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Unit 1 Exploration
CHAPTER 6: ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
CHANGE 1450-1648
Economic Expansion and Innovation
 Emphasis on Humanism and Individualism created
desire to expand trade and eventually explore new
lands.
 In 1350 Europeans knew only what they had known
about the world for 1000 years- by 1650 it is all
different
 A true “global” economy transformed the social
order.
Commercial Revolution
 Europe has been an agricultural economy from fall of
Rome- during this time focus will begin to turn first
to trade, then to business- which will begin to create
the modern economy
 Invent modern business practices like bookkeeping,
banking and investment (stocks)
Hanseatic League
 Group of German states who formed a trade
federation during the middle ages.
 Early example of capitalism and business planning.
Population Increases, Food Prices, Urban Growth
• After downturn of Black Death, population began to
grow again in the 1400s- pop. Rose 50% between
1470-1620. Cities grew correspondingly (London
went from 50-200k)
• Food prices rose b/c agriculture didn’t grow as fast
as population ($$ to be made farming)
• Enclosures: Began in England. To make more $$,
landowners enclosed “common” lands so farming
would be more efficient. Pushed peasants off land,
moved to cities and became laborers
Price Revolution
 Between 1500-1700 there was a long slow period of
inflation (prices and wages) encouraged people to
get into business, and for countries to get into
trade
 Overall- standard of living in Western Europe
increases
 Putting Out System: Guilds often controlled trades
in towns. To get around them, entrepreneurs had
products made (in stages) at worker’s homes- they
were paid by piece.
Capitalism/Mercantilism
• Capitalism: Econ system based
on private ownership of property
and business that produces
goods to be sold in a free market
w/o gov’t intervention. Defined
by Adam Smith
• Mercantilism: Responsibility of
gov’t to create the best econ, they
should protect domestic business
through tariffs
• Joint Stock Co: Companies
formed by groups to minimize
risk (pop. For exploring) Often
used in Eng/Holland, where gov’t
encourage private exploration
and business (as opposed to
Sp/Fr which were absolutist)
• Bullionism: a country should
have as much gold on reserve as
possible
• Countries wanted a favorable
balance of trade (selling more
than they buy) Colonies will
become important for this as
sources of raw materials and
markets for finished goods
Technological Advances
• Before they could explore-
needed to improve sailing
techniques.
• Adapted foreign
inventions- like Compass
and Astrolabe.
• Redesigned ships (flat
bottom from Med.) to go in
deeper waters and to carry
cannon
• New Mercator projection
allowed more accurate
mapping
• Used Cross staff and
Quadrant to measure
latitude (as well as
astrolabe)
• Portuguese invented
Caravel: deep hulled ship
with both Lateen and
Square sails- good for
many types of waters. Has
a Axial (side) rudder
Expansion Overseas
• Europe has been interested in trade with Asia since Middle
Ages (Crusades, Marco Polo) but Ottomans control Silk
Road (and Italy controls Med. Trade with Ottoman) so they
work on a Sea Route to Asia. (never been done)
• Iberians 1st involved- they had issues with Islam, were close
to Atlantic- and all fired up from Reconquista and
unification of their country
Glory, God and Gold
 Motivations for
exploration. Believed
in the power of man,
had strong religious
fervor (esp. Spain)
and knew there was
$$ to be had from
treasure, and in the
long run from
successful trade
Portuguese
• Chased Muslims across straight of Gibraltar and
attacked Morocco in early 1400s. Saw wealth of
Sahara trade- wanted in.
• Prince Henry the Navigator- founded
navigation/sailing school, and funded exploration of
W. African coast.
• Bartholomew Dias 1488- rounded Cape
• Vasco di Gama 1497- reached India
Spanish
• Columbus says it’s faster
• Europeans assumed all
to go west to reach Asia.
Made 3 voyages- claimed
to have found Asia (died
thinking he had)
• Exploration a huge blow
to Italian economy
(cheaper to go straight to
sources) Econ/Political
decline of Italy begins
other civilizations were
inferior.
• Portuguese came to trade
(and go home) Spanish
came to claim and
conquer.
• Success came from
“Guns, Germs, and Steel”
Amerigo Vespucci
 1st to realize (out loud)
that Euro had found a
new world- NOT Asia.
Explored in Brazil
 Continent named for
him b/c he told
German Cartographer
he was first to reach
South America.
(actually Pedro Cabral
1500)
Bartholomew de la Casas
Vasco De Balboa
 1552 wrote
“brief account
of the the
destruction of
the Indies”
which
criticized
European
colonialism
and Columbus
 1513 First
European to
see Pacific
ocean (which
he named)
Claimed
central
America for
Spain
Treaty of Tordesillas
 1493
 Spain and Portugal fear bumping into each other during
exploration- go to Pope for mediation.
 Pope draws an imaginary line down a map of the world
(adjusted a few years later)
 Spain gets everything to the west: N/S America (except
Brazil- the adjustment) Orients them towards the
Americas- where they take over and introduce profound
change
 Portugal gets everything to east- Africa/India (and Brazil)
Did get to “claim all land” like Spain- but est. trade routes
were there. Less domination, more joining in the party.
Spanish Empire
 Had clear-cut “enemies”
civilizations to defeat and
dominate to control
territory.
 Cortez: Aztecs 1519 fast
defeat
 Pissarro: Inca 1532 fairly
slow to defeat
 Use treasure to buy
manufactured goods
rather than develop
industry, puts them
behind
 Actually more like
imperialism of 1800s –
conquer and subjugate
established civilizations.
 Colonies existed to serve
mother country
(mercantilism) in Spain’s
case- to produce treasure.
25% of kings income came
from mines of Peru.
 Divided territory into 4
“viceroyalties” New Spain,
Peru, La Plata, Columbia
Portuguese Empire
 No specific civilizations to defeat of conquer.
 Trade along Swahili coast, India, and Malaysia.
 Establish trade “forts’ (fortifications) to trade slaves,
gold, and other products
 Stay on coast- don’t go far inland.
 Less missionary (though they did try- Francis Xavier
in Asia) b/c it wasn’t generally effective with
Muslims and Hindus
Spanish Colonial Economy
 Native population decimated by European disease.
 Encomienda: Europeans claimed land, and the
people who lived on it as their serfs (but they die)
Begin to import slaves from Africa (works better)and becomes basis of agricultural econ in
Caribbean, Brazil et…(sugar)
 Peru was where the silver mines were- so a mining
econ there (still slave labor, but more native than
African) Mixed blessing- gave $$ caused inflationmade their ships targets for pirates
Society in Colonial Latin America
 Social division by Race (new thing for Europeans)
Sociodad de la Castas. Brought Patriarchal society
and imposed in on Americas
 Europeans- either peninsulare or Creole
 Mestizo (euro/native)
 Mulatto (Euro/African)
 Indian
 Slave (African)
Dutch, English and French Colonialization
• Econs already trade
based (esp. Dutch/Eng)
but protestant work ethic
drove them to work hard.
• Dutch followed
Portuguese into long
distance sea tradeMuslims liked them,
Calvinists aren’t
missionary- but they
used their guns to make
advantageous trade deals
• Excited by Iberian
success (especially
treasure- though other
Euros never really hit
that jackpot)
• Set up forts at “pinch
points” to control trade
routes. (focus on pacific
trade)
• Built Capetown in S.
Africa as a stopping point
Joint Stock Company
• Kings didn’t finance as
much for this 2nd wave
(France exception) done
more through private
enterprise.
• Dutch East/West India
Co
• British East/West India
Co
• Trade corporations-
became virtually law
unto themselves b/c they
had so much power
Exploring North America
• Britain: got a late start b/c of War of the Roses and Tudor
issues. Walter Raleigh went during reign of Elizabeth I
(lost colony of Roanoke, and Seadogs to steal Spanish
$$) Jamestown founded 1607, Plymouth 1620. British
colonies founded for econ/religious reasons, not
treasure/conquest.
• France: Sent Jacques Cartier to search for NW Passagedidn’t settle till later. Fur trade base of econ rather than
agriculture (too cold- Calvinists not allowed to go) Royal
colonies, but king not very involved
• Dutch: Not into big settlements. Bought Manhattan from
Indians and set up New Amsterdam, goes to English
1674.
Mercantilism
 Purpose of colonies is to help mother country.
Colonies supposed to provide raw materials (fur,
timber etc..) and a market for finished goods. Only
allowed to trade with mother country.
 Puts focus of newly created “global” econ on Europe.
Relations with Amerindians
• North American population relatively small and
localized. (semi-nomadic) Europeans generally
displaced rather than conquered.
• Native lifestyle dramatically changed with
introduction of horses and guns (esp for plains
Indians)
• Socially- not much mixing of Euro/native(indentured servitude and African Slavery)
Europeans recreated social world they knew. More
mobility- people came to colonies, worked hard, and
did well
Global Exchanges
 Sustained contact between
 For Europe- what they
East/West hemispheres
had profound impactBiologically and
commercially.
 World radically altered by
global networks of
exchange
find in new world will
bring improved diet,
increased wealth, and
global empires.
 For the new world- mostly
catastrophic
Slavery
 African slavery Introduced to European colonies by
the Portuguese in Brazil.
 Had never really been a part of European societycolonial slavery was unique in scope and scale. 60%
of pop. Of Brazil slave, 90% of population of
Caribbean.
Columbian Exchange
• Global diffusion of plants
and animals (hemispheres
had been out of touch for
millennium)
• From Americas (West)
• Beans, squash, tomato,
sweet potato, peanuts,
chilies, chocolate, corn,
potato, avocado, pineapple
• From Euro/Asia (East)
Wheat, Rice, sugar, olives,
grapes, coconuts, bananas,
horse, cow, citrus, melon,
sheep, goat, rabbit, rat.
• And disease….Smallpox,
typhus, measles, deadliest
for natives. America did
give Euro Syphilis and
Malaria. But food
improvements increased
pop. With time
Economic Crisis/Realignment
 Massive influx of silver to
 Population of Europe
Spain created high
inflation (2% a year)
Prices doubled in 50
years, quadrupled in 100.
 Add that to wars of
religion and you have
serious econ problems
grew from 1450-1650,
the dropped from 16501750.
 Cities continued to see
growth, farmers lost land
Social Changes
 Peasants still the largest segment of the population-
but not AS likely to be farming/rural.
Effects of Econ/War on Social Class
• A lot of change during this age…..
• Nobility was losing power to kings. Gentry/middle class
(called Bourgeoisie in France) growing in power prestige.
• Artisans losing influence to joint stock co, peasants
losing land to enclosure/inflation. Times hard for themlots of minor peasant uprisings.
• Demographic movement from country to cities
Education
 Reformation led to need for better educated clergy.
Growing commerce led to need for literate clerksand lawyers. Growing empires needed educated
bureaucrats
 All this created more schools, and better
opportunities- keys for social advancement. (at least
for men)
Family Life and Status of Women
• 1/5- ¼ of children born didn’t survive to grow up.
•
•
•
•
Childbirth the leading killer of women- 1 in 10
births fatal for mother. Average lifespan for men
27, for women 25. Husband head of the housewife his “helper
Bloodletting still common treatment
for illness.
During bad econ times people limited the
# of children- married later.
Sensuality characteristic of the era- voluptuous
women, muscular men.
Homosexuality mentioned in literature, prostitutes
common.
Witch Hunting
• Had always existed. 1550-
1648 the last great “burst”
100,000 arrest, 60,000
executed (mostly women)
• Linked to heresy- a result
of economic problems
(scapegoating)
• Almost as if they are
getting it out of their
system as they move
towards scientific
revolution
• Women considered
“weaker” then men, more
prone to temptation- they
represented 80% of
victims. Generally
unmarried (esp. unmarried
and in middle ageindependent women
automatically suspicious.)
Midwives most common
target.
Regional Economic and Social Variation
• 1550-1648 balance of economic power changed. Southern
Europe’s dominance declines- replaced by Northwest.
(Mediterranean trade down- Atlantic up)
• Spain starts hurting- not commercial based- and commerce is
what’s growing.
• Economic changes will be as impactful as ideas of
Renaissance/Reformation in changing lives. A transformation
of way things are done is beginning
• Eastern Europe- still feudal agricultural system. Nobles
benefitted from changes, Peasants did not.
Chapter 7: New Cultural and
Scientific Developments
1550-1648
Art and Literature
 Renaissance art was an explosion of new ideas-
which shifted into new area/forms as time period
continued
Art: Mannerism
 Reaction to Renaissance
 Concept was that high
art. During 1520-30s
artists deliberately
distorted renaissance
principles (like
perspective- mannerists
like to elongate) to convey
a message- often of stress
(anxiety/suffering) or
escape from reality.
 El Greco: used odd color
and effects to convey
message
renaissance had taken art
to “perfection”- couldn’t
be improved, so it went in
a new direction.
 Liked unnatural colors
and shapes
 Tintoretto: Venetian.
Used twisted poses and
compression of shape
 El Greco- worked in
Spain- shows their
moment of power
Baroque
 Originated in Italian
 Associated with the
states around 1600(named for baroque
pearls). Popular in RC
territories
 Meant to evoke passion
and mystery as opposed to
harmony. Used grandeur
(not simplicity) dramatic
color and shadingenergetic figures
 Peter Paul Rubens
 Artemisi Genti’leschi
Church and counter
reformation- sought to
overwhelm the viewerscreate a dramatic
experience.
 Popular with absolutist
kings as well church
 Caravaggio
 Diego Velasquez
Architecture/Sculpture
 Again, trying to create a
 Baroque architecture the
sense of grandeur.
Massive interiors of
palaces and popes filled
with sculptures and spiritlarger than life.
 Gian Lorenzo Berninifinished St. Peters. The
“throne of St. peter”
seems to hover in the air
surrounded by clouds and
angels
style of the great palacesVersailles, Schoenbrunn,
the Hermitage
 Bernini also did the
“Ecstasy of St. Theresa”
and fountains all over
Rome
Dutch Style
 Very different- influenced
 Intention was to be
by Protestantism
(specifically Calvinism)
Quiet works expressed
personal issues- like faith.
No royal court, chief
patrons were merchants
(lots of portraits)
 Rembrandt Van Rijn:
quintessential Dutch
painter- used light/dark,
detail and humanity in his
portraits (including his
own)
dignified- not overwhelm.
 This was the golden age of
Holland- and the art
reflects their love of
commerce and toleration
for secular issues.
 Jan Vermeer: Domestic
interior scenes
Literature
 Very much of its time- reflects the problems/issues
of Europe between 1550-1648. Valued knowledge
and education over brute strength of the warrior.
 There had been a big jump in literacy- more people
had access to more information than ever before.
Michel de Montaigne
 French noble- but he disapproved of
noble mindset of war/sport over intellect..
 Humanist- wanted to know himself, believed he
had to do that to live well.
 Developed Essay as a writing style-expressing his
thoughts/ideas. A Skeptic: expressed doubts that
total knowledge can ever be obtained.
 A break with the writers of the past- anticipated
the thoughts of the enlightenment
Miguel de Cervantes
 Spanish- very upset by what was going on in Spain
(Inquisition, forced expulsions/conversions)
 Don Quixote- a satire that ridiculed the noble
mindset and showed gap between ideals and
reality. Don Quixote himself sees only the idealdoesn’t recognize the real world, Sancho sees only
reality- doesn’t recognize ideal. Careful to avoid
politics- but commented on cruelty and hypocrisy
of humanity
William Shakespeare
 Elizabethan age was a
golden age of British
literature- esp. for
drama (1st time since
classical age where it has
been a major art form)
 Shakespeare’s plays
reflected the concerns of
his age- the nature of
power, the crisis of
authority, and the rise of
nationalism
 3 major “types” of plays



Dramas like: Romeo and
Juliet, Hamlet, Macbeth
or King Lear
Comedies like: The
Tempest, A Midsummer
Knight’s Dream, Much
Ado about Nothing, or The
Taming of the Shrew
Histories like: Julius
Caesar, Anthony and
Cleopatra, Richard III, or
Henry V
Scientific Revolution
 Growing humanistic/secular interest in world made
people want to understand the world.
 Took knowledge and theories from classical age to
new levels with direct observations. Believed in
power of human reason, reinforced changes in world
view from Renaissance and Reformation
Medieval View of the World
 Science had been
governed by religionscience=theology.
 Aristotle (really smartbut often wrong) was
the main expert- not
allowed to dispute
ideas which had been
accepted by the church
– like the earth is the
center of the universe
Causes of the Scientific Revolution
 Medieval universities included “Natural philosophy”
(science, math, astrology, physics) as a branch of
study. So many rediscovered classical ideas were
around- anxious to add on
 Navigational issues led to new needs and discoveries
(esp. in astrology)
 Creating a new world view which will profoundly
impact the world view of the 17th/18th century.
Astronomy
 1st “modern” science- 1st to question and prove beliefs
considered “infallible” wrong.
 Develop idea of working from empirical evidenceborrowed start from Muslims (Nasir-al-Din)
Nicholas Copernicus
 1473-1543
 Polish monk commissioned by pope to revise the
Julian Calendar (based on work of Ptolemy) which
said earth was the center of the universe. But
Copernicus’s calculations showed the earth was
moving.
 Wrote “On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres”
which described his findings, but didn’t publish
until dying, and didn’t LIKE that his work
questioned doctrine. Freaked people out- even
Luther and Calvin condemned
Tycho Brahe
• 1546-1601 Built a massive
observatory and collected
tons of data on universe.
Cornerstone of knowledge
for years- data backed
Copernicus. Irony was that
he began collecting data
because he didn’t like idea
of heliocentric theory
• Used the Copernican model
to develop comprehensive
more comprehensive
theories about the solar
system and universe overall
Geocentric vs. Heliocentric
• Geocentric: theory of
Aristotle and Ptolemy (330
bc, 200 ad) – the earth is
the center of the universe.
Accepted by churchtherefore infallible fact.
(which was logical to a
point- you can watch the
sun move…and if God
made the world, and gave it
his son…..)
• Heliocentric: theory of
Copernicus. The Sun and
stars don’t move- planets
move. Therefore the sun is
the center of the universe.
(don’t quite get whole
universe thing yet) Freaky
for people to think of
themselves as one piece of
an infinite- aren’t we
special?
Johannes Kepler
 Discovered that planets
move in ellipses.
Published as a young
man, got in plenty of hot
water
 First protestant scientist.
Proved Copernicus
mathematically,
developed 3 laws of
planetary motion.
(ellipses not constant
speed, closer to sun the
faster you go)
Galileo
• 1564-1642
• Invented telescope for
astronomy in 1609.
Confirmed Copernicusand wrote for general
audience- not just
scientists- made idea
widespread (wrote in
Italian)
• Forced to recant- his book
“the Starry Messenger” put
on Index of Forbidden
books
• Used newly developed
scientific method to verify
his work.
• Also studied gravity and
laws of inertia (object in
motion….)
Chemistry, Biology and Science
 Have defined elements or atoms yet- so that limits
them, but still there are significant discoveries made.
 Gunpowder an important practical improvement
(how to store more safely etc…)
Andreas Vesalius
 Book “Structure of the
Human Body” (1543)
renewed and
modernized the study
of anatomy. Found
errors in Galen’s
(ancient Greek)
knowledge and
corrected. Didn’t throw
out old info- just
improved
Anton Van Leuwenhoek
 1632-1723
 Father of
microscopydeveloped 1st
microscopes. 1st to
see and write about
bacteria, and see
circulation in the
capillaries
William Harvey
 1578-1657
 “on the movement of the heart and
blood” – first to suggest circulation and
heart/lungs role in it.
Bacon and Descartes
 Both philosophical in approach- asking questions,
and questioning “assumed” knowledge
Deductive v. Inductive
 Deductive: starts with an
accepted truth and
moved forward from
there using
assumptions/facts. Used
by Greeks and
Scholasticism. But
science asked- what if
base assumption is
wrong?
 Inductive: does not start
with assumption of
truth- but finds truth
after long process of
experimentation.
Modern Scientific
Method
Francis Bacon
• 1561-1626.
• Not actually a scientist-
Lord Chancellor of Eng. ,
but was interested in HOW
to acquire knowledge.
Wanted to start from
scratch, abandon all
preconceived ideas, look at
world through new eyes.
• Inductive reasoning=
empirical method.
• Didn’t get math…
• Confident that humans can
understand the world, and
when we understand we
will be able to control it
Rene Descartes
• 1596-1650
• Question old methods- doubt
everything- “systematic
doubt” (I think therefore I
am)
• Separation of mind and
matter- Cartesian Dualismthey are 2 different thingsdetach and analyze. More
deduction, with math serving
as the starting truth.
• Criticized saying he
encouraged atheism
• “Discourse on Method”- man
should depend on logic alone.
Start with clear (math facts),
subdivide problem into as
many parts as necessary until
you can solve them
Science and Religion
• Universities were still most commonly run by RC church.
Condemnation of Galileo etc… gave perception of church
as “anti- science”- but it was really Reformation, if
someone questions church doctrine they must be
squashed before they cause problems.
• And it did seem against common sense- the earth is
moving…..?
• Scientists thought of themselves as studying God’s
creation, did not question God’s existence.
Science/religion won’t really clash until Darwin
Scientific Societies
 By 1650 there were “clubs” being founded for groups
of scientists to share/discuss ideas.
 England particularly strong in this area. Royal
Society of London founded for improvement of
natural knowledge 1660.
 Nationalism kept countries wanting to be on the
cutting edge of knowledge
Consequences of the Scientific Revolution
 Improvements to technology
 Spirit of experimentation that helped lead to
agricultural and Industrial Revolutions
 Reduces witch hunts and superstition
 Church reaction moves centers of science into
protestant territories (helps them grow more
advanced and powerful)
 Leads the way for the Enlightenment