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SUBSTANCE USE AND NON-VIOLENT CRIME
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Substance Use and Non-Violent Crime
Nicholas Caporicci
CCJ3701
Section 1100
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INTRODUCTION
It is easy to naturally make the assumption that substance use, including alcohol and marijuana,
causes people to commit deviant acts. Aside from preconceived notions, does substance use
associate with an individual’s tendency to commit non-violent crime? While both topics are
associated with deviant behavior, it is important to determine whether there is a connection
between the two actions. A common trait of drug users is their tendency to find opportunities
through nontraditional means, increasing their propensity to commit illegal acts (Bureau of
Justice Statistics, 2013). Researchers, however, struggle to determine whether the substance use
itself influences an increased tendency for crime or whether a deviant lifestyle in general is the
culprit (Boden, 2013). This study will expand upon that in the sense that it will measure drug use
and focus specifically on the non-violent crime aspect. It could be the case, as other research has
touched on, that the link between alcohol and crime is higher than the link between hard
substance use and crime (Dawkins, 1998). Therefore, it needs to be tested whether substance use
itself is associated with specifically non-violent crimes. By establishing a relationship between
substance use and non-violent crime, law enforcement agencies could adjust substance laws as a
preventative measure for crime. As a way to eliminate the degree of spuriousness, other variables
will be controlled including sex and race/ethnicity. Using data collected from wave 7 of the
National Youth Survey, I will research the role that substance use plays in committing nonviolent crimes by assessing participant’s self-reported drug use along with their self-reported
non-violent criminal tendencies.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Substance Use and Violent Crimes
Most previous research on this subject touches upon the relationship between substance
use and violent crimes, or crime in general. In one study looking for the relationship between
drug use and violent crime in adolescents, different drugs addictions were tested to see whether
there was a correlation between the drug use and criminal activities (Dawkins, 1998). The
research determined that alcohol is a stronger predictor than drugs when discussing how likely a
criminal is in engaging in crime, however, the research also determined that background, gender,
and race were larger predictors in behavior than substances (Dawkins, 1998). In another study,
self-report data collected on methamphetamine use as well as recidivism rates on violent crimes
(Cartier, 2006). After research was concluded, it was determined that there was no significant
correlation between methamphetamine use and recidivism (Cartier, 2006).
Other studies have looked at the link between substance abuse and violent crimes being
committed against them. In a 1997 longitudinal study on substance abuse in women, it was
questioned whether the large amount of sexual assault and battery towards women led to an
increased tendency to abuse substances (Kilpatrick, 1997). The results of the research determined
that the relationship between assault and substance use is a circular one, in which substance use
leads to a higher rate of assault and being assaulted leads to a high rate of substance use
(Kilpatrick, 1997).
Alcohol’s Effect on Crime
In an attempt to encompass the risks associated with drinking alcohol, researchers have
tried to establish a relationship between alcohol use and criminal tendencies. Based on a 30 year
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longitudinal study, it was surmised that alcohol is definitely a risk factor in crime, however the
extent of that relationship was not established and needs to be pursued further (Boden, 2013).
Once again, however, it is suggested that the alcohol itself is not responsible for the increased
crime risk. The choices made by those who choose to drink heavily are physiologically more
likely to commit crime and it is possible that this relationship takes precedence over the actual
alcohol use (Boden, 2013). In another study, patients with violence related injuries were
surveyed about their alcohol use prior to coming to the emercency room. Roughly 50% of male
patients were under the influence while 23% of females were (Korcha, 2014). This results also
showed a statistically increased odds for a violent injury (stemming from a violent encounter)
when under the influence of alcohol (Korcha, 2014). The results of Boden’s study concluded that
there was, in fact, a statistical correlation between the level of alcohol abuse and likelihood to
commit crime in some instances, however in certain non-violent crimes such as theft, the
relationship seen in the data was considered insignificant (Boden, 2013). Limitations expressed
by the researchers in this particular study does not account for people who commit crime under
the influence of alcohol even though they do not usually consume it; it is also limited by the bidirectionality of alcohol misuse and crime, and further research will address that (Boden, 2013).
Between the two studies, there is still uncertainty whether a correlation between alcohol and
crime will be applicable to non-violent crime.
Gender and Crime
Gender is an important variable to control to ensure there is no spuriousness between the
substance use and non-violent crime, however, it is important to first establish a relationship
between the two. One particularly useful study, examined violence among drug-involved men.
The average man in this group was considered deviant with a group average of 22 life time
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arrests, however about 40% of the men reported creating an act of violence against an intimate
partner (Golder, 2014). The men who committed the most violent acts generally also showed
substance use (Golder, 2014). The results of this study suggest that the men who tend to commit
many violent acts towards their spouse or girlfriends, tend to also be substance users (Golder,
2014).
Women also have a tendency to commit crime. Another relevant study assesses the
relationship between drug-abusing women and violent crime. It was determined that the age of
first drug use predated the convictions of violent crime, in this case, homicide (Baltieri, 2014). It
was also determined that women who began their substance use earlier in their lives also saw a
lower rate of recidivism (Baltieri, 2014). These results show that while substance use definitely
had an effect on women’s rate of violent crime, the earlier that a woman showed signs of
substance use the less of criminal lifestyle they continued. It is possible that these characteristics
will transfer over to non-violent crime and women who are considered substance users will show
higher rates of crime.
Race and Crime
In determining which variables to hold constant, it is important to figure out any patterns
in racial crime tendencies. Previous studies commonly looked at the relationship between race
and violent crime alone. One study, trying to establish a neutrality between race and crime,
assessed the levels of violent crime between Blacks and Whites in relation to their proximity to a
high crime community, found that Whites were more likely to commit violent crimes (Light,
2012). In addition, another study looked at the relationship between religious adherence and
violent crime. The results of the study showed that only Whites showed a negative correlation
between violent crime and religious strength (Ulmer, 2013). This study also claimed a
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correlation between urban proximity and violent crime. Both studies concluded that minority
groups commit violent crimes at high rates, yet they do not allow many exterior factors affect the
frequency of the crimes. The results of these studies suggest that similar patterns may exist for
non-violent crime.
Current Study
The current study will look at the relationship between two variables that have each been
extensively studied in the field, and attempt to connect substance use and tendency to commit
non-violent criminal behavior. Boden studied the association between alcohol and crime in
general, breaking it up into sub groups of different types of crime (Boden, 2013).
To test the relationship between substance use and non-violent crime, wave seven data of
the NYS will be used and analyzed. In order to operationalize substance use, self-report data will
be collected from the NYS concerning one’s own substance use in the 12 months prior to the
study. To operationalize non-violent crimes, self-report data will be analyzed concern one’s own
tendency to commit a variety of non-violent crimes within their lifetime.
The study will test three different hypotheses. The first hypothesis is that individuals who
engage in substance abuse are more likely to commit non-violent crimes than individuals who do
not engage in substance abuse. It is also hypothesized that men will commit more non-violent
crimes than women. The final hypothesis is that non minorities will commit more non-violent
crimes than minorities
METHODS
Data and Sampling
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“Data for this study come from the [seventh wave of the] National Youth Survey (NYS).
The NYS is a nationally representative, longitudinal survey of 1,725 U.S. youth between the ages
of 11 and 17 at the time of the first interview in early 1977. Respondents were interviewed
annually through 1981 (Waves 1-5) and then again in 1984 (Wave 6) and 1987 (Wave 7). By the
last wave of interviews, respondents were between the ages of 21 and 27 years” (King & South,
2011, p. 107).
Dependent Variable
Non-Violent Crime: Tendency to commit non-violent crime was measured using selfreported data provided in the NYS. The measure used 5 concerning the number of unique nonviolent deviant acts committed by the participants in their lifetime. The deviant acts that the
questions covered include: vehicle theft, general theft, arson, breaking and entering and hard
drug sales. An example of the format of the questions used would be "How many times in your
lifetime have you...” Each crime was dichotomized and coded as either a 0 which meant the
respondent never committed the crime, or a 1 meaning they have. After this, the results were
added and a ratio number of unique crimes committed ranging from 0-5 was created.
Independent Variable
Drug Use: Drug use was determined by first assessing the participant’s use of alcohol and
marijuana separately. According to a study done by Huizinga and colleagues, four or usages in a
12 month period constituted drug use in order to rule out experimentation (Huizinga). First,
participants were asked “How many times in the last year have you used alcoholic beverages,
beer, wine, hard liquor?” Results to this were dichotomized to either alcohol non-use (0-3 times
in the last 12 months) as 0, or alcohol use (4 or more times) as 1. Respondents were then asked
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“How many times in the last year have you used marijuana or hashish?” This question was
dichotomized in the same way making marijuana non-use (0-3 times) 0, and marijuana use (4 or
more times) as 1. These were further coded dichotomously by making participants who used
either or both drugs a 1 and participants who used neither drugs a 0.
Sex: In assessing the gender of the participants, the interviewers were asked to “circle the
sex of the respondent.” Although this variable was already dichotomous, in order to make the
statistics easier to read, “Male” which was previously represented by 1 was now 0, and “Female”
which was 2 was now coded as 1.
Minority Status: To determine whether a participant was a minority or not they were
asked which ethnic or racial background they considered themselves. To operationalize the
concept, they were asked “Which of these groups best describes you?” Answers were on a
nominal scale and consisted of: 1 “Anglo,” 2 “Black,” 3 “Hispanic,” 4 “American Indian,” 5
“Asian,” and 6 “Other. The variable was recoded dichotomously to reflect a “yes” or “no” for
being a minority. 1 changed to 0 for “Anglo” while all other options (2-6) were changed to 1.
RESULTS
Descriptive Statistics
The descriptive statistics for the dependent and independent variable as displayed in table
1. Only 1383 (80.2%) of respondents answers this question while the rest abstained. The mean
number of non-violent crimes committed in a subject’s life was .281 crimes (SD = .759), the
modal number was 0.00. The number of crimes had a minimum of 0.00 and a maximum of 5.00.
All 1725 (100%) of participants answered this question. One thousand and eighty two (62.3%) of
participants reported drug use while the other six hundred and forty three (37.7%) did not. All
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1725 (100%) of responded answered this question asking their race. 78.9% (n=1361) of
participants reported themselves as minorities while 21.1% (n=364) did not. All 1725 responded
answered this question regarding their gender because it was filled in by the interviewer. In
reporting their gender eight hundred and seven (46.8%) of participants identified as female and
nine hundred and eighteen (53.2%) reported as male.
Bivariate Correlations
The correlation matrix of the dependent variable and independent variables can be found
in table 2. Drug use seemed to have a statistically significant very weak positive correlation with
the number of different non-violent crimes committed (r = .124, p < .05). This means that people
who claimed to have drug use committed more crimes than people who didn’t. Gender also had a
significant weak positive correlation with the number of different non-violent crimes committed
(r = .253, p < .05). This association shows that males were more likely than females to commit
non-violent crimes. The final statistically significant correlation, was the very weak negative
correlation between minority status and reported drug use (r = -.165, p < .05). Non-minorities
were more likely to claim drug use than non-minorities. There was no statistically significant
correlation between sex and drug use, number of non-violent crimes committed and minority
status, and sex and minority status.
Multivariate Correlations
The data showing the multivariate regression is in table 3. The results of the multivariate
regression indicate that the model is statistically significant, F = 36.00, p < .05. In terms of
variance explained, 7.3% of the variance in nonviolent crimes committed is explained by drug
use, gender, and race. The significant predictors of the number of nonviolent crimes committed
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are drug use (t = 3.437, p < .05) and sex (t = 9.237, p < .001). For every increased unit of drug
use, the number of nonviolent crimes committed increases by .167 units. The average number
more crimes committed by males than females was .367. The results suggest that when drug use
increases, along with the participant being a male, the number of nonviolent crimes committed
increases. Between the two predictors, gender has a larger impact than drug use.
DISCUSSION
This study focused on the relationship between drug use and non-violent crime. Although
there has been a plethora of research between drug use and violent crime, often concluding that
drug use, particularly alcohol, is a factor in violent crime, this study set out to test whether drug
use had the same result on non-violent crime. It was hypothesized that drug use would increase
the number of non-violent crimes committed, as well non-minorities committing more nonviolent crimes than minorities and men committing more non-violent crimes than females.
The results showed that there was a weak positive relationship between drug use and
number of non-violent crimes committed. This is consistent with research on drug use and
violent crime, with people who use drugs more likely to commit crimes (Boden, 2013). In
addition, a stronger relationship was found between gender and number of non-violent crimes
committed. Males, on average, committed more non-violent crimes than females. There was a
non-significant correlation between race and non-violent crime. This contradicts previous
research on violent crime, where crime for non-minorities was strongly influenced by external
forces, such as drug use (Light, 2012).
This study also ran into various limitations. Because only one wave of NYS data was
used, a longitudinal study across different ages was impossible to conduct. If a study like that
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were possible, it would allow an additional independent variable and a further way to limit
spuriousness. It is expected that as age increases past adolescence, non-violent crime rates may
go down, however, it is untested whether that would be the case one drug use was factored in.
Also, the sample had a large number of non-minority participants which may have skewed the
data.
There are a few avenues of research that can be stemmed from this study. After
establishing a relationship between drug use and non-violent crime, it is important to further
subdivide the categories of non-violent crime such as theft, hard drug sales, and so on. This may
prove difficult given the limitations of the experiment and the small amount of people who have
committed each crime. In future research, it is important to achieve a more even split between
minorities and non-minorities so that the minorities can be divided into individual races and
ethnicities. If further research can determine a relationship between drug use and individual nonviolent crimes, law enforcement officials can adjust laws and sentences appropriately.
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Works Cited
Baltieri, D. (2014). Order of onset of drug use and criminal activities in a sample of drug-abusing
women convicted of violent crimes.. Drug and Alcohol Review, 33, 202-130. doi:
10.1111/dar.12107
Boden, J., & Fergusson, D. (2013). Alcohol misuse and criminal offending: Findings from a 30year longitudinal study. Drug & Alcohol Dependence,128(1/2), 30-36.
doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.07.014
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2013, Nov 22). Drugs and crime. Retrieved from
http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=tp&tid=35.
Cartier, J., Farabee, D., & Prendergast, M. (2006). Methamphetamine use, self-reported violent
crime, and recidivism among offenders in california who abuse substances. J Interpers
Violence, 21(4), 435-445. doi: 10.1177/0886260505285724
Dawkins, M. (1997). Drug use and violent crime among adolescents. Adolescence, 32(126), 395405.
Golder, S., PhD., & Logan, T. K., P. (2014). Violence, victimization, criminal justice
involvement, and substance use among drug-involved men. Violence and Victims, 29(1),
53-72.
Huizinga, D., Menard, S. and Elliott, D. S. "Delinquency and Drug Use: Temporal and
Developmental Patterns." Justice Quarterly 6:419-455, 1989.
SUBSTANCE USE AND NON-VIOLENT CRIME
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Kilpatrick, D., & Acierno, R. (1997). A 2-year longitudinal analysis of the relationships between
violent assault and substance use in women. Journal of Consulting and Clinincal
65(5), 834-847. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.65.5.834
King, R. D. & South, S. J. (2011). Crime, Race, and the Transition to Marriage. Journal of
Family Issues, 32, p. 99-126. doi:10.1177/0192513X10375059
Korcha, R. (2013). Violence-related injury and gender: The role of alcohol and alcohol combined
with illicit drugs. Drug and Alcohol Review, 33, 43-50. doi: 10.1111/dar.12087
Light, M., & Harris, C. (). Race, Space, and Violence: Exploring Spatial Dependence in
Structural Covariates of White and Black Violent Crime in US Counties. J Quant
Criminol, 28, 559-586. doi: 10.1007/s10940-011-9162-6
Ulmer, J., & Harris, C. (). Race and the Religious Contexts of Violence: Linking Religion and
White, Black, and Latino Violent Crime. The Sociological Quarterly, 54, 610-646. doi:
10.1111/tsq.12034
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Table 1: Descriptive Statistics
Variables
Mean /Percentage
Mode
SD
Min
0.00
Max
Dependent Variable
Number of Different
Non-violent crimes Committed
.281
0.00
.759
5.00
Drug Use
(1= Drug User)
.623
-
-
Sex
(1 = Male)
.532
-
-
-
-
Minority Status
(1 = Minority)
.211
-
-
-
-
Independent Variable
-
-
Table 2: Pearson Product Moment Correlations of Number of non-violent Crimes Committed and Drug
Use, Sex, and Minority Status (N=1383)
X1
X2
X3
X1 Number of Different
Non-Violent Crimes Committed
1.00
X2 Drug use
0.12*
1.00
X3 Sex
0.25*
0.02
1.00
X4 Minority Status
-0.02
-0.17*
0.03
* p < .05
X4
1.00
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Table 3: Multiple Regression Results Predicting Non-Violent Crime
Variables
Drug Use**
Sex**
Minority
B(coeff)
.167
.367
-.026
Constant
F (3, 1382)
R2
-.198
36.000
.073
**p < .01
*p < .05
Std Er
.049
.040
.051
Beta
.091
.242
-.014