Download 02 Vocab - Western Classical Civilizations

Chapter Two: The Western Classical Civilizations
The Law of the Medes and the Persians
Alexander the Great was the son of Philip of Macedon. In 334, he invaded Persia and decisively
defeating a much larger Persian force with his Macedonian army and its formidable phalanx. He
proclaimed himself heir to the Achaemedids, and captured (and perhaps also purposely burned) their
capital at Persepolis
Cyrus the Great was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, which extended it from India to the
borders of Egypt through military conquests. Reigned 558-530 B.C.E.
Cambyses was Cyrus's son who succeeded his father and expanded the empire by conquering Egypt in
525 B.C.E. He reigned from 530 to 522 B.C.E.
Darius I was the third ruler of the Achaemenid Empire, extended the empire to the Indus River in the east
and the western coast of the Black Sea in the west. The central rule of the imperial administration was
well established during Darius's reign, which lasted from 521 to 486 B.C.E.
Xerxes was the son and successor of Darius I and reigned from 486 to 465 B.C.E. Xerxes sought to
impose his own values on conquered lands, thus retreating from Darius's policy of cultural toleration. The
fruit of Xerxes policies caused much resentment, ill will and rebellions among the peoples under the rule
of the Achaemenid Empire.
Mithradates I was Parthians' greatest conqueror, who came to the throne about 171 B.C.E. Under his
rule, the Parthian state extended into a mighty empire covering Iran and Mesopotamia.
Seleucus was one of Alexander of Macedon's military commanders who took the choicest part of
Alexander's realm, which included most of the former Achaemenid Empire. He reigned from 305 to 281.
Zarathustra (Zoroaster) was the founder of Zoroastrianism. He was born into an aristocratic family
probably during late seventh or early sixth century B.C.E. After about ten years of travel and meditation,
he experienced a series of visions and became convinced that the supreme god, Ahura Mazda ("the wise
lord"), had chosen him to serve as his prophet and spread his message.
The Achaemenid Empire was the first Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus and Darius, which, by the late
6th century B.C.E., was the largest empire the world had yet seen. Its boundaries extended from the Indus
River in the east to the Aegean Sea in the west, and from the Armenian hills in the north to the first
cataract of the Nile in the south. This first Persian Empire lasted from 558 to 330 B.C.E.
The Seleucid Empire was the second Persian Empire, founded by Seleucus. The Seleucids continued
Achaemenid systems of administration, taxation, and transport; they also founded new cities to attract
Greek colonists. Seleucid rule was often opposed by native Persians who resented the Hellenization
brought by the Greeks. The empire lost its power finally to Roman conquerors in 83 B.C.E.
The Parthian Empire was the third Persian Empire, which lasted from 247 B.C.E. to 224 C.E. Portrayed
themselves as enemies of the foreign Seleucids and restorers of the Persian tradition. People's rebellions
from within and Roman military pressure from without eventually brought the Parthian empire down. The
Parthians were a nomadic people who migrated from the steppes of central Asia to eastern Iran and were
famous for their heavy cavalry.
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Sasanid Empire was the Fourth Persian Empire, which toppled the Parthians in 224 C.E., and ruled until
the year 651. The empire covered the lands from India to Mesopotamia, recreating much of the splendor
of the Achaemenid Empire.
Ahura Mazda was "The wise lord," or the supreme deity of Zoroastrians, who engaged in a cosmic
conflict with an independent adversary, an evil and malign spirit known as Angra Mainyu, a struggle that
would continue for twelve thousand years.
The Avesta was the Holy Scriptures of Zoroastrianism, compiled during the Sasanid empire, when
Zoroastrianism was the state religion.
Ctesiphon was the capital city of the Parthian, Sasanid, and Seleucid empires. It was located on the
Euphrates River near modern Baghdad.
Magi was the name for Zoroastrian priests.
The Medes were the first Iranian peoples to organize a powerful regional state and in the late 7th century,
they helped to destroy the Assyrian Empire and dominated another Indo European people farther south,
the Parsa or the Persians.
Persepolis was the capital of the Achaemenid Empire. Among its impressive structures were vast
reception halls, lavish royal residences, and a well-protected treasury.
The Persian Royal Road was built during Darius's reign, stretched some 2,575 kilometers (1,600 miles)
from the Aegean port of Ephesus to Sardis in Anatolia, through Mesopotamia along the Tigris River, to
Susa in Iran, with an extension to Pasargadae and Persepolis.
The Persian Wars were a series of wars between the city-states of the Greeks and the Achaemenid
Empire from 500 to 479 B.C.E. The Greeks successfully resisted Persian invasions and maintained their
independence.
Satrapies were administrative and taxation districts of the Achaemenid Empire, governed by Satraps, or
appointed governors who served as agents of the central government.
Zoroastrianism was the Persian religion that honored Ahura Mazda and six lesser deities. Zoroastrians
believed in the cosmic conflict between Ahura Mazda and the Angra Mainyu ("the destructive spirit" or
"the hostile spirit"). Zoroastrianism developed the concepts of future judgment and of heavenly paradise
and hell as reward and punishment. It allowed followers to enjoy the world and its fruits, so long as
individuals abided by the moral teachings of "good words, good thoughts, good deeds." Zoroastrian
teachings had a substantial influence on Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
The Glory that was Greece
Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides were the great tragedians of classical Greece, who lived in the 5th
century BCE. Their plays asked probing questions about good and evil, human responsibility, justice and
mercy, proper and improper behavior
Alexander of Macedon (Alexander the Great) was the Successor of Philip II and who successfully
conquered Egypt, Persia, and north India; died in 323 B.C.E. at age of thirty-three. He had a vision of a
fusion of Greek and Persian societies.
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Aristotle was a Greek philosopher who was Plato's pupil and teacher of Alexander of Macedon. He
believed that philosophers could rely on their senses to provide accurate information about the world and
then depend on reason to sort out its mysteries. He devised rigorous rules of logic as means of
constructing compelling arguments.
Cleisthenes completed the reforms of Solon. Now, at last, it was possible for all citizens to vote. His most
famous reform was Ostracism or the annual expulsion of the individual most dangerous to the state for 10
years, but with no loss of property of status.
Diogenes of Sinope lived in a tub on the streets of Athens and was the most famous of the Cynic
philosophers. He took Cynicism to its logical extremes, and came to be seen as the archetypal Cynic
philosopher. For example, he taught complete freedom of speech and practiced it to the point of rudeness
and was noted for carrying around a lantern – even during the day – because he was “looking” for a wise
man. The story is told that Alexander the Great approached Diogenes and asked if there way anything he
could do for him. Diogenes’ reply was, Yes, stand out of my sunlight. Alexander then declared, If I were
not Alexander, then I should wish to be Diogenes.
Herodotus (485 to 425) was called the Father of History because he was the first to try to research and
verify the facts about which he wrote in his History of the Persian Wars.
Homer was the traditional author of the Iliad and the Odyssey are ascribed to him. Scholars now know
that the two epic poems had been recited for generations before Homer lived. Some experts believe that
Homer was not a real man so much as a convenient name for several otherwise anonymous scribes who
committed the two epics to writing. Others believe that a man named Homer had a part in preparing a
written version of the two epics, but that others also contributed significantly to his work.
Pericles (ca. 443-429 B.C.E.) was the most important and powerful political leader of Athens. He
maintained his power by finesse and became a popular democratic leader. Under his leadership, Athens
became the most sophisticated and democratic of the Greek poleis – or, in Pericles' words, "The school of
Greece "
Philip II was the king of Macedon from 359 to 336 B.C.E. He built a powerful military machine and
gained centralized control over clans in Macedon. Later he entered into Greece, and by 338 B.C.E., he had
overcome all organized resistance and brought Greece under his control. He was assassinated in 336
Plato was a Greek philosopher and the great pupil of Socrates. Plato lived from 430 to 347 B.C.E. and
believed that human reason or knowledge could arrive at an understanding of what he called the World of
Forms or Ideas, which was the ultimate perfect reality he thought underlay nature. He felt that the ideal
form of government was a government ruled by a philosopher-king.
Roxana was the daughter of Darius III; after Darius’ death, she became the wife of Alexander the Great.
Sappho: was the most important female poet of Greece, who was active during the years around 600
B.C.E.; she taught young women music and literature and was charged with homosexual activity.
Socrates was the Athenian philosopher who lived from 470 to 399 B.C.E. and widely credited for laying
the foundations of Western philosophy. He encouraged rational reflection on moral and ethical issues and
sought to reason through means of skeptical questioning of traditional ethical teachings. A jury of
Athenian citizens condemned him to death for corrupting the minds of Athenian youths. His method of
inquiry through questioning is called the Socratic Method.
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Solon was an Athenian aristocrat and democratic reformer of the 6th century B.C.E., who eased class
tension by compromise. His reforms forbade enslavement for debt and opened the councils of the poleis to
any citizen wealthy enough to devote time to public affairs.
Thucydides (460 to 400), wrote a History of the Peloponnesian War which was even more objective and
accurate than Herodotus’s history of the Persian Wars; it was praised for its direct, graphic and condensed
style.
Zeno of Citium was the founder of Stoicism.
Alexandria (Egypt) was the Capital of the Ptolemaic Empire and the cultural capital of the Hellenistic
world. Alexandria was founded by and named for Alexander at the mouth of the Nile and was one of
many cities he founded and named to honor himself. Alexandria became a commercial and cultural center,
especially known for its famous Alexandrian Museum and Library.
Antigonid Empire was one of the three Hellenistic empires, whose territory lay in Greece and Macedon.
The Antigonids lasted until the Romans established their authority in the eastern Mediterranean during the
2nd century B.C.E.
Athens was arguably the most important city-state of classical Greece, known for its democratic politics,
philosophy, arts, literature, commercial agriculture, and skills of foreign trade. The history of Athens is
longer than any other city of Europe. Athens remained a centre of learning and philosophy during 500
years until Roman rule, and after the ascent of Christianity, it became a secondary center of learning.
The Battle of Marathon was first of the two important battles of the Persian war fought between Persians
and Athenians. The victory of Marathon in 490 B.C.E. forced Darius to withdraw back to Asia.
The Battle of Salamis was the second important battle of the Persian war. The battle took place in the
narrow strait between Athens and the island of Salamis and resulted in the Persian navy being shattered by
the Greek fleet.
Delian League was an alliance formed by several Greek poleis after the Persian war. Athens became the
leader of the alliance, and other poleis contributed financial support, which went largely to the Athenian
treasury. The breakup of the Delian League was a result of the Peloponnesian War.
Cynicism was a Hellenistic Philosophy which taught that the purpose of life was to live a life of Virtue in
agreement with Nature and they rejected of all conventional desires for wealth, power, health, and fame,
and by living a simple life free from all possessions. The Roman lyric poet Horace was considered to be a
Epicurean. In his well known Carpe Diem poem he says, While we talk, greedy time flees away: seize the
day and trust as little as possible in the future.
The Dialogues were written by Plato. The early Dialogues were reflections of Socrates’ teaching and
Socrates was the principal speaker. Later Dialogues dealt more with metaphysics.
Epicureans were the followers of a Greek philosophical school of the Hellenistic era, founded by
Epicurus (341-270 B.C.E.). Epicureans identified pleasure as the greatest good, which meant a state of
quiet satisfaction or freedom from emotional turmoil and pressure of the Hellenistic world. Epicureanism
was not hedonism (love of pleasure itself), but quiet state of satisfaction.
Hellenistic Empires were three Greek empires formed from the Macedonian empire after Alexander's
death: the three empires were the Antigonids, Ptolemies, and Seleucids.
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The Hellenistic Era refers to the age of Alexander and his successors. Its character was reflected in the
Hellenistic Synthesis, an age when Greek cultural traditions expanded their influence beyond Greece itself
to a much larger world and in which a blending of Greek culture and native cultures took place..
Helots were servants of the Spartan state, who served as agricultural labor to keep Sparta supplied with
food. By the 6th century B.C.E., the helots probably outnumbered the Spartan citizens by more than ten to
one. Although the helots were brutally mistreated and could not leave their land, they were not slaves, but
more like serfs.
The Iliad and Odyssey were the great epic poems of ancient Greece, attributed to Homer; possibly the
work of many authors. The Iliad offered a Greek perspective on a war waged by a band of Greek warriors
against the city of Troy in Anatolia during the 12th century B.C.E. The Odyssey recounted the experiences
of the Greek hero Odysseus as he sailed home after the Trojan War.
Macedonia was a frontier state north of Greece, which rose to prominence after the 4th century B.C. Its
population consisted partly of cultivators and partly of sheepherders. The state was loosely organized,
with the king and semiautonomous clans controlling political affairs; but became centralized under Philip
II and served as the basis for unification of Greece and the later Macedonian Empire.
Metaphysics is the science, which deals with first principles and seeks to know
1. the nature of being (ontology),
2. the origin and structure of the world (cosmology)
3. the theory of knowledge (epistemology).
The Olympic Games were the best known of the Pan-Hellenic festivals, held once every four years
beginning in 776 B.C.E. The games were observed by all Greek city-states and involved athletic contests.
Winners of events received olive wreaths and became celebrated heroes in their home poleis.
The Peloponnesian War: Civil war of the Greek world, fought between 431 and 404 B.C.E. Poleis were
divided into two armed camps under the leadership of Athens and Sparta. Resulted in Athens'
unconditional surrender to Sparta, but the latter failed to achieve political unification of Greece.
The Parthenon is an Athenian temple still located on the Acropolis of Athens and is considered to be the
finest example of Classical Greek Architecture. There is an astonishing reproduction in Nashville,
Tennessee. The Erectheum and Temple of Athena Nike are two more classical Greek temples located on
the Athenian Acropolis and surviving until modern times.
The Peloponnesus: The southern part of the Greek peninsula where massive stone fortresses and palaces
were built to offer protection for small agricultural communities. Sparta became one of the most powerful
poleis in the Peloponnesus.
The Persian Wars (500-479 B.C.E.): were fought between the Persian Empire and Greek city-states. The
Greeks successfully resisted the military assaults of Persian armies (especially at Marathon and Salamis)
and maintained their independence from Persian control.
Phalanx was a Macedonian military unit in which successive lines of infantry were held together by huge
interlocking shields and used long spears to crush all before it.
Politics was Aristotle’s book in which he taught that the rule of law is better than the rule of a few or an
individual
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Polis (Πολις) was the name for the city-states of classical Greece. The term polis originally referred to a
citadel or fortified site that offered refuge for local communities during times of war or other emergencies.
By about 800 B.C.E. these sites developed into urban centers and extended their authority over
surrounding regions. Poleis (the plural of polis) functioned as the principal centers of Greek society
between 800 and 338 B.C.E.
The Ptolemaic Empire was one of the three Hellenistic empires, founded in Egypt, which the Ptolemaic
dynasty ruled until the Roman conquest of Egypt in 31 B.C.E. Its chief city, Alexandria, became the
cultural capital of the Hellenistic world.
The Republic: was written by Plato and held that the ideal state was one where either philosophers ruled
as kings or kings were themselves philosophers. In the Republic, Plato seeks to discover the nature of
Justice and describes an ideal state.
The Seven Sages of Greece: came from all walks of life, but were famed for their pithy and wise sayings.
The usual seven are: Solon of Athens - "Nothing in excess"; Chilon of Sparta - "Know thyself"; Thales
of Miletus - "To bring surety brings ruin"; Bias of Priene - "Too many workers spoil the work";
Cleobulus of Lindos - "Moderation is impeccable"; Pittacus of Mytilene - "Know thine opportunity";
and Periander of Corinth - "Forethought in all things.”
Seleucid Empire: was one of the three Hellenistic empires and founded on the former Achaemenid
Empire, which was displaced by the Parthians during the 2nd century B.C.E. Under the Seleucids, the
Hellenistic Synthesis reached from the eastern Mediterranean to Bactria in central Asia.
Skeptics refused to take a strong position on any political, social or moral issue. They were not sure that
there was such a thing as certain knowledge. Their goal was to find equanimity by which they meant
evenness of mind, a calm temper and complete composure under the pressures of the (Hellenistic) world.
Sophists who were a group of wandering intellectuals who used logic and argument (or rhetoric) to teach
the art of persuasion. They taught for a fee and often twisted right into wrong, simple into complex and
justice into injustice. They were famous for instituting unjust lawsuits. So it is today that Sophism means
a confusing or illogical argument used for deceiving someone.
Sparta was one of the most important poleis in classical Greece, located in the fertile southeastern region
of the Peloponnesus; known for its oligarchic regime, austere lifestyle, and commitment to military
values.
Stoics considered all human beings members of a single, universal family. Unlike the Epicureans and
Skeptics, Stoics did not seek to withdraw from the pressures of the world, but taught that individuals had a
duty to help others lead virtuous lives. This escape from the pressures of the (Hellenistic) world was
accomplished by emphasizing inner moral independence and tranquility brought about by strict discipline
of body and mind
The Theory or World of Forms was Plato’s concept, which taught that the world we live in is not the
only world, because our world is a pale and imperfect reflection of the world of Forms or Ideas. In that
world is the perfect everything, which men must strive to find.
Timon of Philius (320-230) was a classic Skeptic poet. He wrote tragedies, satiric dramas, and comedies.
Almost all of his works are lost, but one of his most famous quotations, a barb against philosophers, has
survived, Philosophers are excessively cunning murderers of many wise saws"
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Political Definitions
1.
2.
3.
4.
Tyranny or Dictatorship: a ruler (benevolent or malevolent) with complete authority.
Oligarchy (like Sparta): supreme power is placed in the hands of a small, exclusive class
Monarchy: rule by a king: sometimes absolute (tyranny), but often limited by nobility /constitutions.
Democracy: government by the people:
a. Direct Democracy (like Athens): All citizens participate in the running of the government
b. Indirect Democracy or Republic: citizens give power to elected representatives like Rome,
the United States and most modern democracies.
The Grandeur that was Rome
Roman History is divided into three periods:
1. Kingdom from 753 to 509;
2. Republic from 509 to 27 (some scholars say 31);
3. Empire from 27 (31) to 476 CE.
Epictetus was an Anatolian slave who became a prominent Stoic philosopher. He lectured to large
audiences that included high Roman officials and perhaps even emperors; 1st century C.E.
Gaius Marius was a prominent Roman general at the turn of the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C.E.; introduced
the concept of a private army recruited from paid volunteers, mostly landless rural residents and urban
workers, rather than citizen conscripts from among the small farmers; the innovation created a military
force with personal loyalties to the military commander instead of to civilian authorities.
Gracchi Brothers, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, were tribunes who represented the interests of Rome's
lower classes. They both zealously promoted land reform and proposed to extend full Roman citizenship
to peoples in most of the Italian peninsula. As a result, they offended the elite and both were assassinated,
Tiberius in 132 B.C.E. and Gaius in 121 B.C.E.
Jesus of Nazareth was a charismatic Jewish rabbi and teacher. He was the founder of Christianity; taught
devotion to God and the law of love for fellow human beings. His followers called him "Christ," meaning
"the anointed one," the savior who would bring individuals into the kingdom of God. He was a threat to
both the local elite and to the Roman authorities who executed him in the early 30s C.E. After his death,
his followers said the he rose from the death and promised eternal salvation to those who believed on him.
Julius Caesar was the nephew of the general Marius and a reform-minded general of Rome. He was a
brilliant general and was responsible for conquest of Gaul in the 50s of the 1st century B.C.E. He brought
his army back to Rome and overthrew the republic in 49 B.C.E.; claimed himself a life-time dictator in 46
B.C.E., but was assassinated by the wealthy elite class in 44 B.C.E.
Lucius Cornelius Sulla was a conservative Roman general during the last century B.C.E.and imposed an
extremely conservative legislative program that undid the influence of Marius and strengthened the hand
of the wealthy in Roman politics.
Marcus Tullius Cicero was a Roman orator and politician, who helped to establish Stoicism as the most
prominent school of moral philosophy in Rome.
Octavian was the grandnephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar. He defeated his principal rival, Mark
Anthony (who had joined forces with Cleopatra, last of the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt) in 31 B.C.E.; the
Senate bestowed upon him the title Augustus in 27 B.C.E.; became the first Roman emperor and ruled
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Rome for 45 years. He was very careful to conceal his monarchial powers under the guise of the old
Roman Republic.
Paul of Tarsus was a Greek Jew and Roman citizen from Anatolia who zealously preached Christianity
throughout the Roman Empire. Paul called for individuals to observe high moral standards and to place
their faith ahead of personal and family interests. He promised a glorious future existence for those who
conscientiously observed the faith.
Scipio Africanus was the Roman general in the Second Punic War who took the war to Carthage, and
Hannibal was forced to return home. Scipio won a brilliant victory at the Battle of Zama in 202 and
Carthage was reduced to just the city itself.
Spartacus was a Roman slave who escaped and assembled an army of seventy thousand rebellious slaves
in 73 B.C.E.
Roman Basilicas were large buildings where business and legal matters were undertaken. They became
the basic floor plan for early Christian church architecture..
Carthage was a city-state originally established as a Phoenician colony in North Africa, located near
modern Tunis. Carthage became the dominant political and commercial power in the western
Mediterranean. However, Carthage fought the Punic Wars with Rome for hegemony over the western
Mediterranean regions and was completely destroyed in 49 BCE.
The Roman Coliseum was an enormous, elliptical stadium capable of holding 50,000 people. It was built
between 72 and 80 by Vespasian and Titus and still stands today. The Coliseum hosted spectacular games
that included animal fights, the killing of prisoners by animals and other executions, naval battles, and
combats between gladiators. Roman engineers even filled it with water and naval battles were fought for
the amusement of the crowds. Its poor condition is due to the fact that it was pillaged as a quarry during
the middle ages by the nobility of Rome.
The Cult of Cybele represented the Greek earth/mother goddess Rhea. (Its roots date to Sumeria and
Egypt). Cybele was the goddess of nature and fertility. Because Cybele presided over mountains and
fortresses, her crown was in the form of a city wall. Eunuch priests called Corybantes, who led the
faithful in orgiastic rites accompanied by wild cries and the frenzied music of flutes, drums, and cymbals,
directed the cult of Cybele. Her annual spring festival celebrated the death and resurrection of her beloved
Attis. Thus, this cult of life, death and rebirth promised immortality.
The Cursus Honorum refers to the Roman system of political advancement for young aristocrats in the
following ascending order:
1. Aedile (city administrators),
2. Quaestor (treasurers in army, city or provinces),
3. Praetor (assistant consuls, army commanders, judges, governors),
4. Consul (co-head of state, army commanders).
Diocese was the basic administrative unit of the Christian Church. Each diocese wad headed by a bishop
who was assisted by priests (presbyters) and deacons.
The Julio Claudian Emperors
Augustus (27BCE to 14AD) was the grandnephew of Julius Caesar who ruled Rome for 45 years.
Tiberius, (14 to 37) was a great general, the adopted son of Augustus and recluse who spent much of his
reign on the island of Capri.
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Caligula (37 – 41) was the extravagant, insane and sadistic grandson of Augustus; his own guard
assassinated him. He even appointed his favorite horse, Incitatus, to a seat in the senate.
Claudius was the awkward but competent nephew of Augustus and proved to be an able administrator
and a great builder of public works. He even headed the conquest of Britain.
Nero was the vicious grandson of Augustus. Some say he was misunderstood and point out that his
biographies were written by his enemies; at any rate, he committed suicide rather than face execution.
The Flavian Dynasty consisted of a father and two sons after the instability following Nero’s death.
Vespasian, who ruled from 69 to 79, was a good soldier and emperor who was best known for his
financial reforms and building projects including the Coliseum. On his deathbed, is said to have quipped,
“O my, I must be turning into a god!”
Titus was the Roman general (later emperor) who destroyed Jerusalem in 70 CE. . He reigned from 79 to
81 and was a good emperor who also initiated large building programs to provide employment and
beautify Rome. It was during his reign the Mt. Vesuvius destroyed Pompeii.
Domitian was a monster like Caligula and Nero. He probably murdered Titus; he was himself
assassinated by his bodyguard.
The Five Good Emperors
Nerva (96 to 98) whose short reign ended Domitian’s reign of terror and restored order;
Trajan, ruled from 98 to 117. He was a soldier general under whom the Roman Empire reached its
greatest extent. Unlike many great rulers of pre-Christian Rome, Trajan’s reputation remained untarnished
into modern times. There is a medieval legend (purely fiction) that Pope Gregory I resurrected Trajan
from the dead and baptized him into the Christian faith.
Hadrian ruled from 117 to 138. Hadrian too was a competent general and administrator who beautified
Rome. A defensive barrier between Britain and the wild Picts of Scotland, called Hadrians’s Wall, was
named for him
Antoninus Pius, who ruled from 138 to161, and was a gentleman-emperor who sent ambassadors to
China.
Marcus Aurelius, ruled from 161 to180. He had to fight wars with the Germans and the Parthians, but is
best known as a stoic philosopher. His Meditations were not only a source for his own guidance, but a
sourcebook for stoic philosophy.
The Etruscans were a band of non Indo-European people who migrated to the Italian peninsula probably
from Anatolia and established a powerful kingdom that dominated much of Italy from the 8th to the 6th
centuries B.C.E.
The Essenes were a sect of Judaism; observed a strict moral code and participated in rituals designed to
reinforce a sense of community; shared many concerns with early Christianity, especially the notion that a
savior would deliver them from Roman rule.
The Gauls were a powerful Celtic people who lived in Gaul (modern France). They invaded Italy on
several occasions during the 5th century B.C.E., but in the 50s of the first century B.C.E., Gaius Julius
Caesar conquered the Gauls and made all Gaul into a Roman Province.
Latifundia were large plantations owned by the wealthy elite and operated by slave labor in Rome.
Mithraism was a cult dedicated to Mithras who was originally a Zoroastrian god closely identified with
the sun and light. Roman soldiers serving in the Hellenistic world adapted it and associated Mithras with
military values such as strength, courage, and discipline.
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Pater Familias meant "Father of the family," who by Roman law had the authority to arrange marriages
for his children, determine the work or duties of all family members, and punish family members for
offenses as he saw fit. He also had the right to sell family members into slavery and even to execute them.
Patricians were the hereditary aristocrats and wealthy classes of the Roman republic who dominated
Roman political and economic life, electing an assembly who selected two consuls and serving as
members of the Senate, an advisory body to the consuls.
Pax Romana or the "Roman peace," was an era of peace inaugurated by Augustus's rule that persisted for
over two centuries until well after the death of Marcus Aurelius.
The Pantheon was a Roman temple to all the gods of the Roman state religion, but has been a Christian
church since the 7th century AD. As a result, it is the only Greco-Roman building which is completely
intact and been in use throughout its history. It is a classical example of the use of poured concrete from
the ancient world.
Plebeians were the common people or ordinary citizens of Rome, whose tribunes gained political power
in struggle against the patricians.
Pont du Gard in France was built around the year 19 CE and .is perhaps the best preserved above ground
aqueduct
Pompeii was the Roman resort town buried in volcanic ash by Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE.
The Punic Wars were three devastating conflicts between Romans and Carthage over political and
commercial supremacy in the western Mediterranean regions fought between 264 and 146 B.C.E. The
rivalry ended after Roman forces razed the city of Carthage, salted the surrounding earth to render it unfit
for agriculture and settlement, and forced many of the survivors into slavery.
The Proscription List was first used by Sulla. Any Roman whose name was published the list was ipso
facto stripped of his citizenship and excluded from all protection under law. Moreover, reward money was
given to any informer who gave information leading to the death of a proscribed man and any person who
killed a proscribed man was entitled to keep part of his estate
Romulus and Remus were twin brothers in the ancient Roman legends, who were raised by a kindly shewolf and grew up as strong and courageous men. According to the legends, Romulus founded the city of
Rome and became its first king in 753 B.C.E.
The Senate was a political body of Roman aristocrats; the members of which included Rome's most
prominent political and military leaders. The Senate advised the consuls and ratified all major decisions.
Together with the consuls, the Senate largely controlled public affairs in early years of Roman republic.
Tribunes were the official representatives of plebeians in the Roman government;, who had the power to
intervene in all political matters and possessed the right to veto measures that they judged unfair. They
are not to be confused with military Tribunes who were officers in the Roman Legions serving as
mid ranking officers and paymasters
The Twelve Tables are the earliest Roman Law Code dating to 450 BCE,
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