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An Introduction to Ancient Greece Before we begin… “Civilization” refers to the point at which human societies organized and took root around certain spots. This stopped the tradition of nomadic hunting and gathering as people converted to an agricultural lifestyle (which means that they would grow and raise their food instead of going out and looking for it). Early stone arrowhead Civilization It is thought that the six earliest civilizations around the world were Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus, Shang (or Yellow River valley), Mesoamerica and Andean South America. However, these all have different dates attached to them. Some date back as many as 9000 or 10 000 years ago, while others are as recent as 3500 years ago. The “Fertile Crescent” of Mesopotamia Civilization, cont’d The reasons for the differences are many, but geography is important (the right climate to grow and raise food) as is having the right animals around (some are more easily tamed than others to do work and stay put). Teotihuacan, in Central America Geography is also important when it comes to living conditions and exposure to others. Areas close to lakes and rivers supplied constant water to facilitate agriculture, and being surrounded by mountains or water would protect a civilization from invaders. A regular climate would include seasonal changes that humans can survive as well as regular rainfall. Places that had all of these features were ideal for humans to settle. Civilization cont’d When humans started living in one place, development quickly followed – stone buildings, irrigation, and more importantly, organization. That means everything from government to infrastructure (roads, sewers, etc.) to special jobs (carpenter, stone mason, blacksmith, etc.). Thus, civilization was born… Ancient Greece Ancient Greece is considered by many historians to be the birthplace of modern “western” civilization (that of a European tradition). Statue of the Greek God, Zeus That’s not to say there weren’t others that were important (Ancient Egypt, for example, was very important, and likely taught the Greeks a thing or two), but the traditions of government, science, philosophy and architecture (just to name a few) that Europe and many other societies around the world have today can all be traced back more than 3000 years ago to Ancient Greece. When was “Ancient Greece?” Ancient Greece refers to the time period beginning in 2500 BCE with the Minoan civilization up to about 86 BCE with the full conquest of Greece by the Roman Empire. However, the really important period in Ancient Greece can be narrowed to between 800 BCE (development of Greek Alphabet) to 350 BCE (when the Macedonian Empire would eclipse Greece). A Minoan Fresco A Mosaic of Alexander the Great Geography and Greece Geography played an important role in the development of ancient Greek societies. Much of Greece is made up of small plains and river regions among mountains (80% of Greece is mountainous). The rest is comprised of small islands. Map of Ancient Greece Geography and Greece, cont’d Mountains and islands isolated Greek societies, and despite common religions, languages and traditions (spread through trade and colonization), Greek city-states were very independent. This took their development along different paths and also caused them to war with one another. Mount Olympus, close to Thessaloniki Minoan Civilization (2500-1450 BCE) While technically not a Greek City-State, the Minoan civilization of Crete (big island south of the Greek mainland) was a pre-cursor to Ancient Greek society. Many Greek societies were influenced by the developments of the Minoans. Minoan Civilization, cont’d The Minoan civilization reached its height between 2000 and 1450 BCE. This was indeed a developed society, as a grand palace built at Knossos reveals a complex structure, containing private rooms for the King’s family and elaborate bathrooms (with evidence of drainage and sewage systems that were fairly advanced). Ruins of the palace at Knossos Minoan Civilization, cont’d The Minoans also had advanced pottery and artistry, which they traded with other societies. Minoan jug circa 2000 BCE Indeed, Minoa was a seafaring trading power above all else, and their influence was felt throughout the Aegean sea, and even in Egypt. Minoan vase circa 1500 BCE Minoan Civilization, cont’d No one knows exactly why the Minoan civilization collapsed, but some sort of catastrophe hit around 1450 BCE. After that, the Minoans never recovered and their society all but disappeared as a new power emerged… A Minoan fresco, possibly depicting 3 Queens, shortly before Minoa’s collapse. Mycenae: The First Greek City-State (16001100 BCE) Supposedly first ruled by the legendary Perseus, Mycenae was a fortified city-state on the Greek mainland (near Athens) and was the first proper Greek city-state. Unlike Minoa, the Mycenaeans were Indo-Europeans and spoke a language closer to modern Greek. The Mycenaeans established a kind of empire, with kings who established fortified towns forming an alliance of independent states. At the head of this alliance was a “king of kings” – the most famous being Agamemnon. “The Mask of Agamemnon” discovered in 1876 Mycenae, cont’d The Mycenaeans were a proud warrior people, and the most famous of their military exploits was the destruction of Troy, made famous by the Greek poet, Homer (although he wrote the “history” a few hundred years after it happened). Led by Agamemnon, a force of Mycenaean Greeks attacked the city of Troy, later destroying it after invading the city secretly by way of the “Trojan Horse.” A triumphant Achilles parades the body of the defeated Hector Mycenae, cont’d Unfortunately for the Mycenaeans, their success was shortlived, as in-fighting and competition between kings led to a collapse of their civilization in about 1100 BCE, ushering in a period known as the “Dark Ages” of Ancient Greece. It’s important to note the rivalry between Troy and Mycenae here. Troy was on the west coast of what is now Turkey, and after the Trojan War, Greek settlements actually took root in this area, known as “Ionia.” Depiction of the death of Agamemnon The Dark Ages of Ancient Greece (1100750 BCE) After the collapse of Mycenae, food production and population dropped in many Greek citystates. Some kingdoms fell into ruin and were abandoned. In response, many Greeks migrated to Ionia and constructed new settlements there. As trade and economic activity started to recover, technology developed and Iron replaced Bronze as the metal of choice. Map of settlements in the Dark Age of Greece The Dark Ages, cont’d It’s not really accurate to call them “The Dark Ages” (this term is falling out of favour with historians, anyway). Actually, a number of important developments happened. Trade and “colonization” expanded, technology progressed and the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet to give themselves a unified system of writing. This was also the time of the great poet Homer, who wrote The Iliad and The Odyssey. No, not that guy… This guy! The Archaic Age of Ancient Greece (750500 BCE) The Archaic Age is also known as the age of the Greek City-States, as it was during this time that a great number of powerful city-states emerged that would advance Greek society across the Aegean, and would also lead to an outward expansion across the area, putting Greece face-to-face with the Persian Empire. A Greek vase from about 750 BCE. Notice the geometric patterns, not found on vases previously. The Archaic Age, cont’d One of the most important advances of the Archaic Age was the development of the polis. While “polis” could simply be seen as a fancy word for city-state (it literally means “city”), it really is more of a collective. Greeks began to see themselves as members, or citizens of a polis, rather than simply subjects in a kingdom. Indeed, it is from “polis” that we get the modern word “politics.” The Archaic Age, cont’d Geography was once again an important part of the polis, as the main gathering place was a hill, which in some cases had an acropolis (the most famous one being in Athens). The acropolis could be fortified to become a refuge during an attack, and it could also be an important religious centre, on which temples were built. Below the acropolis was an agora, an open area where people could assemble, as well as serving as a market. The Acropolis of Athens The Archaic Age, cont’d The city-states also traded with each other (friendly) and went to war with each other (not-so-friendly). Thus, both economic and military developments occurred during the Archaic Age. The most significant military development was the phalanx, which arranged soldiers in a kind of “human tank” with shields to guard against spear and arrow attacks. As long as it remained organized, it was a very effective tactic, as it was difficult for soldiers to be harmed while in formation. The Phalanx The Archaic Age, cont’d The city-states’ military development led to an outward spreading of Greek culture (in the form of colonisation) across the Mediterranean to Turkey (Ionia), Italy, southern France and Spain, and even North Africa. Greece’s newfound wealth also led to a new wealthy class of merchants, who were intent on seizing power from aristocratic rich land-owners. This would usher in the rule of the tyrants. The Archaic Age, cont’d The tyrants were not automatically bad. After gaining control of city-state governments (through hired soldiers) many wanted to maintain their popularity with citizens by embarking on public works projects (like walls, temples, roads and ports). This worked for a while, but eventually many tyrants did become oppressive, and the Greeks ousted them from power by around 600 BCE. The Greeks believed in the rule of law, and tyrants, no matter how effective, were an affront to this. However, the tyrants rule had a profound legacy, as some city-states evolved from tyrant rule to rule by group, or oligarchy, and others tried a new idea they called “democracy…” Athens By 700 BCE, Athens had become a unified polis, beginning with rule by a king but moving into control by wealthy landowners – the assembly of citizens had few powers. By the end of the 600s BCE, Athens had fallen into crisis. Draco, a politician, had codified Athenian law with harsh penalties attached for breaking them. Debtors could be forced into slavery. Many farmers were forced into slavery when they couldn’t pay their debts to landowners, and civil unrest was starting to brew. Cries came from the citizenry to give land to the poor and cancel debts. Statue of the goddess, Athena Athens, cont’d After a series of tyrants tried and failed to stabilize Athens, an aristocrat, Cleisthenes, finally put Athens in order by creating a council of 500 – male citizens who supervised foreign affairs, oversaw the treasury and proposed laws after free and open debate. Bust of Cleisthenes It was from this council that Athenian democracy was born. Sparta A counter-point to Athenian society was Sparta. Sparta was a military state made up of the Spartans and the helots (a word that means “capture” – the people of conquered tribes that the Spartans enslaved). Between 800 and 600 BCE, Spartan society underwent numerous reforms in an effort to strengthen its society and maintain Spartan superiority over the helots. Boys were taken from their mothers at the age of seven and put under control of the state, to become soldiers. At twenty, they were in the army, and although allowed to marry, they were to continue to live in military barracks. At thirty, they could vote in the assembly and live at home, but they remained in military service until the age of sixty. Sparta, cont’d The Spartan reforms also affected government, and although there was an assembly, Sparta was an oligarchy, with power resting in the hands of two kings, responsible for the military, and the gerousia, or council of elders. The gerousia consisted of 28 citizens over the age of sixty who were elected for life, and they prepared proposals for the assembly, or apella to vote on (no debate). Rarely did the apella reject a proposal from the gerousia, but it did elect the gerousia, along with a group of 5 men, the ephors, who supervised education for all youth and the conduct of all citizens. Sparta, cont’d To maintain “order,” Sparta discouraged the study of literature, philosophy and the arts (they might encourage new ideas) and visits by foreigners. Spartans were not allowed to travel abroad, except to conquer. In the 500s BCE, Sparta used its military power to organize an alliance of Peloponnesian city-states, and was a force to be reckoned with, having only Athens and her allies as a rival. Until someone else showed up in Greece… Statue of a Spartan Warrior Classical Greece 500 – 330 BCE Classical Greece is the period that saw the greatest developments and largest expansion of Greek society as a whole, but it started with a confrontation between the city states and a mammoth empire: Persia. As the Greeks spread across to Ionia, they came in contact with the Persian empire, and the Ionian states fell under Persian rule by the mid 500s BCE. In 499 BCE, the Ionian states banded together and, led by Athens, revolted against Persia. Persian Warriors Classical Greece, cont’d Though the revolt was crushed, the Persian Emperor, Darius, vowed revenge, and attacked mainland Greece in 490 BCE, in Marathon. However, the Greeks prevailed and the invasion was put down. This time… Map of the Persian Empire in 490 BCE Classical Greece, cont’d After the death of Darius in 486 BCE, the new emperor, Xerxes, picked up the torch. He led a massive force into Greece – 180 000 troops, backed by a navy and supply ships. However, Xerxes had not counted on the determination of the Greeks, and after a massive battle at Plataea, which saw the largest united Greek army ever gathered, the Persians were utterly defeated and the Greeks were free to pursue their own destiny. Depiction of Persian and Greek Warriors Classical Greece, cont’d After the repulsion of the Persians, Greek society flourished, and it was during this time that great achievements in architecture, such as the Parthenon of Athens (about 440 BCE), and achievements in art, such as Greek sculpture and drama (Sophocles) were seen. This age also saw the growth of intellectual pursuits, as Herodotus and Thucydides wrote histories which emphasized facts (more so for Thucydides) and Socrates, Plato and Aristotle established philosophy. Others, such as Pythagoras, looked for unifying theories to explain the universe, giving birth to Mathematics. The Parthenon Classical Greece, cont’d Unfortunately, without a foreign rival to unify them, the expansion of the citystates ultimately led to war. Athens emerged during the Classical period with a strong empire based on its navy, but they were rivaled by Sparta with its powerful army. The two societies were organized in very different ways and neither were tolerant of the other - the two soon went to war. Actually, Athens and Sparta (and their allies) went to war a few times, in what were called the “Peloponnesian Wars.” Neither side would emerge in decisive victory, and the weakening of the citystates led to its vulnerability to a new empire building in the north. Map showing Alliances of the Peloponnesian War Hellenistic Greece 360 – 320 BCE The word “Hellenistic” means “to imitate Greeks,” and that’s what much of the world did when the Greeks would be unified again and actually march into Persia, conquering it. It’s an irony, though, that this was achieve by someone who wasn’t Greek – Alexander the Great. Alexander being tutored by Aristotle Hellenistic Greece, cont’d Alexander was the son of Philip of Macedon. The Macedonians were a group of people who lived north of the major Greek city-states, but started to get powerful under Philip, as they organized themselves under a strong army when the Greek citystates were fighting among themselves. Alexander, while Macedonian, thought of himself as Greek. He claimed to be a descendant of Heracles (A.K.A. “Hercules”) and wanted vengeance against Persia for their invasion of the Greek mainland. Statue of Alexander Hellenistic Greece, cont’d He led a huge force past Ionia into Persia and pushed as far as India. In the end, he both unified the Greeks and also established one of the largest empires in history. Sadly (for him) it didn’t last long. He died at the young age of 32, and Greek forces were so stretched that they became vulnerable again to another foreign force: Rome. His legacy, however, was far-reaching, as Greek literature, art and thought were expanded far past the Mediterranean, and Greek culture itself was transformed by coming into contact with others. Alexander’s empire Conclusion Can one speak of a unified Greek nation, then? Was Ancient Greece an example of an early nation? Certainly, the Greeks went past tribalism into something new: citizenship. The Greek city-state unified people and created a new sense of identity that didn’t exist before, and many citystates shared cultural aspects in common (not to mention language, religion and art). However, most Greeks probably still thought of themselves as members of a tribe (Spartan) or small group (Athenian). It’s unclear then, if a truly “Greek” identity had emerged in a national sense. Thank you! If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact me via TpT or email me at: [email protected] If you have enjoyed the product, your positive feedback is greatly appreciated! 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