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SPCBA SAN PEDRO COLLEGE OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, INC. Brief Overview of Punctuation Summary: When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate emphasis. When writing, we must use punctuation to indicate these places of emphasis. This resource should help to clarify when and how to use various marks of punctuation. When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate emphasis. When writing, we use punctuation to indicate these places of emphases. Independent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb and can stand alone; a complete sentence Dependent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone; an incomplete sentence Comma Use a comma to join 2 independent clauses by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so). Road construction can be inconvenient, but it is necessary. The new house has a large fenced backyard, so I am sure our dog will enjoy it. Use a comma after an introductory phrase, prepositional phrase, or dependent clause. To get a good grade, you must complete all your assignments. Because Dad caught the chicken pox, we canceled our vacation. After the wedding, the guests attended the reception. Use a comma to separate elements in a series. Although there is no set rule that requires a comma before the last item in a series, it seems to be a general academic convention to include it. The examples below demonstrate this trend. On her vacation, Lisa visited Greece, Spain, and Italy. In their speeches, many of the candidates promised to help protect the environment, bring about world peace, and end world hunger. Use a comma to separate nonessential elements from a sentence. More specifically, when a sentence includes information that is not crucial to the message or intent of the sentence, enclose it in or separate it by commas. John's truck, a red Chevrolet, needs new tires. When he realized he had overslept, Matt rushed to his car and hurried to work. Use a comma between coordinate adjectives (adjectives that are equal and reversible). The irritable, fidgety crowd waited impatiently for the rally speeches to begin. The sturdy, compact suitcase made a perfect gift. Use a comma after a transitional element (however, therefore, nonetheless, also, otherwise, finally, instead, thus, of course, above all, for example, in other words, as a result, on the other hand, in conclusion, in addition) For example, the Red Sox, Yankees, and Indians are popular baseball teams. If you really want to get a good grade this semester, however, you must complete all assignments, attend class, and study your notes. Use a comma with quoted words. "Yes," she promised. Todd replied, saying, "I will be back this afternoon." Use a comma in a date. October 25, 1999 Monday, October 25, 1999 25 October 1999 Use a comma in a number. 15,000,000 1614 High Street Use a comma in a personal title. Pam Smith, MD Mike Rose, Chief Financial Officer for Operations, reported the quarter's earnings. Use a comma to separate a city name from the state. West Lafayette, Indiana Dallas, Texas Avoid comma splices (two independent clauses joined only by a comma). Instead, separate the clauses with a period, with a comma followed by a coordinating conjunction, or with a semicolon. Semicolon Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis. Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town; streets have become covered with bulldozers, trucks, and cones. Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, thus, meanwhile, nonetheless, otherwise) or a transition (in fact, for example, that is, for instance, in addition, in other words, on the other hand, even so). Terrorism in the United States has become a recent concern; in fact, the concern for America's safety has led to an awareness of global terrorism. Use a semicolon to join elements of a series when individual items of the series already include commas. Recent sites of the Olympic Games include Athens, Greece; Salt Lake City, Utah; Sydney, Australia; Nagano, Japan. Colon Use a colon to join 2 independent clauses when you wish to emphasize the second clause. Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town: parts of Main, Fifth, and West Street are closed during the construction. Use a colon after an independent clause when it is followed by a list, a quotation, appositive, or other idea directly related to the independent clause. Julie went to the store for some groceries: milk, bread, coffee, and cheese. In his Gettysburg Address, Abraham Lincoln urges Americans to rededicate themselves to the unfinished work of the deceased soldiers: "It is for us the living rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth." I know the perfect job for her: a politician. Use a colon at the end of a business letter greeting. To Whom It May Concern: Use a colon to separate the hour and minute(s) in a time notation. 12:00 p.m. Use a colon to separate the chapter and verse in a Biblical reference. Matthew 1:6 Parenthesis Parentheses are used to emphasize content. They place more emphasis on the enclosed content than commas. Use parentheses to set off nonessential material, such as dates, clarifying information, or sources, from a sentence. Muhammed Ali (1942-present), arguably the greatest athlete of all time, claimed he would "float like a butterfly, sting like a bee." Dash Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses. Perhaps one reason why the term has been so problematic—so resistant to definition, and yet so transitory in those definitions—is because of its multitude of applications. In terms of public legitimacy—that is, in terms of garnering support from state legislators, parents, donors, and university administrators—English departments are primarily places where advanced literacy is taught. The U.S.S. Constitution became known as "Old Ironsides" during the War of 1812— during which the cannonballs fired from the British H.M.S. Guerriere merely bounced off the sides of the Constitution. To some of you, my proposals may seem radical—even revolutionary. Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a word that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it. The cousins—Tina, Todd, and Sam—arrived at the party together. Quotation Marks Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods are placed inside the closing quotation mark, and colons and semicolons are placed outside. The placement of question and exclamation marks depends on the situation. He asked, "When will you be arriving?" I answered, "Sometime after 6:30." Use quotation marks to indicate the novel, ironic, or reserved use of a word. History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "justice." Use quotation marks around the titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, magazine or newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or radio shows. "Self-Reliance," by Ralph Waldo Emerson "Just Like a Woman," by Bob Dylan "The Smelly Car," an episode of Seinfeld Do not use quotation marks in indirect or block quotations. Italics Underlining and Italics are often used interchangeably. Before word-processing programs were widely available, writers would underline certain words to indicate to publishers to italicize whatever was underlined. Although the general trend has been moving toward italicizing instead of underlining, you should remain consistent with your choice throughout your paper. To be safe, you could check with your teacher to find out which he/she prefers. Italicize the titles of magazines, books, newspapers, academic journals, films, television shows, long poems, plays of three or more acts, operas, musical albums, works of art, websites, and individual trains, planes, or ships. Time Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare The Metamorphosis of Narcissus by Salvador Dali Amazon.com Titanic Italicize foreign words. Semper fi, the motto of the U.S. Marine Corps, means "always faithful." Italicize a word or phrase to add emphasis. The truth is of utmost concern! Italicize a word when referring to that word. The word justice is often misunderstood and therefore misused. Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses Summary: This handout defines dependent and independent clauses and explores how they are treated in standard usage. When you want to use commas and semicolons in sentences and when you are concerned about whether a sentence is or is not a fragment, a good way to start is to be able to recognize dependent and independent clauses. The definitions offered here will help you with this. Independent Clause An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence. Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz. Dependent Clause A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked by a dependent marker word. When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . . (What happened when he studied? The thought is incomplete.) Dependent Marker Word A dependent marker word is a word added to the beginning of an independent clause that makes it into a dependent clause. When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, it was very noisy. Some common dependent markers are: after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever,whether, and while. Connecting dependent and independent clauses There are two types of words that can be used as connectors at the beginning of an independent clause: coordinating conjunctions and independent marker words. 1. Coordinating Conjunction The seven coordinating conjunctions used as connecting words at the beginning of an independent clause are and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet. When the second independent clause in a sentence begins with a coordinating conjunction, a comma is needed before the coordinating conjunction: Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, but it was hard to concentrate because of the noise. 2. Independent Marker Word An independent marker word is a connecting word used at the beginning of an independent clause. These words can always begin a sentence that can stand alone. When the second independent clause in a sentence has an independent marker word, a semicolon is needed before the independent marker word. Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz; however, it was hard to concentrate because of the noise. Some common independent markers are: also, consequently, furthermore, however,moreover, nevertheless, and therefore. Some Common Errors to Avoid Comma Splices A comma splice is the use of a comma between two independent clauses. You can usually fix the error by changing the comma to a period and therefore making the two clauses into two separate sentences, by changing the comma to a semicolon, or by making one clause dependent by inserting a dependent marker word in front of it. Incorrect: I like this class, it is very interesting. Correct: I like this class. It is very interesting. (or) I like this class; it is very interesting. (or) I like this class, and it is very interesting. (or) I like this class because it is very interesting. (or) Because it is very interesting, I like this class. Fused Sentences Fused sentences happen when there are two independent clauses not separated by any form of punctuation. This error is also known as a run-on sentence. The error can sometimes be corrected by adding a period, semicolon, or colon to separate the two sentences. Incorrect: My professor is intelligent I've learned a lot from her. Correct: My professor is intelligent. I've learned a lot from her. (or) My professor is intelligent; I've learned a lot from her. (or) My professor is intelligent, and I've learned a lot from her. (or) My professor is intelligent; moreover, I've learned a lot from her. Sentence Fragments Sentence fragments happen by treating a dependent clause or other incomplete thought as a complete sentence. You can usually fix this error by combining it with another sentence to make a complete thought or by removing the dependent marker. Incorrect: Because I forgot the exam was today. Correct: Because I forgot the exam was today, I didn't study. (or) I forgot the exam was today. The Apostrophe The apostrophe has three uses: 1. to form possessives of nouns 2. to show the omission of letters 3. to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters Forming Possessives of Nouns To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the..." phrase. For example: the boy's hat = the hat of the boy three days' journey = journey of three days If the noun after "of" is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is needed! room of the hotel = hotel room door of the car = car door leg of the table = table leg Once you've determined whether you need to make a possessive, follow these rules to create one. add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s): the owner's car James's hat (James' hat is also acceptable. For plural, proper nouns that are possessive, use an apostrophe after the 's': "The Eggleses' presentation was good." The Eggleses are a husband and wife consultant team.) add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s: the children's game the geese's honking add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s: two cats' toys three friends' letters the countries' laws add 's to the end of compound words: my brother-in-law's money add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object: Todd and Anne's apartment Showing omission of letters Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a contraction, place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are some examples: don't = do not I'm = I am he'll = he will who's = who is shouldn't = should not didn't = did not could've= could have (NOT "could of"!) '60 = 1960 Forming plurals of lowercase letters Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase; here the rule appears to be more typographical than grammatical, e.g. "three ps" versus "three p's." To form the plural of a lowercase letter, place 's after the letter. There is no need for apostrophes indicating a plural on capitalized letters, numbers, and symbols (though keep in mind that some editors, teachers, and professors still prefer them). Here are some examples: p's and q's = a phrase believed to be taken from the early days of the printing press when letters were set in presses backwards so they would appear on the printed page correctly. Although the origins of this phrase are disputed, the expression was used commonly to mean, "Be careful, don't make a mistake." Today, the term also indicates maintaining politeness, possibly from "mind your pleases and thank-yous." Nita's mother constantly stressed minding one's p's and q's. three Macintosh G4s = three of the Macintosh model G4 There are two G4s currently used in the writing classroom. many &s = many ampersands That printed page has too many &s on it. the 1960s = the years in decade from 1960 to 1969 The 1960s were a time of great social unrest. The '60s were a time of great social unrest. Don't use apostrophes for personal pronouns, the relative pronoun who, or for noun plurals. Apostrophes should not be used with possessive pronouns because possessive pronouns already show possession — they don't need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are all possessive pronouns. However, indefinite pronouns, such as one, anyone, other, no one, and anybody, can be made possessive. Here are some examples: wrong: his' book correct: his book correct: one's book correct: anybody's book wrong: Who's dog is this? correct: Whose dog is this? wrong: The group made it's decision. correct: The group made its decision. (Note: Its and it's are not the same thing. It's is a contraction for "it is" and its is a possessive pronoun meaning "belonging to it." It's raining out= it is raining out. A simple way to remember this rule is the fact that you don't use an apostrophe for the possessive his or hers, so don't do it with its!) wrong: a friend of yours' correct: a friend of yours wrong: She waited for three hours' to get her ticket. correct: She waited for three hours to get her ticket. Proofreading for apostrophes A good time to proofread is when you have finished writing the paper. Try the following strategies to proofread for apostrophes: If you tend to leave out apostrophes, check every word that ends in -s or -es to see if it needs an apostrophe. If you put in too many apostrophes, check every apostrophe to see if you can justify it with a rule for using apostrophes. Hyphen Use Two words brought together as a compound may be written separately, written as one word, or connected by hyphens. For example, three modern dictionaries all have the same listings for the following compounds: hair stylist hairsplitter hair-raiser Another modern dictionary, however, lists hairstylist, not hair stylist. Compounding is obviously in a state of flux, and authorities do not always agree in all cases, but the uses of the hyphen offered here are generally agreed upon. 1. Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun: a one-way street chocolate-covered peanuts well-known author However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated: The peanuts were chocolate covered. The author was well known. 2. Use a hyphen with compound numbers: forty-six sixty-three Our much-loved teacher was sixty-three years old. 3. Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters: re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job) semi-independent (but semiconscious) shell-like (but childlike) 4. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the suffix -elect; between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters: ex-husband self-assured mid-September all-inclusive mayor-elect anti-American T-shirt pre-Civil War mid-1980s 5. Use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line if necessary, and make the break only between syllables: pref-er-ence sell-ing in-di-vid-u-al-ist 6. For line breaks, divide already-hyphenated words only at the hyphen: massproduced selfconscious 7. For line breaks in words ending in -ing, if a single final consonant in the root word is doubled before the suffix, hyphenate between the consonants; otherwise, hyphenate at the suffix itself: plan-ning run-ning driv-ing call-ing 8. Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line, and don't put two-letter suffixes at the beginning of a new line: lovely (Do not separate to leave ly beginning a new line.) eval-u-ate (Separate only on either side of the u; do not leave the initial e- at the end of a line.)