other factions, and riots were not infrequent. [...] Many charioteers died not directly as the result of a
crash but from being dragged around the track after one. This happened because charioteers habitually tied the reins to their arms."
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As for theatrical performances, which typically combined music, dance, and acting, they were divided in two kinds: "[m]imes sang, danced, and acted
without masks, while pantomimes wore masks, acted, and danced but didn't sing; instead, musicians or a chorus offered musical accompaniment" [223].
It is also worth noting the following: "Of course, many of those who went to enjoy the races or the plays may not have had 'religion' (in our sense of the
word) uppermost in their minds; but there remained strong associations between the games and the gods throughout the principate. Images and symbols of
the appropriate deities, for example, were paraded through the streets of Rome to the Circus or theatre, where sacrifices were performed" [224].
♠ Frequency for the ritual specialist ♣ ♥
♠ Frequency per participant ♣ 177 days per year ♥ The number of days of ludi increased under the empire. There were 77 days in Rome in the early first
century A.D., 177 days in the mid fourth century A.D." [225], and each of these days would have included chariot racing at least [226].
♠ Frequency for the audience ♣ 177 days per year ♥ The number of days of ludi increased under the empire. There were 77 days in Rome in the early
first century A.D., 177 days in the mid fourth century A.D." [227], and each of these days would have included chariot racing at least [228].
♠ Duration ♣ one day ♥ Regarding chariot races, each race would last about 15 minutes, but around 24 races would occur throughout the day [229]. Could
find no estimates regarding the duration of theatrical performances.
♠ Typical size of participating group ♣ 350,000 ♥ The Circus Maximus could hold up to 350,000 (highly-engaged) spectators. 12 chariots competed in
each race, which means that one could also say that only 12 people participated in each race [230]. Could find no corresponding information regarding the
duration of theatrical performances.
♠ Inclusiveness (ritual specialist) ♣ ♥
♠ Inclusiveness (participants) ♣ whole polity; foreigners ♥ "Ludi were events for the city as a whole, open not just to Roman Citizens, but to foreigners
and slaves." [231] This is including spectators.
♠ Inclusiveness (audience) ♣ ♥
Dysphoric elements Dysphoric elements are negative (frightening, painful, or unpleasant), emotionally arousing components of ritual. Code the variables
below using the coding scheme absent/present/unknown
♠ fasting ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [232].
♠ vigil/sleep deprivation ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [233].
♠ fear ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [234].
♠ humiliation ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [235].
♠ disgust ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [236].
♠ poisoning/dysphoria-causing drugs ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [237].
♠ pain ♣ present ♥ For chariot racing. Inferred from the fact that the "stadium seems to have been designed to maximize carnage" and that riots
among spectators were common [238]. No pain is recorded for theatrical performances [239].
♠ mutilation ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [240].
♠ risk of death ♣ present ♥ "Many charioteers died not directly as the result of a crash but from being dragged around the track after one." [241]. No
risk of death is recorded for theatrical performances [242].
♠ other ♣ riots; magical curses ♥ Riots would often break out among rival fan clubs, and some spectators would use magical curses against other
spectators [243].
Euphoric elements Euphoric elements are positive, emotionally arousing components of a ritual. Code the variables below using the coding scheme
absent/present/unknown
♠ feasting ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [244].
♠ alcohol ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [245].
♠ euphoria-inducing drugs (other than alcohol) ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [246].
♠ sex ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [247].
♠ dancing ♣ present ♥ For theatrical performances; no dancing occurred during chariot races [248].
♠ synchronous movement ♣ present ♥ For theatrical performances; none recorded for chariot races [249].
♠ singing ♣ present ♥ Choral music often accompanied theatrical performances, and chariot racing fans "developed elaborate cheers and songs that
tens of thousands of fans would chant and sing in unison." [250]
♠ entertainment ♣ present ♥ Much of the ludi was entertainment [251].
♠ other ♣ ♥
Cohesion Cohesion among performers of the ritual. Code the variables below using the coding scheme absent/present/unknown
♠ honour code ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [252].
♠ oath taking ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [253].
♠ enemies of any group member are my enemies ♣ present ♥ For chariot racing: fan club rivalries were an important part of the ritual [254].
♠ willingness to die for each other ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [255].
♠ obligations to each other's families ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [256].
♠ other ♣ ♥
♠ Orthopraxy checks ♣ ♥
♠ Orthodoxy checks ♣ ♥
Costs of participation Code the variables below using the coding scheme absent/present/unknown
♠ currency ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [257].
♠ property/valuable items ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [258].
♠ health costs ♣ present ♥ For chariot racing. Inferred from the fact that the "stadium seems to have been designed to maximize carnage" and that
riots among spectators were common [259]. No health costs recorded for theatrical performances [260].
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♥ [261]
♠ animal sacrifice ♣ present
♠ human sacrifice of an out-group member ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [262].
♠ human sacrifice of an in-group member ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [263].
♠ human sacrifice of a relative ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [264].
♠ other ♣ ♥
Most widespread collective ritual of the official cult
♠ Name ♣ votum pro salute domini ♥ On 3 January every year, in Rome and in the provinces, both civilians and soldiers made vows for the salvation of
the Emperor. These vows were public, and led, in the provinces, by provincial officials. They involved prayer to the gods that they would preserve the
Emperor and the State from harm. Occasionally, groups would compete in terms of who demonstrated loyalty most enthusiastically, and apparently this
generated significant social tensions that risked erupting into violent conflict. [265]
♠ Frequency for the ritual specialist ♣ yearly ♥ On the 3rd of January [266].
♠ Frequency per participant ♣ yearly ♥ On the 3rd of January [267].
♠ Frequency for the audience ♣ yearly ♥ On the 3rd of January [268].
♠ Duration ♣ between one hour and one day ♥ One or a few hours if the ceremony consisted merely of public prayer, a whole day if displays of loyalty
were organised by participants, as seems to have been the case [269]. It probably varied from province to province.
♠ Typical size of participating group ♣ ♥
♠ Inclusiveness (ritual specialist) ♣ government officials ♥ Provincial officials were in charge of leading the ceremony in the provinces [270].
♠ Inclusiveness (participants) ♣ whole polity ♥ [271]
♠ Inclusiveness (audience) ♣ whole polity ♥ [272]
Dysphoric elements
♠ fasting ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [273].
♠ vigil/sleep deprivation ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [274].
♠ fear ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [275].
♠ humiliation ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [276].
♠ disgust ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [277].
♠ poisoning/dysphoria-causing drugs ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [278].
♠ pain ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [279].
♠ mutilation ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [280].
♠ risk of death ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [281].
♠ other ♣ risk of brawls ♥ A letter from Pliny to Trajan suggests that soldiers and civilians in the province of Nicomedia competed in terms of who
was most loyal, and that this competition almost erupted into violent conflict [282].
Euphoric elements
♠ feasting ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [283].
♠ alcohol ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [284].
♠ euphoria-inducing drugs (other than alcohol) ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [285].
♠ sex ♣ absent♥ Not recorded for these rituals [286].
♠ dancing ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [287].
♠ synchronous movement ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [288].
♠ singing ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [289].
♠ entertainment ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [290].
♠ other ♣ ♥ List the other(s)
Cohesion Cohesion among performers of the ritual. Code the variables below using the coding scheme absent/present/unknown
♠ honour code ♣ present ♥ Different groups sometimes competing in demonstrations of loyalty [291].
♠ oath taking ♣ present ♥ [292].
♠ enemies of any group member are my enemies ♣ inferred present ♥ Inferred from the fact that the military was involved, and the importance of
loyalty to the Emperor for the ritual [293].
♠ willingness to die for each other ♣ inferred present ♥ Inferred from the fact that the military was involved, and the importance of loyalty to the
Emperor for the ritual [294].
♠ obligations to each other's families ♣ Not recorded for these rituals [295].
♠ other ♣ ♥ List the other(s)
♠ Orthopraxy checks ♣ present ♥ "The archives of an auxiliary cohort, the 'Twentieth Palmyrene', stationed at Dura Europus on the eastern Euphrates
frontier, included a papyrus copy of [a] calendar which still survives. [...] This particular copy obviously received considerable use before it was discarded;
the frequent rolling and unrolling of the papyrus had distorted the original shape of the roll and two patching Jobs had been necessary It was certainly not just
an official ordinance kept in the files and ignored." [296] The calendar included the 3rd of January vows. Also, provincial officials led the vows in the
provinces [297].
♠ Orthodoxy checks ♣ present ♥ "The archives of an auxiliary cohort, the 'Twentieth Palmyrene', stationed at Dura Europus on the eastern Euphrates
frontier, included a papyrus copy of [a] calendar which still survives. [...] This particular copy obviously received considerable use before it was discarded;
the frequent rolling and unrolling of the papyrus had distorted the original shape of the roll and two patching Jobs had been necessary It was certainly not just
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[298] The calendar
an official ordinance kept in the files and ignored."
included the 3rd of January vows. Also, provincial officials led the vows in the
provinces [299].
Costs of participation Code the variables below using the coding scheme absent/present/unknown
♠ currency ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [300].
♠ property/valuable items ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [301].
♠ health costs ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [302].
♠ animal sacrifice ♣ inferred present ♥ Inferred from the fact that, among the Romans, prayer to the gods usually involved sacrifice [303].
♠ human sacrifice of an out-group member ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [304].
♠ human sacrifice of an in-group member ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [305].
♠ human sacrifice of a relative ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for these rituals [306].
♠ other ♣ ♥
Most frequent collective ritual of the official cult
♠ Name ♣ sacrifice to Vesta ♥ Vestal priestesses, or Vestal virgins, made sacrifices to Vesta, goddess of the hearth, each day. The cult of Vesta, supposedly
founded by the probably mythical king Numa Pompilius, was probably the most important of all traditional Roman cults, as suggested, most notably, by the
fact that it is one of the few cults for which a wealth of knowledge exists, and also by the fact that "any suggestion of an irregularity involving the Vestals or
their rituals implied a threat to the city itself" [307].
♠ Frequency for the ritual specialist ♣ daily ♥
♠ Frequency per participant ♣ ♥
♠ Frequency for the audience ♣ ♥
♠ Duration ♣ ♥
♠ Typical size of participating group ♣ 4 ♥ There were, initially, only two Vestals at any one time; then four; then, eventually, six [308]. It is not clear,
however, when these changes occurred, nor how many priestesses were required for the sacrifice itself.
♠ Inclusiveness (ritual specialist) ♣ free women ♥ [309]
♠ Inclusiveness (participants) ♣ ♥
♠ Inclusiveness (audience) ♣ ♥
Dysphoric elements
♠ fasting ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [310].
♠ vigil/sleep deprivation ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [311].
♠ fear ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [312].
♠ humiliation ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [313].
♠ disgust ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [314].
♠ poisoning/dysphoria-causing drugs ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [315].
♠ pain ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [316].
♠ mutilation ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [317].
♠ risk of death ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [318].
♠ other ♣ ♥ List the other(s)
Euphoric elements
♠ feasting ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [319].
♠ alcohol ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [320].
♠ euphoria-inducing drugs (other than alcohol) ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [321].
♠ sex ♣ absent ♥ Vestal priestesses were put to death if suspected of having broken their vow of chastity [322].
♠ dancing ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [323].
♠ synchronous movement ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [324].
♠ singing ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [325].
♠ entertainment ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [326].
♠ other ♣ ♥
Cohesion
♠ honour code ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [327].
♠ oath taking ♣ present ♥ Vestal virgins never took oaths, as their word was believed to be sacred [328].
♠ enemies of any group member are my enemies ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [329].
♠ willingness to die for each other ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [330].
♠ obligations to each other's families ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [331].
♠ other ♣ present ♥
♠ Orthopraxy checks ♣ ♥
♠ Orthodoxy checks ♣ ♥
Costs of participation
♠ currency ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [332].
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♠ property/valuable items ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [333].
♠ health costs ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [334].
♠ animal sacrifice ♣ present ♥ [335].
♠ human sacrifice of an out-group member ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [336].
♠ human sacrifice of an in-group member ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [337].
♠ human sacrifice of a relative ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [338].
♠ other ♣ ♥ List the other(s)
Most euphoric collective ritual of the official cult
♠ Name ♣ Triumph ♥ Triumphs were, traditionally, grand processions celebrating a general's military victories. However, starting from the rule of
Augustus onwards, they became dynastic events, "used either to showcase [the Emperor's] chosen heirs [...] or to celebrate the beginning of reigns, almost as
a coronation ritual" [339]. During the Principate and the Dominate eras, moreover, triumphs were much rarer, sometimes with decades passing between
successive ones. But, besides this, the way they were celebrated during the Empire seems to have been broadly similar to how they were celebrated during
the Republic. The procession started from outside the city, then proceeded through Rome's streets, passed through the triumphal gate, and ended at the temple
of Jupiter on the Capitol, where the Emperor, or a relative of his, dedicated a sacrifice to the god. Triumphs were grand affairs, involving feasts, and, in case
of triumphs that were more military than dynastic, the display of prisoners of war, as well as precious items and natural wonders looted from the conquered
territories. Usually they lasted one day, but there were exceptions. Prisoners of war were sometimes executed at some point during the festivities [340].
♠ Frequency for the ritual specialist ♣ once every few decades ♥ Triumphs were celebrated rarely and irregularly during the Principate [341].
♠ Frequency per participant ♣ once every few decades ♥ Triumphs were celebrated rarely and irregularly during the Principate [342].
♠ Frequency for the audience ♣ once every few decades ♥ Triumphs were celebrated rarely and irregularly during the Principate [343].
♠ Duration ♣ one day ♥ [344]
♠ Typical size of participating group ♣ ♥ The ritual involved, besides the Emperor himself, or whichever relative was being celebrated, soldiers, and
prisoners of war [345]: an estimate could be made based on this.
♠ Inclusiveness (ritual specialist) ♣ ruling elite ♥ The Emperor himself, or his relatives [346].
♠ Inclusiveness (participants) ♣ ruling elite; dominant military group; prisoners of war ♥ [347]
♠ Inclusiveness (audience) ♣ people of Rome ♥ [348]
Dysphoric elements
♠ fasting ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [349].
♠ vigil/sleep deprivation ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [350].
♠ fear ♣ inferred present ♥ Because there was a chance they could be executed, some prisoners of war may have felt fear, although it is not entirely
clear whether Imperial triumphs featured prisoners of war very often [351].
♠ humiliation ♣ present ♥ Of the prisoners of war, although it is not entirely clear whether Imperial triumphs featured prisoners of war very often
[352].
♠ disgust ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [353].
♠ poisoning/dysphoria-causing drugs ♣ absent ♥ (e.g. vomiting)
♠ pain ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [354].
♠ mutilation ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [355].
♠ risk of death ♣ present ♥ Prisoners of war were sometimes executed during the festivities, though not always, and it is not entirely clear whether
Imperial triumphs featured prisoners of war very often [356].
♠ other ♣ ♥
Euphoric elements
♠ feasting ♣ present ♥ [357].
♠ alcohol ♣ inferred present ♥ Inferred from the fact that triumphs were sometimes accompanied by feasts [358].
♠ euphoria-inducing drugs (other than alcohol) ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [359].
♠ sex ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual, although Ovid, in his The Art of Love, tells would-be Don Juans that triumphs are great pick-up points
for women [360].
♠ dancing ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [361].
♠ synchronous movement ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [362].
♠ singing ♣ present ♥ "Behind the triumphal chariot, the troops sang ribald songs ostensibly at the general's expense" [363].
♠ entertainment ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual, although triumphs were often part of a wider set of celebrations that also included games
and spectacles [364].
♠ other ♣ ♥
Cohesion
♠ honour code ♣ present ♥ [365].
♠ oath taking ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [366].
♠ enemies of any group member are my enemies ♣ inferred present ♥ Presumably, loyalty to the Emperor was fostered by this ritual.
♠ willingness to die for each other ♣ inferred present ♥ Presumably, loyalty to the Emperor was fostered by this ritual.
♠ obligations to each other's families ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [367].
♠ other ♣ ♥
♠ Orthopraxy checks ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [368].
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♠ Orthodoxy checks ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this
Costs of participation
ritual [369].
♠ currency ♣ present ♥ On the Emperor's part [370].
♠ health costs ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [371].
♠ property/valuable items ♣ present ♥ The spoils of war were displayed [372].
♠ health costs ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [373].
♠ animal sacrifice ♣ present ♥ The procession terminated with a sacrifice to Jupiter [374].
♠ human sacrifice of an out-group member ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [375].
♠ human sacrifice of an in-group member ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [376].
♠ human sacrifice of a relative ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [377].
♠ other ♣ ♥
Most dysphoric collective ritual
Unlike the preceding rituals, the most dysphoric collective ritual may not belong to the official cult, but may be practiced by another group that has a significant
role in the polity.
♠ Name ♣ dies sanguinis ♥ In 204 BCE, the Anatolian goddess Cybele was formally added to the Roman pantheon. Worship of the deity included the
taurobolium (in which the devout stood in a pit while a bull was sacrificed on a slatted floor above them, thus bathing them in its blood), ecstatic dancing,
and a day known as dies sanguinis, or Day of Blood, in which priests (and perhaps lay-worshippers, it is not very clear) whipped themselves to the point of
bleeding. Some celebrants event castrated themselves, replicating the events of their cult's founding myth. This day fell on the 24th of March every year, and
was part of a wider festival celebrating the goddess [378].
♠ Frequency for the ritual specialist ♣ yearly ♥ On the 24th of March [379].
♠ Frequency per participant ♣ yearly ♥ On the 24th of March [380].
♠ Frequency for the audience ♣ yearly ♥ On the 24th of March [381].
♠ Duration ♣ one day ♥ The 24th of March [382].
♠ Typical size of participating group ♣ ♥
♠ Inclusiveness (ritual specialist) ♣ ♥ Starting with Claudius's reign, Roman citizens were permitted to become priests of the cult of Cybele [383].
♠ Inclusiveness (participants) ♣ ♥
♠ Inclusiveness (audience) ♣ ♥
Dysphoric elements
♠ fasting ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this specific ritual, although it was preceded by a few days of fasting from "bread, wine and other food" [384].
♠ vigil/sleep deprivation ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [385][386].
♠ fear ♣ inferred present ♥ Inferred from the fact that the ritual involved the infliction of extreme pain [387][388].
♠ humiliation ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [389][390].
♠ disgust ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [391][392].
♠ poisoning/dysphoria-causing drugs ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [393][394].
♠ pain ♣ present ♥ From self-flagellation and castration [395][396].
♠ mutilation ♣ present ♥ Castration [397][398].
♠ risk of death ♣ inferred present ♥ Because the ritual involved castration, and this specific act was carried out with "the most primitive of
instruments, such as flints" [399], it seems likely that some participants would have died of excessive blood loss or sepsis, though none of the sources
confirm this.
♠ other ♣ ♥
Euphoric elements
♠ feasting ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [400][401].
♠ alcohol ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [402][403].
♠ euphoria-inducing drugs (other than alcohol) ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [404][405].
♠ sex ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [406][407].
♠ dancing ♣ inferred present ♥ Inferred from the fact that worship of the goddess involved ecstatic dancing [408].
♠ synchronous movement ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [409][410].
♠ singing ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [411][412].
♠ entertainment ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [413][414].
♠ other ♣ ♥
Cohesion
♠ honour code ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [415][416].
♠ oath taking ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [417][418].
♠ enemies of any group member are my enemies ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [419][420].
♠ willingness to die for each other ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [421][422].
♠ obligations to each other's families ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [423][424].
♠ other ♣ ♥
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♠ Orthopraxy checks ♣ present ♥ Presence of priests, and law prohibiting Roman citizens from participating to some of the ritual's aspects [425].
♠ Orthodoxy checks ♣ ♥
Costs of participation
♠ currency ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [426][427].
♠ property/valuable items ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [428][429].
♠ health costs ♣ present ♥ Castration, self-flagellation [430][431].
♠ animal sacrifice ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [432][433].
♠ human sacrifice of an out-group member ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [434][435].
♠ human sacrifice of an in-group member ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [436][437].
♠ human sacrifice of a relative ♣ absent ♥ Not recorded for this ritual [438][439].
♠ other ♣ ♥
Other Variables (polity-based)
Institutional Variables
♠ RA ♣ DH ♥
♠ Expert ♣ Garrett Fagan ♥
♠ Editor ♣ DH ♥
Limits on Power of the Chief Executive
Legal (formal) limits on executive power
♠ Executive power is separate or independent from military ♣ absent ♥ [440]
♠ Executive power is separate or independent from legislative ♣ absent ♥ [441]
♠ Executive power is separate or independent from judiciary ♣ absent ♥ [442]
♠ Right to petition executive ♣ present ♥ Emperor regularly received and responded to petitions from local officials, as well as ordinary citizens [443] [444] [445]
♠ Critique of executive by government ♣ present ♥ Senate technically / formally held ultimate executive power and could override or critique Emperor's
actions, though in practice in was quite rare and could be dangerous to the critic [446]
♠ Critique of executive by non-government ♣ present ♥ [447] [448] [449]
♠ Sanction of executive by government ♣ absent ♥
♠ Sanction of executive by non-government ♣ absent ♥
♠ Constraint on executive by government ♣ present ♥ many administrative positions were elected by popular assemblies or votes within legislature (Senate),
although mostly these were 'rubber stamp' approvals of the Emperor's appointments. Tribune of the Plebs also had veto right over legislation, though this was not
used much after the Republican period
♠ Constraint on executive by non-government ♣ absent ♥
♠ Impeachment ♣ present ♥ Senate had formal right to 'bestow' legal powers on Emperor, could theoretically remove them (although never practiced)
Customary (informal) limits on executive power
♠ Informal critique of executive ♣ present ♥
much literature offered criticism of rulers (e.g. Tacitus' Annales offers heavy critiques of the Emperors Tibuerius, Calligula, Claudius, and Nero)
Also the contio (non-voting assembly) gave the population the opportunity to express opinions about the government[450]
♠ Informal sanction of executive ♣ absent ♥
♠ Informal constraint on executive ♣ absent ♥
♠ Informal impeachment ♣ absent ♥
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♠ recruitment of chief executive ♣ lower ♥ numerous Emperors during this period came from lower classes. E.g. Septimius Severus' family was a plebian
lineage from North Africa. During crises of the mid-third century CE, many of the 'barracks Emperors' (soldatenkaiser) were low class soldiers who become
popular generals and assumed the throne, albeit briefly.
Limits on executive power imposed by religious agents
♠ Critique of executive by religious agents ♣ absent ♥ no separation of political and religious authority (the Emperor often held the title of pontifex maximus
(chief priest)). No record of any religious authority independent of the ruling officials offering any sort of critique or opposition to the running of government[451]
♠ Sanction of executive by religious agents ♣ absent ♥
♠ Constraint on executive by religious agents ♣ absent ♥
♠ Constraint on executive by religious institutions ♣ present ♥ often actions of the executive were informed, if not directed, by religious actors through
divination, etc. E.g. "the quindecimviri interpreted foreign prophetic books at the behest of the Senate."[452]
♠ Impeachment by religious agents ♣ absent ♥
♠ Subordination of the chief executive to a religious agent ♣ present ♥ a central part of the Emperor's duty was to make the proper sacrifices to certain deities
to ensure divine favor for the state, although it was certainly not a requirement for executive action[453]
♠ Motivation by belief in supernatural agent ♣ present ♥ E.g. the dedication of the Colosseum in 80 CE with the spoils from the Judean war
Mechanisms of Power Transfer (from one head of state to the next)
♠ Customary mechanism ♣ present ♥ the mechanism for power transfer is a vote by the Senate conferring specific titles (those taken by Augustus in the later
parts of the first c. BCE); tribunician power (i.e. the right to veto legislation), military imperium (command), consular powers, curatorial power (legislative and
financial duties), censor's powers, and proconsular (gubernatorial) command in certain provinces.
In practice, male primogeniture became the de facto mechanism for power transfer during dynasties
♠ Legal mechanism ♣ present ♥ The legal mechanism for power transfer was contained entirely by the Senate's right to confer titles on an individual (see above)
♠ Number of power transitions ♣ 50 ♥
Augustus (Imp. Caesar Augustus) - 31 bce- 14 ce
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
Tiberius (Ti. Caesar Augustus) - 14-37
Gaius / Caligula (C. Caesar Augustus Germanicus) - 37-41
Claudius (Ti. Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) - 41-54
Nero (Imp. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) - 54-68
Galba (Ser. Sulpicius Galba Imp. Caesar Augustus) - 68-69
Otho (Imp. M. Otho Caesar Augustus) - 69
Vitellius (A. Vitellius Augustus Germanicus Imp.) - 69
Vespasian (Imp. Caesar Vespasianus Augustus) - 69-79
Titus (Imp. Titus Caesar Vespasianus Augustus) - 79-81
Domitian (Imp. Caesar Domitianus Augustus) - 81-96
Nerva (Imp. Caesar Nerva Augustus) - 96-98
Trajan (Imp. Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus) - 98-117
Hadrian (Imp. Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus) - 117-138
Antoninus Pius (Imp. Caesar T. Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius) - 138-161
Marcus Aurelius (Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Antoninus Augustus) - 161-180
Lucius Verus (Imp. Caesar L. Aurelius Verus Augustus) - 161-169
Commodus (Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Commodus Antoninus Augustus) - 176-192
Pertinax (Imp. Caesar P. Helvius Pertinax Augustus) - 193
Didius Julianus (Imp. Caesar M. Didius Severus Julianus Augustus) - 193
Septimius Severus (Imp. Caesar L. Septimius Severus Pertinax Augustus) - 193-211
Clodius Albinus (Imp. Caesar D. Clodius Septimius Albinus Augustus) - 193-197
Pescennius Niger (Imp. Caesar C. Pescennius Niger Justus Augustus) - 193-194
Caracalla (Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Antoninus Augustus) - 198-217
Geta (Imp. Caesar P. Septimius Geta Augustus) - 209-211
Macrinus (Imp. Caesar M. Opellius Macrinus Augustus) - 217-218
Diadumenianus (Imp. Caesar M. Opellius Antoninus Diadumenianus Augustus) - 218
Elagabal (Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Antoninus Augustus) - 218-222
Severus Alexander (Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Severus Alexander Augustus) - 222-235
Maximinus (Imp. Caesar C. Julius Verus Maximinus Augustus) - 235-238
Gordian I (Imp. Caesar M. Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus Senior Augustus) - 238
Gordian II (Imp. Caesar M. Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Africanus Iunior Augustus) - 238
Balbinus (Imp. Caesar D. Caelius Calvinus Balbinus Augustus) - 238
Pupienus (Imp. Caesar M. Clodius Pupienus Augustus) - 238
Gordian III (Imp. Caesar M. Antonius Gordianus Augustus) - 238-244
Philip (Imp. Caesar M. Julius Philippus Augustus) - 244-249
Decius (Imp. Caesar C. Messius Quintus Traianus Decius Augustus) - 249-251
Trebonianus Gallus (Imp. Caesar C. Vibius Trebonianus Gallus Augustus) - 251-253
Volusianus (Imp. Caesar C. Vibius Afinius Gallus Veldumianus Volusianus Augustus) - 251-253
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39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
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Aemilianus (Imp. Caesar M. Aemilius Aemilianus Augustus) - 253
Valerian (Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Valerianus Augustus) - 253-260
Gallienus (Imp. Caesar P. Licinius Egnatius Gallienus Augustus) - 253-268
Claudius II (Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Claudius Augustus) - 268-270
Quintillus (Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Claudius Quintillus Augustus) - 270
Aurelian (Imp. Caesar Domitius Aurelianus Augustus) - 270-275
Tacitus (Imp. Caesar M. Claudius Tacitus Augustus) - 275-276
Florianus (Imp. Caesar M. Annius Florianus Augustus) - 276
Probus (Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Probus Augustus) - 276-282
Carus (Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Carus Augustus) - 282-283
Carinus (Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Carinus Augustus) - 283-285
Numerianus (Imp. Caesar M. Aurelius Numerius Numerianus Augustus) - 283-284
♠ Number of contested transitions ♣ 63 ♥
after death of Nero:
1. C.Iulius Vindex,
2. L. Clodius Macer,
3. Galba,
4. C. Nymphidius Sabinus,
5. Otho,
6. Vitellius,
7. Vespasian
after death of Pertinax:
8. Didius Julianus,
9. Pescennius Niger,
10. Clodius Albinus,
11. Septimius Severus
revolts during Elagabalus' rule:
12. Seleucus,
13. Uranius,
14. Gellius Max,
15. Verus
after the death of Severus Alexander:
16. Maximus Thrax,
17. Gordian I
18. Gordian II,
19. Balbinus,
20. Pupienus
21. after death of Gordian III (Philip I)
22. during Philip I reign
23. Pacatianus,
24. Iotapianus,
25. Sponsianus
26. Philip II killed (Decius became Emperor) revolts during Decius' reign:
27. Priscus,
28. Iulius Valens,
29. Herennius Etruscus,
30. Trebonius Gallus (adopted Decius' son Hostilian)
31. Aemilianus usurpation of Gallienus / Volusianus
32. Aemilianus killed by troops (Valerian and Gallienus proclaimed Emperors)
33. revolt of Postumus and creation of Gallic Empire revolts under Galienus:
34. Ingenuus,
35. Regalianus,
36. Macrianus I
37. Macrianus II,
38. Quietus,
39. Piso,
40. Valens,
41. Ballista,
42. Mussius Aemilianus,
43. Memor,
44. Aureolus,
45. Celsus,
46. Saturninus
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47. possible coup during Galienus' death and ascension of Claudius II
48. Claudius I's successor was contested revolts during Aurelian's reign:
49. Domitianus,
50. Urbanus,
51. Septimius,
52. Firmus,
53. Felicissimus,
54. Vaballathus
55. Aurelian murdered in attempted coup
56. possible coup resulting in Tacitus' death
57. Florian killed by troops during civil fighting revolts under Probus:
58. Proclus,
59. Bonosus,
60. Saturninus
61. Probus killed during coup of Carus
62. revolt of Sabinus Iulianus
63. Carinus killed during fighting with Diocletian
NB: this list includes people who were said to have been proclaimed Emperor, but who may have never wielded any real imperial authority, or done so only in
highly localized areas. This is why there is a great deal of overlap between the reigns, especially in the third c CE
♠ Number of successful overturns ♣ 16 ♥
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
after death of Nero
after death of Pertinax
after the death of Severus Alexander
after Gordian II
after Pupiennus
after Gordian III
after Philip II
after Trbonius Gallus
after Aemilianus
after Galienus
after Quintilius
after Aurelian
after Tacitus
after Florian
after Probus
after Carus / Numerianus
Bureaucracy Characteristics
State-level officials (central administration)
♠ State-level administrators ♣ present ♥
Senatorial and equestrian officials (procurator, curator, praefectus, proconsul, etc.) as well as religious positions (flamen, etc.)[454]. Also Emperors had advisory
councils appointed directly (consilium), including often slaves and freedmen of the Emperor himself who served important administrative functions, especially
financial[455] [456]
Authority over state-level administrators
♠ Direct ♣ present ♥ e.g. the Emperor retained tight control over personal dependents (slaves and freedmen) as well as over military matter
♠ Indirect ♣ present ♥ some state-level officials, particularly of the senatorial class (proconsuls, some curators, etc.) had a semi-independent authority,
especially in some provinces, at least formally (and perhaps in practice as well)[457]
♠ Diffused ♣ absent ♥
♠ Mixed ♣ present ♥ a close court of directly-governed officials as well as more indirectly officials drawn from the elite classes
Source of Support of state-level officials
♠ State salary ♣ present ♥ [458]
♠ Governed population ♣ absent ♥
♠ Land ♣ absent ♥
♠ None ♣ present ♥ elite Romans, particularly in the Senatorial class, were expected to serve in administrative posts as part of their civic duty without
compensation[459]
♠ Other ♣ ♥
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♠ Corruption ♣ pervasive ♥ were laws put in place to prevent corruption, but much evidence (especially anecdotal from the literary sources) about officials using
their time in office to gain economically, especially with provincial governorships [460] <Connolly 2010, 722)</ref> [461]
♠ Bribery ♣ significant ♥
♠ Abuse of power ♣ widespread ♥ [462]
♠ Governmental control ♣ present ♥ Senators, tribune, and other officials oversaw various appointments, as well as popular assemblies for some positions.
Although in practice the appointment of officials is not entirely clear, and followed both clear rules of promotion and appointment as well as more murky,
patrimonial lines[463]
♠ Non-governmental oversight ♣ absent ♥
♠ Professionalization of state-level bureaucracy ♣ [absent; present] ♥ most posts were held by elites who held various positions throughout their lives, but
some posts were professional (especially for those in the Emperor's consilium)
♠ modal number of years state-level bureaucrats spend in service ♣ 20 ♥ rough figure, based on the cursus honorum, which had an age limit of 30 for
the first post (quaestorship), typically held after some time in the military, and a minimum age limit of 42 for the consulship, plus some number of years
spent as a governor, censor, and other positions (cf. Talbert 1996).
♠ Promotion of state-level officials to other positions ♣ present ♥
♠ Frequency of promotion of state-level officials to other positions ♣ pervasive ♥ e.g. cursus honorum required a progression between offices held
[464]
♠ Promotion from lower ranks ♣ present ♥
♠ Frequency of promotion of state-level officials from lower ranks ♣ widespread ♥
♠ Prestige of state-level bureaucracy ♣ lower ♥ most officials were equal to top nobility, but some posts were held by lower classes, including imperial slaves
and freedmen
Local-level officials (provincial, regional, civic administration)
♠ Number of regional administrative units ♣ 31:14 ce; 36:68 ce; 46: 214 ce ♥ provinces
♠ Local-level administrators ♣ present ♥
Provinces governed by proconsuls propraetorian legates, along with a staff of dependents (scribes, etc.); Egypt unique in governed by equestrian praefect (but
granted procunsular-level powers, including command over the legions stationed in Egypt)[465]
each city in a Roman province (municipium, vicus, colonia, etc.) also typically had its own governance structured on the city of Rome as a model, with local
'executive' officals (duoviri) and town-senate (curia) and lower ranking officers (curiales, aedile, flamen, etc), mainly 'volunteer' (i.e. uncompensated) local elites
[466] [467] Also
were support staff (scribes, lictors, etc) who received a salary paid by the town[468]
Authority over local-level administrators
♠ Direct ♣ absent ♥ local officials largely left on their own by executive, subject only to their own civic elections and official oversight. Only highest
ranking officials (provincial governors, etc.) seem to have been under close scrutiny of executive[469]
♠ Indirect ♣ present ♥
♠ Diffused ♣ absent ♥
♠ Mixed ♣ absent ♥
Source of Support of local-level officials
♠ State salary ♣ present ♥ only at the highest level (governor, procurator, etc). E.g. the prefect of Egypt was paid ca. 200,000 sestercii per year, making
him one of the highest-paid officials in the Empire along with the praetorian prefect[470] Low-level municipal support staff also received relatively good
salary (600-1,200 sestercii per year for scribes and lictors) [471]
♠ Governed population ♣ absent ♥
♠ Land ♣ absent ♥
♠ None ♣ present ♥ most local officials, especially at the city-level, were responsible for their own income. Many offices had property recruirements or
fees attached to them as well, and often pledges of property had to be made by officials in order to spend civic funds[472] In Egypt particularly, some elites
were compelled to provide public service as a liturgy
♠ Other ♣ ♥
♠ Corruption ♣ infrequent ♥ Seems to be a great deal of concern to restrict the power of local officials to prevent corruption[473]. Is evidence though of local
officials benefiting financially and otherwise from their position[474]
♠ Bribery ♣ infrequent ♥
♠ Abuse of power ♣ infrequent ♥
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♠ Governmental control ♣ present ♥ Officials could be punished (censure, fine, etc.) by the local administration. Most local-level officials were elected, but no
indication that there was a regular procedure for removal from office outside of election.[475] In Egypt, was annual review of subordinate officials by the
praefect/governor[476]
♠ Non-governmental oversight ♣ absent ♥
♠ Professionalization of local bureaucracy ♣ absent ♥ some administrators, especially in advisory / support roles could be professional, but the typical local
official was a local elite serving a short term of public service while also pursuing other business
♠ modal number of years local bureaucrats spend in service ♣ [20-25] ♥ roughly the same career trajectory as with state-level administrators, plus
frequently local officials were promoted to state-level posts after some years of service
Legal System
Accessibility of the Legal System
Statutes and decrees promulgated largely through inscribed stone monuments set up in public places throughout the Empire [477] [478] [479] [480]
♠ ruling elite ♣ present ♥
♠ non-ruling elite ♣ present ♥
♠ general population ♣ present ♥
♠ foreign groups ♣ present ♥
♠ ethnic groups ♣ present ♥
Accessibility of Trials
♠ ruling elite ♣ present ♥
♠ non-ruling elite ♣ present ♥
♠ general population ♣ present ♥
♠ foreign groups ♣ present ♥
♠ ethnic groups ♣ present ♥
♠ Courts in polity capital ♣ present ♥ [481] [482]
♠ Courts in regional capitals ♣ present ♥
♠ Courts in provincial towns ♣ present ♥ local magistrates (especially decuriones) had judicial duties; trials took place in public buildings in provincial towns.
Also impromptu 'courts' set up in public spaces not specially designed for legal proceedings, e.g. a town forum[483]
♠ Courts are supported by the state ♣ absent ♥ building and maintenance of court-rooms was undertaken by the state, but often these were multi-purpose
buildings and not intended especially for legal proceedings. Judicial proceedings generally conducted by officials in normal course of their duties, most of whom
were not directly supported by the state, and litigators often had to expend time and money for the trial and hiring advocates[484]
♠ Criminal Prosecution ♣ present ♥ [485] [486]
♠ Typical speed of judicial proceedings in criminal cases ♣ days ♥
♠ Typical speed of judicial proceedings in civil cases ♣ weeks ♥ [487]
♠ Multiple legal systems ♣ present ♥ during this period, all area in the Empire was subject to Roman law, but in some areas traditional legal traditions, or at least
informal legal customs, persisted (e.g. Ptolemaic law in Egypt, although in a muted form from the Ptolemaic period)[488]
Informal Justice
♠ Non-state judiciary ♣ present ♥ guilds (collegia) had their own rules that they could enforce[489]. Also customary Egyptian law continued to be practiced,
especially in the rural areas of Upper Egypt that were less Hellenized during the Ptolemaic period[490]
♠ Religious judiciary ♣ absent ♥ most religious officials were state officials. Some religious groups existed outside of the state (Christian, Jewish groups, Isis
cult, etc.) could have their own rules, but the ability of non-state agents to enforce terms on subjects of the Empire was generally very restricted
Property Rights
♠ Private property (land) ♣ present ♥ [491]
♠ Usufruct ♣ present ♥ [492]
♠ Exclusivity ♣ present ♥ [493]
♠ Partibility ♣ present ♥[494]
♠ Lease ♣ present ♥[495]
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♠ Lease Rights ♣ present ♥ E.g. Mancian Tenancy
[496]
♠ Transfer of property ♣ present ♥ [497]
♠ Use of property ♣ absent ♥ State gave incentives for particular land use (e.g. rent-breaks for Mancian tenants having planted olive groves on imperial
property). State also owned a great deal of land, but no evidence for proscribed activity on individually-owned property [498]
♠ Property market ♣ present ♥ [499]
♠ Other property ownership ♣ present ♥ livestock, buildings, consumer goods (pottery, etc.) owned and could even be leased out[500]
Inheritance System
♠ partible inheritance ♣ present ♥ [501] Saller: "If the husband predeceased the wife, she had a right to an equal share of his estate, together with the
deceased’s sons and unmarried daughters (collectively known as sui heredes)"[502]
♠ patrilineal inheritance ♣ present ♥
♠ matrilineal inheritance ♣ absent ♥
♠ primogeniture inheritance by only males ♣ absent ♥
♠ primogeniture inheritance by males and females ♣ absent ♥ All children inherited property
♠ other inheritance practices ♣ present ♥ Roman had well-developed testamentary law, wills allowing person to divide property in numerous ways[503]
Saller: "The most common form of marriage came to be sine manu – that is, without transfer of the woman to the authority of her usband. The wife remained
under her father’s power (patria potestas) and part of his property regime as long as he lived; after his death, she became independent (sui iuris) with property
rights nearly the equal of men’s"[504]
♠ Trusts ♣ present ♥ [505]
♠ State expropriation ♣ present ♥ rare, but known in this period. E.g. Nero is said to have murdered numerous wealthy Senators in the mid-first c CE and
officially disgraced their heirs, leaving them intestate, in order to 'inherit' their estates for himself[506]
♠ Non-state expropriation ♣ absent ♥
Equity
Sex, Class and Race
Marriage
♠ Monogamy ♣ present ♥ formal practice [507]
♠ Formal Elite Polygamy ♣ absent ♥
♠ Informal Elite Polygamy ♣ absent ♥
♠ Elite Concubinage ♣ absent ♥
♠ Typical number of extramarital partners ♣ 0 ♥
Legal rights are different on the basis of:
♠ Gender ♣ present ♥ E.g. pater familias (male head of the household), tutela (legal guardianship of an unwed woman), etc. [508]
♠ Social class ♣ present ♥ were property qualifications to hold certain offices and attain ranks, e.g. Senatorial status. In Egypt, legal differences between
'Greek' and Roman citizens and 'Egyptians' (tax relief for Greek and Roman citizens registered in certain poleis, e.g.)[509]
♠ Ethnicity or race ♣ absent ♥ although some groups, such as Jewish communities, often asserted their own sets of rules / laws informally, but were still
recognized as Roman under Roman law[510]
Discrimination
Discrimination on the basis of gender (include de facto discrimination even when there are no explicit legal restrictions) [511] [512]
♠ Bureaucratic positions are open to both males and females ♣ absent ♥
♠ Promotion in administrative positions is open to both males and females ♣ absent ♥
♠ Education is available to both males and females ♣ present ♥ [513]
♠ Property can be owned by both males and females ♣ present ♥[514]
Discrimination on the basis of social class (include de facto limitations even when there are no explicit legal restrictions) [515]
♠ Bureaucratic positions are open to people from all social classes ♣ present ♥ are restrictions (e.g. property qualification for Senatorial posts), but were
some positions, especially at the local level, open to all classes, including freedmen (but not slaves)
♠ Promotion in administrative positions is open to people from all social classes ♣ present ♥
♠ Education is available to people from all social classes ♣ present ♥ [516]
♠ Property can be owned by people from all social classes ♣ present ♥
Discrimination on the basis of ethnicity/race
♠ Bureaucratic positions are open to people from all ethnic/racial groups ♣ present ♥
♠ Promotion in administrative positions is open to people from all ethnic/racial groups ♣ present ♥
♠ Education is available to people from all ethnic/racial groups ♣ absent ♥ [517]
♠ Property can be owned by people from all ethnic/racial groups ♣ present ♥
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Social Mobility
Status
Elite status
♠ elite status is hereditary ♣ present ♥
♠ elite status is selected ♣ absent ♥ But elite status can be 'earned' through success (military or economic); for instance the novus homo (new man)
♠ formal system of hereditary social status ♣ present ♥
♠ social mobility ♣ present ♥ e.g. the novus homo (new man) referred to someone from the lower classes with no family history of prominence attaining an elite
political, economic, or social position (e.g. Cicero) [518]
♠ recruitment of chief executive ♣ lower ♥ e.g. Emperor Vespasian was from a non-elite family
♠ extreme status elevation ♣ present ♥ e.g. Emperors (Vespasian, Septimius Severus); other notables (e.g. the poet Horace)
♠ extreme status diminution ♣ present ♥
♠ occupational mobility ♣ present ♥ [519]
Slavery
♠ Proportion of population enslaved ♣ 7-15 ♥ % of the population of the Empire[520] [521]
♠ Proportion of population enserfed ♣ 0 ♥
Types [522]
♠ Chattel slavery ♣ present ♥
♠ Elite slavery ♣ present ♥
♠ Bonded serfdom ♣ absent ♥
♠ Corvée labor to a landowner ♣ present ♥ e.g. in terms of Mancian tenancy[523]
♠ Corvée labor to the state ♣ absent; present ♥ some municipalities could compel citizens to perform work in extraordinary circumstances, e.g. to repair
public works (irrigation, etc.) (cf. Lex Irnitana town charter). But in normal practice the state during this period did not extract labor from its citizens. NB: not
sure whether to code this present, since there are instances of labor duties given to the state, or absent, since this was not the normal procedure (DH)
Restraints [524]
♠ Owners can execute slaves ♣ present ♥
♠ Owners can impose corporeal punishment on slaves ♣ present ♥
♠ Corporeal punishment by the state ♣ present ♥
Human sacrifice
♠ Prisoners ♣ absent ♥
♠ Low social class ♣absent ♥
♠ Elites ♣ absent ♥
♠ Retainers ♣ absent ♥
♠ Outsiders ♣ absent ♥
Religion
Deification of Rulers
(cf. Price 1986; Scheid 2011)
♠ Rulers control supernatural energy ♣ absent ♥
♠ Rulers are descendants of gods ♣ present ♥
♠ Rulers become gods after death ♣ present ♥
♠ Automatic deification ♣ absent ♥ deification was an honor bestowed by a ruler (or ruler's family, especially the wife of an Emperor e.g. Livia)
♠ Rulers are legitimated by gods ♣ absent ♥ Was religious aspect to imperial rule (Emperor's were typically priests, made sacrifices, etc.) but the individual;
Emperor's rule was not generally seen as ordained by gods
Religious Aspects of Equity and Prosociality
♠ Religious reinforcement of equality ♣ absent ♥ Was no single, coherent religious system; no sense in the main line of religious thought (Greco-Roman cult
system) of equality. Were calls for equality in the religious subcultures (Stoicism, Epicureanism, Christianity, etc.)[525] [526]
♠ Religious thought equates rulers and commoners ♣ absent ♥
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♠ Religious thought equates elites and commoners ♣ absent ♥
♠ Religious thought equates all ethnicities ♣ absent ♥
♠ Religious thought equates men and women ♣ absent ♥
♠ Religious thought equates people of all locations ♣ absent ♥ Clear that Romans understood different areas as having different religious practices,
though these practices were often incorporated into the official 'Roman religion' as the area became incorporated politically into the Empire
♠ Religious reinforcement of inequality ♣ present ♥ activities and memberships in various cults "very closely reflects the larger society, both in the way it was
structured and in the ways the members of the group function together," including social hierarchies[527]
♠ Religious reinforcement of monogamy ♣ absent ♥ Roman monogamy more of a legal than a religious matter
Religious arguments about slavery and sacrifice
♠ Doctrine forbids slavery for co-ethnics ♣ absent ♥ [528]
♠ Doctrine forbids slavery for co-religionists ♣ absent ♥
♠ Doctrine forbids slavery universally ♣ absent ♥
♠ Doctrine forbids human sacrifice for co-ethnics ♣ absent ♥ Human sacrifice was forbidden by Rome, but as a legal matter; unclear if religious doctrine,
such as it was, had anything to say on the matter of human sacrifice specifically
♠ Doctrine forbids human sacrifice for co-religionists ♣ absent ♥
♠ Doctrine forbids human sacrifice universally ♣ absent ♥
♠ Religious thought reinforces prosociality ♣ absent ♥ the main, public Roman religion (series of cults) seems not to have been concerned with prosociality;
though Roman social custom certainly did promote prosocial behavior (see below)[529]. Cult activity, however, was considered 'for the public good,'[530] but ritual
specialists were for the most part officials of the state, rather than people 'volunteering' their labor for altruistic motives (even if the officials weren't always paid
directly by the state)
♠ charity ♣ absent ♥
♠ production of pubic goods ♣ absent ♥
♠ communal dining ♣ present ♥ many sacrifices and other rituals involved communal feasting[531]
♠ morality ♣ present ♥ was a moral character to much of the Roman religious life, and many Roman authors discussed morality, extolling virtues of piety,
loyalty, duty, etc. Explicit doctrinal statements concerning moral behavior are rare. The activity of Roman cult though can be seen as moral instruction: "Cult
activity, properly understood, was a means of moral improvement"[532]
Religious morality
♠ Omniscient supernatural beings ♣ present ♥
Form of Morality
♠ care/harm ♣ inferred absent ♥ Roman religious practice did not seem to have explicit statements or doctrine about moral behavior; many of these traits
were supported by social/cultural norms, but not clear that they had a specifically religious dimension (though hard to distinguish religious from other
cultural norms)
♠ fairness/cheating ♣ inferred absent ♥
♠ in-group loyalty ♣ inferred absent ♥
♠ respect for authority ♣ present ♥ Imperial cult in particular emphasized the divine nature of the Emperor and reinforced loyalty and respect for his
authority; this cult however was not practiced equally throughout the Empire (mainly popular in Greek-speaking East and parts of Africa)
♠ purity ♣ inferred absent ♥
♠ kinship ♣ inferred absent ♥
♠ bravery ♣ inferred absent ♥
♠ respect for property ♣ inferred absent ♥
♠ Moralistic punishment by supernatural beings ♣ present ♥ [533]
Type of punishment this typically entailed (can be more than one):
♠ physical punishment ♣ present ♥
♠ exile ♣ absent ♥
♠ loss/seizure of property or wealth ♣ present ♥ good fortune (governing economic success) could be reversed through divine will
♠ loss of status ♣ absent ♥
Extent of punishment (can be more than one):
♠ punishment of rulers ♣ absent ♥
♠ punishment of elites ♣ present ♥
♠ punishment of commoners ♣ present ♥
Well-Being
Economic Well-Being
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State Intervention in Economy
♠ The state regulates banking ♣ absent ♥ [534] [535]
♠ Price controls ♣ absent ♥ although were rare / isolated instances of the state intervening in function of price-setting markets, e.g. in AD 19 Tiberius
placed a price ceiling on grain and offered to compensate merchants two HS per modius [536]
♠ Regulations against hoarding/stockpiling goods ♣ absent ♥
♠ Regulations regarding usury ♣ present ♥ were limits on interest that could be charged on privat loans [537] [538]
♠ Debt-relief measures ♣ present ♥ rare, but are attested e.g. during debt crisis of 14 CE under Tiberius[539]
♠ Pensions ♣ absent ♥
♠ Standardization of weights/measures ♣ present ♥
♠ Guarantee stability of coin value ♣ present ♥ coins were stamped with images showing they were produced by the official state mint and acting as a
guarantee of value<re>(Harl 1996)</ref>
♠ Public markets ♣ present ♥
Contracts
♠ State enforcement ♣ present ♥ [540]
♠ Non-state enforcement ♣ absent ♥
♠ Corporate Agency ♣ present ♥ towns could be parties in legal disputes (particularly over 'contracts' involving bequests); corporate partnerships
(societas) such as a trade guild (collegium) or business venture (tax-collecting firms, associates funding trade of goods, etc.) were legal entities [541] [542]
[543]
♠ State contracting ♣ present ♥ [544]
♠ Limited Liability ♣ present ♥ in a relatively underdeveloped form, Roman law had concept of restricted liability when agents of principals were
involved ("actiones adiecticiae qualitatis"). According to Kehoe and Frier: "These actions did not create “agency” in the Roman economy, but they surely
facilitated the employment of agents in increasingly complex business arrangements by defining the rights of third parties who contracted with agents as well
as the liabilities of the principals who employed them. In as much as the actiones adiecticiae qualitatis limited the liability of principals, in all likelihood they
were developed with a view to the interests of members of the Roman elite."[545]
Patronage [546]
♠ within-class formal patronage ♣ present ♥
♠ between-class formal patronage ♣ present ♥
♠ within-class informal patronage ♣ present ♥
♠ between-class informal patronage ♣ present ♥
Public Goods
♠ Famine relief ♣ present ♥
♠ provision of famine relief ♣ mixed ♥ state and individual benefactors known to have provided free or below-market price food during times of
turmoil[547]
♠ Food storage ♣ present ♥
♠ provision of food storage ♣ state ♥ imperial warehouses known from throughout Empire, especially connected with free grain distribution in Rome
(annona), but other goods and areas benefited as well[548]
♠ Alimentary supplementation ♣ present ♥
♠ provision of alimentary supplementation ♣ mixed ♥ both state (e/g/ the annona) and individual benefactors supplied foodstuff[549] [550]
♠ Drinking water ♣ present ♥
♠ provision of drinking water ♣ state ♥ [551]
♠ Irrigation works ♣ present ♥ [552] [553]
♠ provision of irrigation works ♣ mixed ♥ state and non-state (private individuals) known. Roman period saw increase in private provision of irrigation
works, commensurate with increase in private property relative to public or temple estates compared with earlier periods[554]
♠ Health infrastructure ♣ absent ♥ were physicians and areas for healing, especially spa-like treatment areas (e.g. Aesclepeion on Tiber Island in Rome), but
does not seem to be clear evidence for hospitals or other facilities focused on health care provision
♠ Control of infectious disease ♣ absent ♥
♠ Care of war invalids/veterans ♣ absent ♥
♠ Care of orphans ♣ present ♥ are several examples of funds put in place to care of orphans in a given community (e.g. the alimentary scheme providing
money to orphans in Veleia, Italy under Emperor Trajan)[555]
♠ Care of elderly ♣ absent ♥
♠ State pensions for elites ♣ absent ♥
♠ State pensions for non-elites ♣ absent ♥
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Entertainment and Knowledge Well-Being
♠ Funding for festivals ♣ present ♥
♠ Entertainment buildings ♣ present ♥
♠ Theatres ♣ present ♥
♠ Arenas ♣ present ♥
♠ Ritual buildings/spaces ♣ present ♥
♠ Other ♣ present ♥ porticoes, public courtyards, market squares (forum) common in urban areas throughout the Empire, site of much entertainment in the
form of street performers, orations, etc.
♠ accessibility of entertainment buildings ♣ general population ♥
♠ Full-time entertainment specialists ♣ present ♥
♠ status of full-time entertainment specialists ♣ lower ♥ [556]
♠ Access to education ♣ all people ♥ though elite males were certainly more commonly educated, and received greater higher education than others, education
was open to all people[557]
♠ Publically funded or subsidized education ♣ absent ♥
♠ Schools for children? ♣ present ♥ most primary education took place in homes, but groups of children being educated known[558] [559]
♠ Universities, “proto-universities”, or other higher education ♣ present ♥ though informal (i.e. not in established, institutionalized buildings, but was a
system of higher education among elite males, especially in judicial / rhetorical matters[560] [561]
♠ Libraries ♣ present ♥
♠ Museums ♣ present ♥
♠ Literacy rate ♣ 5-20 ♥ percent. Range from various estimates put forward for overall, Empire-wide literacy[562]
Biological Well-Being
Mortality
♠ Life expectancy ♣ 25-30 ♥ years from birth. Best estimate of life expectancy from little demographic evidence that survives[563]
♠ Infant mortality ♣ 40 ♥ very crude estimate of people dying before age 5, based on standard life-tables of population with overall mean life expectancy
in 20s-30s[564]
Disease
♠ Endemic disease ♣ present ♥ high regional variation, but endemic disease in some areas –malaria, etc.[565]
♠ Disease outbreaks ♣ present ♥ e.g. Antonine plague[566]
♠ Endemic malnutrition ♣ present ♥ " Widespread evidence of deficiency disease as indicated by stress markers on bones and teeth clearly point to a high
incidence of low nutritional status"[567] But Scheidel concludes that such low overall nutrition probably was not the decisive factor in overall health
Physiology
♠ Average height (male) ♣ 1.64 ♥ m. Mean height of males in central Italy, based on skeletal evidence[568]
♠ Average height (female) ♣ 1.55 ♥ m. mean height of Herculaneum female skeletons[569]
cf Pilkington "Growing Up Roman: Infant Mortality and Reproductive Development", Journal of Interdisciplinary History, xliv:1 (Summer, 2013), 1–
35 for recent work on heights
Prosocial Behavior
♠ Volunteering ♣ absent ♥ most prosocial activity involved spending resources (usually money), rather than volunteering time or labor
♠ Charity ♣ present ♥ But was considered essential part of social responsibility for Roman elite, and was a way of establishing networks and acquiring social
capital (so not entirely altruistic)[570] [571] [572]
Voluntary Associations
♠ voluntary trade associations ♣ present ♥ collegia [573] [574]
♠ prestige of voluntary trade associations ♣ lower ♥
♠ voluntary community organizations ♣ present ♥ e.g. funerary clubs, sports clubs (chariot racing)[575] Also particular religious associations (Isis cult,
Asclepius cults, etc.)[576] Civic organizations (gymnasia) were voluntary, although membership was restricted [577]
♠ prestige of voluntary community organizations ♣ lower ♥
♠ voluntary athletic clubs ♣ present ♥
♠ prestige of voluntary athletic clubs organizations ♣ lower ♥
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♠ other voluntary organizations ♣ ♥
♠ prestige of other voluntary organizations ♣ ♥
♠ voluntary religious associations ♣ present ♥ e.g. cult of Isis, Serapis, Imperial cult[578]
♠ prestige of voluntary religious associations ♣ lower ♥
Economy variables (polity-level)
State Income
♠ Tribute ♣ present ♥ tribute received by state from vassal kingdoms (e.g. Judaea before late first c ce)[579]
♠ Staple ♣ present ♥ [580] [581]
♠ Labor ♣ absent ♥
♠ Currency ♣ present ♥[582] [583]
Debt and Indemnities
♠ Polity has obligation to other polity or group ♣ absent:31 bce-215 ce; present: 215-284 ce ♥ by mid third c ce, if not before, Rome was making
regular payments to frontier tribes, particularly in NW Europe, to not raid Roman territory and to attack other tribes hostile to Rome[584]
♠ Polity receives obligatory payment from other polity or group ♣ present ♥ tribute and indemnities received by state from conquered or rebellious
groups[585]
Taxation
♠ Degree of taxation ♣ 10-20 ♥ percent of GDP. Most compelling and common figure among many estimates[586] tax rates of 1/5 known from some provinces in
East[587]. Duties in frontier zones (i.e. customs on international trade) were higher, around 25 percent of the goods' worth [588].
GDP of Roman Empire has various estimates: 10-12 billion sestercii (Temin)
Jongmann: "The National Income of the early Roman empire (i.e. per capita incomes multiplied by the number of inhabitants of the empire) was indubitably higher
than for any pre-industrial European state up to the Industrial Revolution... the best estimates seem to converge at a total for early imperial public expendi- ture
(military and other) of some 700–900 million sesterces" [589]
Taxes are imposed on: [590] [591] [592]
♠ Land ♣ present ♥
♠ Property ♣ present ♥
♠ People ♣ present ♥
♠ Trade ♣ present ♥ custom dues known at high rates for international trade (25 percent), but lower for domestic trade[593]
♠ Income ♣ present ♥ occupational taxes known from Egypt (likely also elsewhere)[594]
♠ Production ♣ present ♥ e.g. salt tax, pork tax, and 'license fees' for breweries attested in Egypt[595]
Taxes are imposed by:
♠ executive or ruling elite ♣ absent ♥
♠ local elites ♣ present ♥ tax-farming nearly eliminated by Augustus, but seems to have continued at much reduced rate compared to earlier period[596].
Public contracting of municipal taxes seems to be referenced in lex Irnitana (Flavian period town charter, late first c CE)[597]
♠ state officials ♣ present ♥
Type of taxes paid:
♠ Staple ♣ present ♥
♠ Labor ♣ absent ♥
♠ Currency ♣ present ♥
Wages and Costs
♠ Wages ♣ 225:31 bce-83 ce; 300:84-194 ce; 400:195-214 ce; 600: 215-284 ce ♥ denarii per year for legionary soldier [598]
Pompei evidence shows hired laborers earned 5-16 asses per day for seasonal work. As was small bronze coin, worth 1/16 of a silver denarius
regular farm laborers in Egypt earned ca. 750 drachmae per year (assuming year-round work, although in reality farm work was seasonal). Annual cost of
subsistence was around 420 drachmae[599]
Scheidel 2007: "daily wages of 1 denarius [per day] for a town scribe in Spain (ILS 6087.62), for the proverbial worker in the vineyard (NTMatt. 20) in the eastern
Mediterranean, and for a cistern supervisor in North Africa (AE 1925.103), and of 1 denarius plus bread for a worker in Pompeii (CIL 4.6877)" are attested[600]
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♠ staple cost of principal source of carbohydrates ♣ 1-1.5 ♥ denarii for 1 modius (8.4L) of wheat, though price fluctuated over time and varied by region[601]
[602] [603].
Estimated that an adult male needed ca. 30-60 modii of grain per year for subsistence-level (although 60 may be a 'comfortable' living) caloric
intake[604]
♠ Top fortune ♣ 400 ♥ million sestercii (Gn. C. Lentulus, died 25 CE)[605]. Senatorial class required property qualification of 1,000,000 sestercii. For the last
century of the Republic, thresholds of HS100,000 for the first class, HS75,000 for the second, HS50,000 for the third, HS20,000 for the fourth, and as little as
HS375 for the fifth.[606]
♠ Other wealth distribution ♣ 0.435 ♥ gini coefficient reconstruction for Italy, based on best evidence available. "Richard Duncan-Jones was able to calculate
Gini coefficients for a variety of samples, ranging from 0.394 at Volcei in Italy to 0.679 at Magnesia in Asia Minor, most of the datasets are vitiated by serious
inadequacies. The most complete list, the alimentary register of Ligures Baebiani, gives a low Gini of 0.435"[607]
general notes:
Scheidel 2006: "The total number of honestiores was relatively small: the three ordines consisted of at least 350,000 but probably not more than 500,000
individuals (including family members), and there cannot have been many more than 100,000 veterans. Together, these groups accounted for approximately 1 per
cent of the population of the empire.6 In the eyes of the government, the other 99 per cent of the population may have been ‘humble’, but they can hardly all have
been of modest means. More than anything else, the inclusion of veterans among the honestiores leaves no doubt that this group cannot have constituted a
homogeneous economic class. Needless to say, the late Roman separation of potentiores from tenuiores that banished lesser decurions and veterans from the ranks
of the formal elite was even less suitable as a meaningful marker of economic graduations… if we stick, again very conservatively, to 40,000 first-class citizens and
assume schematically that each of the remaining classes was one and a half times as large as the next-higher one, we get 60,000 members of the second class,
90,000 of the third, 135,000 of the fourth, 200,000 of the fifth, and 615,000 almost or completely propertyless citizens. This model produces 225,000 third- and
fourth-class households, out of a total of about 1.15 million households with 4 million citizens…. I conclude that there is sufficient evidence in support of the
notion of an economic continuum from a narrow elite to a steadily broadening middling group as we move down the resource ladder. Sources ranging from
Republican Italy to imperial Egypt and Syria all point in the same direction. It is perfectly possible to reconcile the dominance of a disproportionately affluent elite
with the presence of a substantial ‘middle’."
Scheidel 2007: " Taken together, all these features clearly demonstrate considerable extensive economic growth in this period and, in view of Italy's dominant
position in this process and its demographic development, are strongly indicative of significant mean per capita growth in this region. At the same time, the
distribution of benefits remains obscure. On the one hand, numerous records of palatial mansions and lavishly endowed country estates, the accumulation and
conspicuous consumption of luxury items, soaring property prices at the high end of the housing market, and the growth of slave retinues leave no doubt that the
top tier of Roman society became vastly richer than it had been before, and make it at the very least highly likely that its members derived disproportionately large
profits from empire. On the other hand, the character, scale and distribution of corresponding benefits for sub-elite groups remain largely impervious to
investigation. Most importantly, our evidence does not permit an empirical assessment of real incomes."
Lo Cascio 2008: "It is a widely held view that the majority of the population went on living at subsistence level. Nobody will dispute that distribution of income
was disproportionately unequal, even if not all will agree that 'elites successfully manipulated their various situations to the detriment of others (especially non
elites) in order to monopolize an inordinate share of existing benefits.'"
Roman Egypt - A fiscal register of private landholdings at the Arsinoite village of Philadelphia in ad 216/7, in which 15 out of 197 landowners are categorized as
elite outsiders, appears to show a relatively equal distribution of arable land with a Gini index of 0.532. Tax reports of ad 308/9 from nearby Karanis, after some
padding out of gaps, produce a Gini index for private landholding of 0.478.[608]
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↑ M. Beard, J. North and S. Price, Religions of Rome, vol. 1: A History (1998), pp. 262-263
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128
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↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-134
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↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
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↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-134
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↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
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↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 132-133
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-134
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 138-140
↑ M. Beard, J. North and S. Price, Religions of Rome, vol. 1: A History (1998), pp. 262
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
↑ G.S. Aldrete, Daily Life in the Roman City (2004), pp. 128-140
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ M. Beard, J. North and S. Price, Religions of Rome, vol. 1: A History (1998), p. 324
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ M. Beard, J. North and S. Price, Religions of Rome, vol. 1: A History (1998), p. 324
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ J. Moralee, For Salvation's Sake: Provincial Loyalty, Personal Religion, and Epigraphic Production in the Roman and Late Antique Near East (2004), p. 21
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), p. 299
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↑ M. Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire (2009), p. 576
↑ M. Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire (2009), p. 576
↑ M. Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire (2009), p. 576
↑ M. Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire (2009), p. 576
↑ M. Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire (2009), p. 576
↑ M. Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire (2009), p. 576
↑ M. Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire (2009), p. 576
↑ M. Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire (2009), p. 576
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↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
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↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007), p. 8
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
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↑ M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007)
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
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↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
↑ M.W. Meyer, The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts (1999), pp. 113-114
↑ L. Adkins and R.A. Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (1994), pp. 288-289
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↑ (Norena 2010)
↑ (Norena 2010)
↑ (Norena 2010)
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↑ (Harris 2010)
↑ (Harris 2010)
↑ (Norena 2010)
↑ (Millar 1977)
↑ (Harris 2010)
↑ (Harris 2010, 716)
↑ (Gordon 2003)
↑ (Ando 2003, 58)
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