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Министерство образования Республики Беларусь
УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
«ГРОДНЕНСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ
ИМЕНИ ЯНКИ КУПАЛЫ»
Amazing Physics World
Удивительный мир физики
Учебное пособие по чтению и реферированию на
английском языке для студентов физико-технических
специальностей вуза
Гродно ГрГУ им.
Я.Купалы 2015
УДК
811.111(075.8) ББК
81.432.1
М63
А вт о р ы :
О.Э.Боярчук, О.В.Юшкевич
.
Рекомендовано Cоветом филологического
факультета ГрГУ им.
Я.Купалы.
Пособие состоит из двух частей, каждая из которых содержит четырнадцать разделов.
Каждый раздел первой части содержит текст из научно-технической литературы на
английском языке и задания, предназначенные для изучения и закрепления лексического и
грамматического материала по специальности. Разделы второй части предназначены для
обучения овладения навыками реферирования специальной литературы. Адресуется
студентам инженерно-физических специальностей вуза.
УДК 811.111(075.8)
ББК 81.432.1
© Учреждение образования «Гродненский государственный университет ISBN 978-985515-044-3 имени Янки Купалы», 2015
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ВВЕДЕНИЕ
Предлагаемое пособие предназначено для студентов физикотехнических специальностей вуза. Его основная цель – ознакомить
студентов с лексическим материалом по специальности и,
соответственно, подготовить их к чтению специальной научнотехнической литературы для извлечения информации, а также привить
им навыки реферирования текстов по специальности.
Структуру пособия составляют две части, каждая из четырнадцати
разделов. В первой части каждый раздел содержит текст, в котором
излагается суть важнейших областей физики – механики, электричества,
теории звуковых волн, оптики и других – и заданий, предназначенных
для проработки лексического и грамматического материала. Тексты
второй части ориентированы на овладение навыками реферирования
специальной литературы.
Материал пособия расположен с учетом нарастающих языковых
трудностей. Также в рамках каждого раздела соблюдается принцип
постепенного усложнения заданий к текстам.
Текстовый материал издания заимствован из зарубежных
аутентичных источников и его тематика определена программой
подготовки специалистов инженерно-технического профиля.
Работа над текстами направлена на создание словарного запаса
терминологической лексики и формирование понятийного аппарата по
специальности с опорой на знания, полученные в процессе изучения
спецдисциплин на русском языке. Таким образом, комплекс заданий
реализует определённые коммуникативные задачи в ситуациях
профессионально ориентированного общения.
Для практического использования студентами приобретённых
знаний необходимо обладать умением самостоятельно работать над
языком. Поэтому предлагаемые задания студенты могут выполнять как
под руководством преподавателя, так и самостоятельно. Кроме того,
достаточное количество заданий к текстам даёт возможность
преподавателю варьировать работу в зависимости от уровня подготовки
группы.
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Part I
UNIT 1
I. Find out the words in the dictionary. Write them down and learn.
physics, physicist, to concern, property, matter, various, sub-stance,
evidence, to compose, tiny, a particle, a molecule, to exert, a force,
nucleus (nuclei), to interact, to be neglected, to be provided, charge
II. Read the text. Use a dictionary, if necessary.
TEXT: «THE NATURE OF MATTER.
THE BASIC CONSTITUENTS OF MATTER»
Physics is concerned with studying the properties of matter, forc-es, and
energy and their various interactions. In trying to understand the behaviour of
solids, liquids, and gases physicists regard substances in terms of their basic
constituents.
Experimental evidence supports the idea that matter in all three possible
phases is composed of tiny particles, called molecules, which are
continuously in motion. For any given single substance, the mole-cules are
identical in mass, structure, and other properties. All mole-cules in a
substance exert a force on each other.
Molecules consist of groups of atoms, which themselves consist of
electrons and nuclei. In solids and liquids, the molecules move relative-ly
slowly and they therefore interact fairly strongly. But in the study of gases,
the molecular force can often be neglected because the molecules are, on
average, widely separated and interact relatively briefly. Despite the
minuteness of molecules, evidence of their existence is provided by various
phenomena, such as Brownian motion.
Just as substances can be broken down into molecules, molecules can
be broken down into atoms. An atom is the smallest particle that can
represent a particular chemical element.
There are three types of particles that can be considered as making up a
typical atom. Central nucleus is comprised of neutrons and protons. The
neutron is a particle with no electrical charge, whereas the proton has a single
positive charge. Both have roughly the same mass. Circulat-ing about this
central region, held in orbit under the influence of the proton’s positive
charge, are the electrons. These are subatomic parti-cles, each with a single
negative charge and an extremely small mass. Electrons play a major role in
determining the properties of the various elements.
III. Distribute the words into four columns and translate them.
Model: What?
use
What kind of?
useful
4
What to do?
to use
How?
usefully
relatively, evidence, various, fairly, particle, exert, neglect, rough-ly,
motion, possible, minuteness, subatomic, interact, widely, phenome-non,
misunderstand, substance, briefly, average, provide, compose, prop-erty,
continuously, molecular, behavior, identical, nuclei, particular, in-fluence,
move, extremely
IV. Practice the following speech patterns.
Pattern 1. Physics is concerned with studying the properties of matter.
1. the properties of forces
2. the properties of energy
3. the behaviour of solids
4. the behaviour of liquids
Pattern 2.
5. the behaviour of gases
6. the properties of plasma
7. physical phenomena
8. the molecular nature of matter
Matter is composed of tiny particles.
1. matter – molecules
2. a molecule – atoms
3. physics – two branches
4. an atom – electrons and nucleus
5. a substance – molecules
6. a chemical element –
molecules
7. an atom – particles
8. the nucleus – neutrons
and protons
Pattern 3. In trying to understand the behaviour of solids physicists
make experiments.
1. the behaviour of liquids
5. atomic structure
2. the behaviour of gases
6. the nature of the electron
3. the behaviour of natural phenomena 7. the behaviour of particles
4. the nature of matter
8. the properties of matter
V. Find the sentences that can’t be found in the text.
Physics is concerned with studying various phenomena in nature.
Matter in all three possible phases is composed of tiny particles called
molecules.
Evidence of the existence of molecules is provided by various phenomena,
such as Brownian motion.
Every substance or material can be divided into particles known as
molecules.
Just as substances can be broken down into molecules, mole-cules can be
broken down into atoms.
An atom is the smallest particle that can represent a particular chemical
element.
In a stable atom, the total positive charge of the nucleus is equal to the
total negative charge of the electrons.
The neutron is a particle with no electrical charge, whereas the proton has
a single positive charge.
VI. Translate the following word combinations into Russian.
evidence of the existence ________________________________
three types of particles __________________________________
the influence of the positive charge ________________________
the properties of the element ____________________________
a model of the atom___________________________________
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VII. Find English equivalents in the text:
различные взаимодействия ____________________________
пытаясь понять ______________________________________
материя во всех трёх возможных состояниях ______________
крошечные частицы __________________________________
идентичны по массе, структуре и другим свойствам ________
воздействовать силой _________________________________
состоять из электронов и ядер __________________________
в среднем ___________________________________________
несмотря на недолговечность __________________________
относительно медленно двигаться ____________________
относительно коротко взаимодействовать _______________
подтверждение существования ________________________
представлять отдельно взятый химический элемент _______
составлять типовой атом _____________________________
отрицательный заряд _______________________________
иметь приблизительно одинаковую массу _______________
вращаясь вокруг центральной области __________________
под влиянием положительного заряда протона ___________
VIII. Find Russian equivalents to the following expressions in the text:
the properties of matter, forces and energy _________________
experimental evidence supports the idea ____________________
molecules exert a force ________________________________
molecules are forced together ____________________________
interact fairly strongly _________________________________
the force can be neglected ______________________________
despite the minuteness of molecules _______________________
substances can be broken down into molecules _______________
a particular chemical element ___________________________
a particle with no electrical charge _______________________
a single positive charge ________________________________
a major role in determining the properties __________________
IX. Fill in the missing words.
Physics is concerned with studying the ___ of matter, forces and
energy.
Experimental ___ supports the idea that matter in all three phas-es is
composed of ___, called molecules.
For any given single ___, the molecules are identical.
All molecules in a substance ___ a force on each other.
In solids and liquids, the molecules move ___ slowly and there-fore
they ___ fairly strongly.
Molecules can be broken down into ___.
The ___ is a particle with no electrical charge.
X. Fill in the prepositions, if necessary.
Physics is concerned ___ studying the properties of matter, forc-es
and energy.
Molecules consist ___ groups ___ atoms
But ___ gases, the molecular force can be neglected.
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Just as substances can be broken ___ ___ molecules, molecules can
be broken ___ ___ atoms.
There are three types ___ particles that can be considered as making
___ a typical atom.
The neutron is a particle ___ no electrical charge.
XI. Define whether the sentences are true or false.
Physics is concerned with numbers, chemical reactions and dif-ferent
functions.
All molecules in an atom exert a force on each other.
Molecules consist of nothing. They are not dividable particles.
In solids and liquids, the molecules move relatively slowly.
An atom is the biggest particle that can represent a particular
chemical element.
There are 6 types of particles that can be considered as making up a
typical atom.
The neutron is a positively charged particle.
Proton is a particle with no electrical charge.
XII. Practice with someone asking and answering.
What is physics concerned with?
In what way do physicists regard substances?
What idea does experimental evidence support?
Are the molecules identical only in mass for any given single
substance?
Do all molecules in a substance exert a force on each other?
What do molecules consist of?
How do the molecules move in solids and liquids?
Why can the molecular force often be neglected in the study of
gases?
What provides evidence of the existence of molecules?
Into what constituents can molecules be broken down?
What is the smallest particle that can represent a particular chem-ical
element?
How many types of particles are there, particles that can be
considered as making up a typical atom?
XIII. Put questions to the following sentences.
All molecules in a substance exert a force on each other. (General)
In solids and liquids, the molecules move relatively slowly. (Special)
There are three types of particles. (Disjunctive)
The neutron is a particle with no electrical charge. (Special)
The proton has a single positive charge. (Alternative)
Electrons play a major role in determining the properties of the
various elements. (General)
In the study of gases the molecular force is neglected. (Special)
XIV. Dictate the following sentences in English to your fellow-stu-dents.
Check them together.
Physics is concerned with studying the properties of matter, forc-es,
and energy.
Physicists regard substances in terms of their basic constituents.
Matter is composed of tiny particles, called molecules.
Atoms consist of electrons and nuclei.
7
The existence of molecules is provided by various phenomena, such
as Brownian motion.
There are three types of particles: electrons, neutrons and protons.
The neutron is a particle with no electrical charge.
XV. Dictation-translation.
Физика изучает свойства материи, сил и энергии.
Экспериментальные факты подтверждают идею, что материя
состоит из мельчайших частиц, называемых молекулами.
Для любого данного вещества молекулы одинаковы по массе,
структуре и другим свойствам.
Все молекулы вещества оказывают воздействие друг на
друга.
В твёрдых телах и жидкостях молекулы движутся
относительно медленно, а взаимодействуют достаточно сильно.
Доказательство существования молекул обеспечивается
различными явлениями.
Также как вещество распадается на молекулы, молекулы
распадаются на атомы.
Атом – это самая маленькая частица, которая может
представлять конкретный химический элемент.
Центральное ядро состоит из нейтронов и протонов.
Электроны – это субатомные частицы, каждая из которых имеет
единичный отрицательный заряд и очень маленькую массу.
8
UNIT 2
I. Find out the words in the dictionary. Write them down and learn.
to possess, cohesion, attractive forces, rigid, repulsive forces, to
retain, crystalline, amorphous, to melt, lattice, a melting point, however,
negligible, to repel, to approach, because of, to cause, to vibrate
II. Read the text. Use a dictionary, if necessary.
TEXT: «STATES OF MATTER»
All substances can, under the right conditions, exist as a solid, liq-uid,
or gas. These are the three basic physical states (or phases) of matter.
Solids possess the property called cohesion; that is, their compo-nent
particles (atoms or molecules) are held together by attractive forc-es. As a
result, solid substances are rigid and retain their shape unless deformed by
external forces.
There are two principal types of solids: crystalline and amorphous.
Crystalline solids have definite crystalline structures. Most also melt at
specific temperatures to become liquids. Examples include metals, ice, and
many plastics, in addition to obviously crystalline substances such as
common salt and diamond. In contrast to crystalline solids, amor-phous
solids have neither crystalline structures nor specific melting points. Glass is
an example of amorphous solids.
Liquids represent the intermediate stage between solid and gas. A
liquid’s atoms or molecules have some degree of cohesion and so tend to
remain together. But they are not rigidly linked and can therefore move in
relation to each other – which is not possible in solids. For this reason liquids
flow and in a gravitational field take on the shape of the vessels in which they
are contained.
In a gas the constituent particles have negligible cohesion and can
therefore move almost completely independently of each other. Like liquids,
gasses flow and assume the shape of their containers. Unlike liquids,
however, gasses always fill the entire space in their containers – and the
container needs to be closed if the gas is not to escape.
The attractive forces between atoms or molecules in a solid are
balanced by repulsive forces. As two of these particles approach each other,
the outer electrons of one repel the outer electrons of the other,
9
and the atoms or molecules move apart. But because of the attractive forces
between them, they move back toward each other again. The overall result of
the attractive and repulsive forces is to cause each of the atoms or mole-cules
in a solid to vibrate continually about the same position in a lattice.
The atoms or molecules of a liquid are also affected by attractive and
repulsive forces. But a liquid is hotter than the same substance in solid form
and its vibrating particles therefore have greater kinetic ener-gy – that is, they
vibrate more violently. As a result, the attractive forces cannot hold them in a
lattice, and they are relatively free to move.
In a gas the atoms or molecules have so much energy that they have
largely broken free of the influences of the attractive and repulsive forces
and, therefore, have almost complete freedom of movement.
III. Translate the words of the same root. Define parts of speech.
to exist – existence – existent
obvious – obviously – obviousness
molecule – molecular – intermolecular
to attract – attraction – attractive
violent – violently
to move – movement
atom – atomic – interatomic
to shape – shape – shapeless – shapelessness
relativity – relative – relatively
to add – addition
definite – definitely – indefinitely
to form – formation – deformation
complete – completely – completeness
to assume – assumption
to depend – dependence – dependent – independent – independently
to contain – container
entire – entirely
to specify – specific – specifically – unspecified
possible – impossible
IV. Practice the following speech pattern.
Pattern Solids possess the property called cohesion.
1. liquids – fluidity
4. solids – hardness
2. gases – volatility
5. solids – strength
3. plasma – fluidity
6. solids – elasticity
V. Find the sentences that can’t be found in the text.
A solid substance such as ice may be changed into a liquid state to
become water.
Solids possess the property called cohesion.
Liquids represent the intermediate stage between solid and gas.
Solids have a definite volume and shape, liquids have a definite
volume but no shape.
The attractive forces between atoms or molecules in a solid are
balanced by repulsive forces.
A liquid is hotter than the same substance in solid form and its
vibrating particles have greater kinetic energy.
VI. Find English equivalents to the following expressions in the text.
обладать свойством __________________________________
10
сохранять форму _____________________________________
два главных вида твёрдых тел __________________________
кристаллические твёрдые тела _________________________
определённые точки плавления _________________________
в отличие от _________________________________________
степень связности ____________________________________
не связаны жёстко ____________________________________
двигаться относительно друг друга ______________________
жидкости текучи ___________________________________
VII. Translate the following word combinations and noun groups into
Russian.
under the right conditions _______________________________
deformed by external forces _____________________________
are held together by attractive forces _______________________
as a result ___________________________________________
to melt at specific temperatures ___________________________
the intermediate stage between solid and gas ________________
degree of cohesion ____________________________________
tend to remain together _________________________________
therefore ____________________________________________
however ___________________________________________
the shape of the vessel _________________________________
complete freedom of movement _________________________
VIII. Fill in the missing words.
All substances can ___ as a solid, liquid or gas.
Solids possess the ___ called cohesion.
In solids the component particles are held together by ___ forces.
Crystalline solids have ___ ___ structures.
Most solids ___ at specific temperatures to become liquids.
Amorphous solids have neither crystalline structures nor ___ ___
points.
In a gas the constituent particles have ___ cohesion.
Like liquids, gasses flow and ___ the shape of their containers.
IX. Fill in the prepositions if necessary.
In a gas the particles can move almost completely independently
___ each other.
The attractive forces between atoms or molecules ___ a solid are
balanced ___ repulsive forces.
As two of the particles approach ___ each other, the outer elec-trons
of one repel the outer electrons of the other, and the atoms or molecules move
___.
Because of the attractive force between them, they move ___ ___
each other again.
In a gas the atoms or molecules have so much energy that they have
largely broken free ___ the influences ___ the attractive and repul-sive
forces.
X. Practice with someone asking and answering.
11
points?
In what forms can all single substances exist?
What main property do solids possess?
What do we mean by cohesion?
What are two principal types of solids?
Crystalline solids have definite crystalline structures, don’t they?
Do they melt at specific temperatures?
What are the examples of crystalline solids?
Do amorphous solids have crystalline structures and specific melting
What are the examples of amorphous structures?
Liquids represent the intermediate stage between solid and gas, don’t
they?
What are the properties of liquids?
Why do liquids flow?
Do the constituent particles in a gas have any cohesion? 14. Do
gases behave like liquids? Are gases similar to liquids?
XI. Put questions to the following sentences.
Crystalline solids have definite crystalline structures. (General)
Glass and many resins are examples of amorphous solids. (Alternative)
The attractive forces cannot hold particles in a lattice. (Disjunctive)
XII. Dictate the following sentences in English to your fellow-stu-dents.
Check them together.
All single substances can exist as a solid, liquid, or gas.
Crystalline solids have definite crystalline structures.
Most solids melt at specific temperatures to become liquids.
A liquid’s atoms or molecules have some degree of cohesion and so
tend to remain together.
Liquids flow and in a gravitational field take on the shape of the
vessels in which they are contained.
The overall result of the attractive and repulsive forces is to cause
each of the atoms or molecules to vibrate continually about the same position
in a lattice. A liquid is hotter than the same substance in a solid form and its
vibrating particles have greater kinetic energy.
XIII. Dictation-translation.
Существует три физических состояния материи.
Твёрдые тела обладают свойством, называемым связность, т.е.
их составляющие удерживаются вместе силами притяжения.
Существует два основных вида твёрдых тел: кристал-лические
и аморфные.
Жидкости представляют собой промежуточную ступень между
твёрдым телом и газом.
Атомы жидкости не являются жёстко связанными между собой
и могут двигаться относительно друг друга.
В газе составляющие его частицы имеют незначительную
связность и могут двигаться почти полностью независимо друг от друга.
Силы притяжения между атомами и молекулами в твёрдом теле
уравновешиваются силами отталкивания.
12
UNIT 3
I. Find out the words in the dictionary. Write them down and learn.
strength, elasticity, stiff, to stretch, to compress, strain, tensile,
shear, compressive, to twist out, to pull apart, repulsive, bond, hard-ness,
pressure, density, to expand, cohesion, tension, to cancel out
II. Read the text. Use a dictionary, if necessary.
TEXT: «PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS»
The forces that hold atoms and molecules in place give solids their
strength.
The strength of a material is determined by measuring its elastici-ty –
that is how stiff it is and how it behaves when it is stretched or compressed.
Elasticity is measured as the ratio of stress to strain.
Stress is defined as the force acting on a material divided by the area
over which the force is applied. Stress may be applied in three different ways:
tensile, shear and compressive.
Tensile stress causes a material to become elongated (stretched), and
shear stress causes it to be twisted out of shape. In both cases the component
atoms or molecules are pulled apart as they move from their original
positions. When the stress is removed, the attractive forces be-tween the
atoms or molecules pull them back together again, and the material is
restored to its original shape. Compressive stress forces the atoms or
molecules together, and it is the repulsive forces that restore the shape of the
material when the stress is removed. If stress is applied to a material and
slowly increased, the material accordingly changes shape. But at a certain
point it reaches its elastic limit.
Another property of solid materials that depends on the strength of the
bonds between atoms or molecules is hardness.
As in a solid, the atoms or molecules of a liquid are held together by
attractive forces. But these forces are not great enough to hold the atoms or
molecules in a fixed pattern, they move about on random. As a result, a liquid
can flow and it cannot be stretched or distored. Like a solid, it can be
compressed slightly and shows the same sort of elasticity when subjected to
compressive stress. Unlike a solid, but like a gas, a liquid exerts pressure,
which at any point depends on the depth and the density of the liquid.
A liquid does not expand to fill the whole of the volume available to it.
Instead, the cohesion between its molecules forces it to maintain a fixed
volume (at a given temperature). It takes on the shape of all or part of its
container – but this is only because the forces of gravity makes it do so. In
zero gravity conditions a liquid takes on the shape with the minimum
possible surface area – that is, a sphere.
The fact that a liquid tends to take on a spherical shape is due to a
phenomenon known as surface tension. Inside a volume of liquid all the
atoms or molecules attract each other equally. Each molecule experi-ences
attractive forces in all directions and they cancel out each other. But the
atoms or molecules on the surface experience few, if any, attrac-tive forces
from the outside. As a result, the forces between them and inner molecules
tend to pull them inwards and towards each other.
13
III. Define by suffix speech parts of the following words and trans-late
them:
Generally, collection, elasticity, define, different, compressive, position,
attractive, repulsive, restore, slowly, remove, accordingly, hard-ness, move,
density, available, container, spherical, phenomenon, equally, direction,
inner.
IV. Find English equivalents to the following expressions.
сила _______________________________________________
прочность __________________________________________
жёсткий ____________________________________________
нажим/давление _____________________________________
быть искривлённым __________________________________
сила притяжения _____________________________________
отталкивающая сила __________________________________
соответственно изменять форму ________________________
точка сопротивления _________________________________
связи между атомами или молекулами __________________
наугад _____________________________________________
оказывать давление __________________________________
расширяться ______________________________________
сцепление/соединение _______________________________
сила тяжести ______________________________________
поверхность _______________________________________
напряжение ________________________________________
V. Find Russian equivalents to the following words and expressions:
to hold atoms and molecules _____________________________
the strength of a material _______________________________
stiff _______________________________________________
may be applied ______________________________________
to become elongated ___________________________________
molecules are pulled apart ______________________________
attractive force _______________________________________
to pull back __________________________________________
repulsive forces _______________________________________
to restore __________________________________________
a fixed pattern _______________________________________
the density of the liquid ________________________________
surface tension ______________________________________
to pull inwards and towards _____________________________
VI. Fill in the gaps with the following words.
tension, to strain, tensile, liquid, compressive, bonds, strength,
hardness, ratio, shear, repulsive, to stretch, exerts, solid
The forces that hold atoms and molecules in place give solids their
____.
Elasticity is measured as the ____ of stress to ____.
14
Stress may be applied in three different ways ____, _____, _____.
____ stress causes a material to become elongated.
____ stress forces the atoms or molecules together, and it is the ____
forces that restore the shape of the material.
Another property of ____ materials that depends on the strength of
the ____ between atoms and molecules is ____.
A ____ can flow.
A liquid ____ pressure.
The fact that a liquid tends to take on a spherical shape is due to a
phenomenon known as surface ____.
VII. Fill in the prepositions, if necessary.
The strength ____ a material is determined ____ measuring its
elasticity. Shear stress causes it to be twisted _____ shape.
In both cases the component atoms or molecules are pulled ___
as they move from their original positions.
The material accordingly changes _____ shape.
Another property of solid materials that depends _____ the strength
of the bonds _____ atoms and molecules is hardness.
Each molecule experiences attractive forces _____ all di-rections.
equally.
____ a volume of liquid all the atoms or molecules attract each other
VIII. Define whether the statements are true or false.
1 . The forces that hold atoms and molecules in place don’t give solids
their strength.
The strength of a material is determined by measuring its elasticity.
Stress is defined as the force acting in a material.
Stress may be applied in four different ways.
Another property of solid materials that depends on the strength of
the bonds between atoms and molecules is softness.
Atoms or molecules of a liquid are held together by attractive forces.
These forces in liquids are great enough to hold atoms or mole-cules
in a fixed pattern.
A liquid always expands to fill the whole of volume available to it.
The fact that a liquid tends to take on a spherical shape is due to
surface tension.
IX. Put questions to the following statements.
The forces that hold atoms and molecules in place give solids their
strength.
The strength of a material is determined by measuring its elasticity.
Elasticity is measured as the ratio of stress to strain.
The atoms or molecules of a liquid are held together by attrac-tive
forces.
A liquid can flow.
A falling drop of water tends to take the shape of a sphere.
Another property of liquids is adhesion.
15
X. Dictation – translation.
Силы, которые удерживают атомы и молекулы на месте, дают
твёрдым телам прочность.
Прочность
материала
определяется
измерением
его
эластичности.
Эластичность
растяжению.
измеряется
как
отношение
прочности
к
Напряжение – это сила, которая воздействует на материал.
Если давление на материал увеличить, то материал изменит
свою форму.
Атомы и молекулы удерживаются силой притяжения.
Жидкость оказывает давление, которое в любой точке зависит
от глубины и плотности жидкости.
Жидкость пытается принять сферическую форму.
Все атомы и молекулы в жидкости притягивают друг друга
одинаковой силой.
16
UNIT 4
I. Find out the words in the dictionary. Write them down and learn.
to comply, pure, outside, a mixture, exceptional, solution, to
diffuse, parchment, crystalloid, colloid, to arrange, to fix, a thermometer, a plane, polarized light, to create, thermonuclear, to alter,
voltage, a conductor, fusion, a source of power
II. Read the text. Use a dictionary, if necessary.
TEXT: «UNUSUAL STATES OF MATTER»
Some substances exist in states that do not comply with the normal
definitions of a gas, a liquid, or a solid. For example, jelly is neither a true
solid nor a liquid, and smoke is neither a pure gas nor a solid. Mat-ter in stars
and in the tails of comets exists as a plasma, a mixture of charged particles
that is outside the normal definition of a gas. In gener-al, a plasma can exist
only at extremely high temperatures. At extremely low temperatures,
approaching absolute zero, some materials take on remarkable properties.
Although they are not strictly different states of matter, their behaviour is
exceptional.
Colloids. In 1861, the physical chemist Thomas Graham discov-ered
that some substances in solution, such as salt, sugar, and copper sulfate,
diffuse through parchment, whereas others, such as glue and gelatine do not.
He therefore divided substances into two groups: crys-talloids (that diffuse
through parchment) and colloids (that do not dif-fuse). And he believed that
the difference between a crystalloid and a colloid depended largely upon
particle size. We now know that Graham was broadly correct. But we also
know that most crystalloids can be brought into the colloidal state. A colloid
is a solution in which the component particles are large molecules or clumps
of small molecules.
Liquid crystals. The liquid state is intermediate between the solid state
and the gaseous state. Some substances, however, are intermedi-ate between
solids and liquids. In a liquid crystal the atoms or mole-cules are arranged in
a pattern, like those of a solid crystal. But the pattern is not completely fixed;
it can be altered by heat or an electric field. Some liquid crystals change
colour at certain temperatures and can, therefore, be used in liquid crystal
thermometers. In others an electrical voltage causes a change in patterns that
alters the plane of polarized light. Such types are used to make liquid crystal
displays for watches and calculators.
Plasmas. A plasma is sometimes described as being the fourth state of
matter – that is, one phase farther on from a gas. In fact a plasma is created
by heating a gas to such a high temperature that its atoms or molecules lose
electrons and become ions. The gas is almost fully ion-ized and becomes a
very good electrical conductor. The gases that are involved in the
thermonuclear reactions of the sun and other stars are in the form of a plasma.
Scientists are trying to recreate such a plasma on earth by heating the gases
deuterium and tritium (isotopes of hydrogen) to tens of millions of degrees in
special installations. In this way, they hope to produce a controlled
thermonuclear fusion reaction as a source of power.
17
III. Find nouns (a), adjectives (b) and adverbs (c) in the following
words. Translate all of them:
substance, definition, pure, mixture, normal, extremely, remarka-ble,
strictly, behaviour, exceptional, largely, crystalloid, broadly, colloi-dal,
solution, intermediate, gaseous, completely, electric, calculator, fully,
conductor, thermonuclear, installation, power, certain, property
IV. Practice the following speech pattern.
Pattern .
Jelly is neither a true solid nor a liquid.
1. smoke – a pure gas, a solid
liquid crystal – a solid, a gas
plasma – a solid, a gas
V. Find the sentences that can’t be found in the text.
Some substances exist in states that do not comply with the nor-mal
definitions of a gas, a liquid or a solid.
Colloids are classified according to the physical state of the dispersion medium and the disperse phase.
Colloids have different properties from those of true solutions
because of the size of the particles.
Colloidal particles nearly always carry an electrical charge.
Some liquid crystals change colour at certain temperatures.
A plasma is created by heating a gas to such a high temperature that
its atoms or molecules lose electrons and become ions.
VI. Find the English equivalents in the text.
существовать при крайне высоких температурах __________
смесь заряженных частиц _____________________________
приобретать исключительные свойства __________________
зависеть от размера частицы ___________________________
структура не жёстко фиксированная _____________________
при определённых температурах ________________________
электрическое напряжение ____________________________
плоскость поляризованного света _______________________
VII. Translate the following word combinations and noun groups into
Russian.
not to comply with the normal definition of a gas _____________
true solid ___________________________________________
neither a solid nor a liquid _______________________________
to exist as a plasma ____________________________________
in general __________________________________________
temperatures approaching absolute zero ____________________
to diffuse through parchment ____________________________
he was broadly correct __________________________________
atoms and molecules are arranged in a pattern ________________
liquid crystal thermometers _____________________________
to cause a change _____________________________________
liquid crystal displays ________________________________
18
VIII. Fill in the missing words.
Some substances exist in states that do not _____ with the nor-mal
definitions of a gas, a liquid or a solid.
Smoke is neither a _____ gas nor a solid.
Matter in stars and in the tails of comets exists as a plasma, a _____
of charged particles.
Although they are strictly not different states of matter, their _____
is exceptional.
In 1861, the physical chemist Thomas Graham discovered that some
substances in _____, such as salt and sugar, _____ through parchment.
He believed that the difference between a crystalloid and a col-loid
depended largely upon _____ _____.
A colloid is _____ in which the component particles are large
molecules or clumps of small molecules.
The liquid state is _____ between the solid state and the gaseous
state.
In a liquid crystal the atoms or molecules are _____ in a pattern, like
those of a solid crystal.
The pattern is not completely fixed; it can be _____ by heat or an
electric field.
In some liquid crystals an electrical _____ causes a change in
pattern that alters the plane of polarized light.
The gas is almost fully ionized and becomes a very good elec-trical
_____.
IX. Fill in the prepositions if necessary.
Some substances exist ___ states that do not comply ___ the normal
definition ___ a gas, liquid or a solid.
___ general, plasma can exist only ___ extremely high temperatures.
___ extremely low temperatures, approaching ___ absolute zero,
some materials take ___ remarkable properties.
___ 1861 Thomas Graham discovered that some substance ___
solution diffuse ___ parchment.
He believed that the difference ___ a crystalloid and a colloid
depended largely ___ particle size.
___ a liquid crystal the atoms or molecules are arranged ___ a
pattern.
The pattern can be altered ___ heat or an electric field.
A plasma is described as being the fourth state ___ matter; that is,
one phase farther ___ ___a gas.
___ fact, a plasma is created ___ heating a gas ___ such a high
temperature that its atoms or molecules lose electrons and become ions.
Scientists are trying to recreate such a plasma ___ earth now.
X. Define whether the sentences are true or false.
Matter in stars and in the tails of comets exists as a gas.
A plasma can exist only at extremely low temperatures.
At extremely low temperatures approaching absolute zero some
materials take on remarkable properties.
Thomas Graham divided substances into two groups: «true» and
amorphous.
19
In a liquid crystal the atoms or molecules are not arranged in a
pattern.
Some liquid crystals change colour at certain temperatures.
A plasma is sometimes described as being the fifth state of matter.
The gases that are involved in the thermonuclear reactions of the sun
and other stars are in the form of a plasma.
XI. Practice with someone asking and answering.
Are there states of matter that do not comply with the normal
definitions of a gas, a liquid or a solid?
What are the examples of unusual states of matter?
Are they strictly different states of matter?
When did the physical chemist Thomas Graham make experi-ments
with substances in solution?
What did he discover?
How did he call substances that would diffuse through parchment?
What substances were called colloids?
What is the definition of a colloid?
Are there any substances that are intermediate between solids and
liquids?
What happens in a liquid crystal?
What is a plasma?
In what way is a plasma created?
XII. Put questions to the following sentences.
A plasma can exist only at extremely high temperature. (Alternative)
In 1861 Thomas Graham discovered crystalloids and colloids.
(Special)
Some liquid crystals change colour at certain temperature. (Gen-eral,
disjunctive)
XIII. Dictate the following sentences in English to your fellow-students.
Check them together.
Some substances exist in states that do not comply with the nor-mal
definitions of a gas, a liquid or a solid.
In 1861 the physical chemist Thomas Graham discovered that some
substances in solution diffuse through parchment.
He believed that the difference between a crystalloid and a col-loid
depended upon particle size.
In a liquid crystal the atoms or molecules are arranged in a pattern.
A plasma is created by heating a gas to a high temperature.
XIV. Dictation-translation.
Некоторые вещества существуют в таких состояниях, которые
не подходят под обычные определения твёрдого тела, жидкости и газа.
Вещество в звёздах и хвостах комет существует в виде плазмы
(смеси заряженных частиц), которая находится за пределами обычного
определения газа.
В общем, плазма может существовать только при крайне
высоких температурах.
20
При крайне низких температурах, приближающихся к
абсолютному нулю, некоторые вещества приобретают необычные
свойства.
В 1861 году физик-химик Томас Грэхэм обнаружил, что
некоторые вещества в растворе диффундируют через пергамент.
Мы знаем, что большинство кристаллоидов может быть
приведено в коллоидальное состояние.
В жидком кристалле атомы и молекулы организованы в
структуру, похожую на структуру твёрдого кристалла.
Структура кристалла не является полностью фиксированной; она
может меняться под воздействием теплоты или электрического поля.
Электрическое напряжение вызывает изменение в структуре,
которое изменяет плоскость поляризованного света.
Фактически плазма создаётся путём нагревания газа до такой
высокой температуры, что его атомы или молекулы теряют электроны и
становятся ионами.
21
UNIT 5
I. Find out the words in the dictionary. Write them down and learn.
behaviour, intrinsic, to depend on, to define, gravity, to attract,
friction, viscous force, resistance, downward force, upward force,
strength, density, per unit volume, specific gravity, to be equal, to
prevent, to be equal
II. Read the text. Use a dictionary, if necessary.
TEXT: «STATICS»
Statics is the branch of physics that deals with the behavior of bod-ies
that are held stationary under the influence of a system of forces. The study
of statics depends crucially on an understanding of the con-cept of force,
which can be defined as an agent that is capable of altering the state of rest or
motion of an object.
The most common force is that of gravity which on earth attracts
everything downwards to its surface. Other forces include friction, which in
some cases can act against another force to prevent movement, and the
viscous force that acts against the force of gravity when a small object is
dropped into, for example, a container of syrup.
The action of a force depends on the mass of the object on which it is
exerted. Mass is defined as the resistance of an object to any change of its
state of motion or rest by the action of a force. Mass is, therefore, a measure
of the inertia of an object. The greater an object’s mass, the smaller is the
acceleration, that a given force produces. The weight of an object is not,
however, an unchanging intrinsic property. It is the down-ward force of an
object resulting from the action of the force of gravity. So, although an
object’s mass is the same everywhere, its weight de-pends on the strength of
the gravitational field acting on it.
One of the major areas of study in statics is the behavior of objects in
fluids (that is, in liquids and gases). Much of this work revolves around the
concept of density, which is the mass of an object per unit volume. Another
useful concept is that of specific gravity, or relative density. This property is
given by the density of an object divided by the density of water.
An important law in the statics of fluids is Archimedes’ principle. It
states that the upward force acting on an object immersed in a fluid is equal
to the weight of fluid that is displaced. The value of the principle lies in
providing a way of finding the specific gravity, and therefore the density of
an object without measuring both its mass and volume. Legend tells of
Archimedes applying the principle after being asked by the King of Syra-cuse
to prove that a gold crown was indeed made of solid gold. The crown was
intricately worked and finding its volume would have been extremely
difficult. So Archimedes found its density by putting the crown and then an
equal weight of pure gold in a bowl of water and measuring the amount of
water displaced by each. He found that the crown displaced more water than
the gold weight did. It meant that the crown had a greater volume and
therefore consisted of a material of lower density than pure gold.
22
III. Form nouns from the following verbs by adding the suffixes -er, -or,
-tion, -sion, -ty, -ance, etc. or not changing anything. Translate the nouns.
To depend on, to influence, to force, to understand, to define, to move,
to attract, to act, to prevent, to resist, to change, to accelerate, to produce, to
revolve, to divide, to displace, to measure, to provide.
IV. Find the sentences that can’t be found in the text.
The study of statics depends crucially on an understanding of the
concept of force.
The most common force is that of gravity, which on earth at-tracts
everything downwards to its surface.
The moon’s gravitational fields, for example, is only one-sixth as
powerful as the earth’s, and as a result the weight of an object on the moon is
only one-sixth of its weight on earth.
One of the major areas of study in statics is the behaviour of objects
in fluids.
If the mass is measured in kilograms and the unit of volume is the
cubic meters, then density is measured in kilograms per cubic meter.
An important law in the statics of fluids is Archimedes’ principle.
The density of liquids is measured by hydrometers.
V. Find English equivalents in the text.
поведение тел _______________________________________
под воздействием ____________________________________
зависит от понимания _________________________________
способен изменить состояние покоя или движения _________
сила трения _________________________________________
препятствовать движению _____________________________
сила вязкости ________________________________________
сопротивление _______________________________________
сила, направленная вниз _______________________________
напряжённость гравитационного поля __________________
текучие среды ______________________________________
масса тела на единицу объёма _________________________
удельный вес _______________________________________
плотность тела, делённая на плотность воды _____________
сила, направленная вверх _____________________________
обеспечить способ определения _______________________
VI. Find Russian equivalents to the following expressions in the text.
branch of physics
the concept of force bodies that are held stationary
can be defined as
the most common force is that of gravity
attracts everything downwards to its surface
a measure of inertia
an unchanging intrinsic property
revolves around the concept of density
Archimedes’ principle states
an object immersed in a fluid
is equal to
23
the value of the principle lies
to measure both its mass and volume
amount of water
VII. Fill in the missing words.
Statics is the branch of physics that ______ with the ________
of bodies.
The study of statics _________ crucially on an understanding of the
concept of force.
Other forces include _______, which in some cases can act against
another force to prevent movement.
Mass is _________ as the _________ of an object to any change of
its state of motion or rest.
Mass is, therefore, a __________ of the ________ of an object.
The weight of an object depends on the _________ of the gravitational field acting on it.
_______ _______ is given by the density of an object divided by the
density of water.
VIII. Fill in the prepositions if necessary.
Statics is the branch ____ physics that deals ____ the behaviour
____
bodies that are held stationary ____ the influence of a system ____ forces.
Other forces include friction which ____ some cases can act ____
another force to prevent movement.
The action ____ a force depends ____ the mass ____ an object.
Mass is a measure ____ the inertia ____ an object.
It is the downward force of an object resulting ____ the action ____
the force ____ gravity.
Much ____ this work revolves ____ the concept ____ density.
Density is the mass ____ an object ____ unit volume.
The property is given ____ the density ____ an object divided ____
the density ____ water.
Archimedes found its density ____ putting the crown ____ a bowl
____ water.
The weight ____ an object is equal ____ the weight ____ fluid
displaced.
IX. Define whether the sentences are true or false.
Statics is the branch of physics.
The study of statics depends crucially on an understanding of the
concept of quantum.
The most common force is that of gravity which on earth attracts
everything downwards to its surface.
Mass is defined as the attraction of objects to each other.
Mass is, therefore, a measure of the energy of an object.
The weight of an object is an unchanging intrinsic property.
One of the major areas of study in statics is the behaviour of objects
in fluids.
X. Practice with someone asking and answering.
What is statics?
What does the study of statics depend on?
Give the definition of the force.
What are the examples of different forces?
24
What does the action of a force depend on?
In what way is mass defined?
Is the weight of a body an unchanging intrinsic property?
It is the downward force of an object resulting from the action of the
force of gravity, isn’t it?
What is one of the major areas of study in statics?
What concept does much of this work revolve around ?
What do you know about specific gravity or relative density? 12.
What does Archimedes’ principle state?
XI. Put questions to the following statements.
Statics deals with the behaviour of bodies.
Mass is a measure of the inertia of an object.
Archimedes found the density of the gold crown.
XII. Dictate the following statements in English to your fellow-students.
Statics is the branch of physics that deals with the behaviour of
bodies.
The most common force is that of gravity which on earth attracts
everything downwards to its surface.
Other forces include friction and viscous force.
Density is the mass of an object per unit volume.
XIII. Dictation-translation.
Статика – это область физики, которая исследует поведение
тел, которые удерживаются в неподвижности под влиянием системы
сил.
Изучение статики зависит в значительной степени от понятия
«силы», которую можно определить как фактор, способный изменить
состояние покоя или движения тела.
Другие силы включают силу трения, которая в некоторых
случаях действует в противоположном направлении по отношению к
другой силе и тормозит движение, и силу вязкости, которая действует
противоположном направлении по отношению к силе гравитации.
Действие силы зависит от массы тела, на которое она оказывает
воздействие.
Массу тела можно определить, как сопротивление тела любому
изменению состояния движения или покоя под воздействием силы.
Хотя масса тела является неизменной повсеместно, его вес
зависит от напряжённости гравитационного поля, воздействующего на
него.
Одна из главных областей исследования в статике – это
поведение тел в жидкостях и газах.
Значительная часть исследований вращается вокруг понятия
«плотности», которую можно определить как массу тела на единицу
объема.
Закон Архимеда гласит, что на всякое тело, погружённое в
жидкость, действует со стороны этой жидкости выталкивающая сила,
равная весу вытесненной телом жидкости, направленная вверх и
приложенная к центру тяжести вытесненной жидкости.
25
Ценность закона Архимеда состоит в том, что он даёт
возможность определить удельный вес и плотность тела, не прибегая к
измерению массы и объёма.
UNIT 6
I. Find out the words in the dictionary. Write them down and learn.
kinematics, dynamics, gravitational force, to offset, linear mo-tion,
circular motion, simple harmonic motion, to oscillate, displace-ment of a
particle, origin, velocity, speed, momentum, the law of universal
gravitation, to move uniformly, per hour
II. Read the text. Use a dictionary, if necessary.
TEXT: «DYNAMICS. LAWS OF MOTION»
Dynamics is the study of the ways in which objects behave when they
are acted on by forces. Such forces are all around us – for example, the
gravitational force acting on a falling object, the air resistance that offsets the
full effect of gravity on it, and the frictional force that makes it difficult to
drag an object along the ground.
Just as there are many different types of forces, there are also dif-ferent
types of motion produced by those forces. In linear motion, an object moves
in a straight line and a falling body is an example. Circular motion is
produced when an object is acted on by a force that originates from a central
point. If an object is held in equilibrium by two forces, and the extra force
resulting from slightly moving the object from its equilibrium position is
directly proportional to the distance moved, then the object oscillates
regularly in simple harmonic motion.
For an understanding of dynamics, it is necessary to have a knowl-edge
of kinematics, which is the study of motion alone, without taking into
account what causes the motion. The most basic concept in kinemat-ics is
that of the displacement of a particle; this is the length and direction of the
line along which the particle moves from some fixed point, the origin. A
quantity, in which both magnitude and direction are specified, is called a
vector. And vectors are of great importance in physics.
The next concept is that of the velocity of the particle. It is defined as
the rate of change of the displacement with time. Velocity is itself a vec-tor.
The commonly-used word speed is reserved by physicists to denote only the
magnitude of an object’s velocity, but not its direction. Any quan-tity that
measures only the magnitude of some phenomenon and not its direction as
well is known as a scalar quantity. Multiplying the velocity of an object by its
mass gives us another vector quantity – momentum.
When the velocity of an object changes, it either accelerates or
decelerates. The rate of change of velocity with time is measured in meters
per second per second (ms-2) or an equivalent unit such as kilom-eters per
hour per hour (km hr-2). Acceleration itself can vary with time.
The fundamental problem of dynamics is determining the motion of an
object acted on by forces. The three basic laws governing this behaviour are
called Newton’s laws of motion, after the English mathe-matician and
physicist Isaac Newton (1642-1727), who formulated them in the seventeenth
century, along with the law of universal gravitation.
26
Newton’s first law of motion states that an object will remain at rest or
will continue to move uniformly in a straight line at constant velocity unless
acted on by a force.
Newton’s second law goes a stage further to describe how an object
behaves when a force does act on it. This law states that the rate of change of
momentum of an object is proportional to the force acting on it.
Newton’s third law of motion concerns the interaction of forces
produced by objects. It states that if one object exerts a force on another, that
second object exerts an equal and opposite force on the first. This is the
principle of action and reaction. A common example of this princi-ple in
operation occurs when someone tries to step onto land from a boat. In getting
out of the boat, the person exerts a force on it. So as he goes forward onto
land, the boat is pushed in the other direction.
III. Form adverbs from adjectives by adding the suffix - ly and translate them.
Different, straight, central, slight, direct, proportional, regular, sim-ple,
harmonic, basic, great, common, fundamental, universal, uniform, constant,
necessary, original.
IV. Practice the following speech pattern.
Pattern 1. For an understanding of dynamics, it is necessary to
have a knowledge of kinematics.
dynamics – statics
physics – nature of matter
motion – forces
kinematics – the displacement of a particle
kinematics – vectors and scalars
kinematics – momentum
momentum – velocity
gravity – dynamics
acceleration – kinematics
V. Find the sentences that can’t be found in the text.
Just as there are many different types of forces, there are also
different types of motion produced by those forces.
The most basic concept in kinematics is that of the displacement of a
particle.
The three basic laws governing this behaviour are called New-ton’s
laws of motion.
Using Newton’s laws it is possible to find the position of a body by a
knowledge of the relation between that position and its velocity or rate of
change of velocity at any other time.
The calculus, developed by Newton, could be used and was used by
him for solving a great variety of mechanical and hydrody-namic problems.
The object of Newton was to demonstrate how universal gravity
could maintain the system of the world.
Newton established, once and for all, the dynamic view of the
universe instead of the static one and showed that the universe was reg-ulated
by simple mathematical laws.
27
VI. Put the following sentences in the right order.
When the velocity of an object changes, it either accelerates or
decelerates.
For an understanding of dynamics, it is necessary to have a knowledge of kinematics, which is the study of motion alone.
Dynamics is the study of the ways in which objects behave when
they are acted on by forces.
The fundamental problem of dynamics is determining the mo-tion of
an object acted on by forces.
Just as there are many different types of forces, there are also
different types of motion produced by those forces: linear motion, circu-lar
motion, simple harmonic motion.
The next concept is that of the velocity of the particle.
The most basic concept in kinematics is that of the displacement of a
particle.
VII. Find English equivalents in the text.
когда они подвергаются воздействию со стороны сил _______
компенсировать воздействие гравитации _________________
удерживаться в положении равновесия ___________________
прямо пропорционально _____________________________
длина и направление линии ___________________________
обозначать только величину ___________________________
векторная величина __________________________________
скалярная величина __________________________________
умножение __________________________________________
измеряется в _______________________________________
основные законы ____________________________________
с постоянной скоростью ______________________________
закон гласит _______________________________________
равная и противоположно направленная сила ____________
закон действия и противодействия ____________________
VIII. Find Russian equivalents to the following expressions in the text.
the ways in which objects behave _________________________
the gravitational force _________________________________
air resistance ________________________________________
frictional force _______________________________________
linear motion ________________________________________
circular motion _______________________________________
a force that originates from a central point ___________________
the extra force resulting from ___________________________
equilibrium position __________________________________
the distance moved __________________________________
causes the motion ____________________________________
the displacement of a particle ___________________________
quantity ___________________________________________
magnitude __________________________________________
momentum ________________________________________
can vary with time ____________________________________
the law of universal gravitation __________________________
to move uniformly in a straight line _______________________
exerts a force on another object __________________________
28
IX. Analyze the structure of the sentences.
If an object is held in equilibrium by two forces, and the extra force
resulting from slightly moving the object from its equilibrium po-sition is
directly proportional to the distance moved, then the object oscillates
regularly in simple harmonic motion.
Multiplying the velocity of an object by its mass gives us anoth-er
vector quantity – momentum.
Newton’s second law goes a stage further to describe how an object
behaves when a force does act on it.
X. Fill in the missing words.
________ is the study of the ways in which objects behave when
they are acted on by forces.
Such forces are all around us – for example, the ________ force
acting on a falling object, the _________ ____ that offsets the full effect of
gravity on it, and the ________ force.
In _______ _______ an object moves in a straight line.
For an understanding of dynamics, it is necessary to have a knowledge of _____ which is the study of motion alone.
The most basic concept in kinematics is that of the ________ of a
particle.
Such a quantity in which both ______ and ________ are speci-fied,
is called a vector.
________ the velocity of an object by its mass gives us another
vector quantity – ________.
When the velocity of an object changes, it either _______ or
_______.
The fundamental problem of dynamics is ________ the motion of an
object acted on by forces.
The three basic laws ________ this behaviour are called laws of
motion.
Newton’s first law of motion _____ that an object will remain at
rest or will continue to move ________ in a straight line at a constant
velocity.
Newton’s second law states that the rate change momentum an
object is proportional ______ the force acting ______ it.
Newton’s third law _______ motion concerns the interaction _____
forces produced ________ objects.
This is the principle ________ action and reaction.
XI. Define whether the sentences are true or false.
Dynamics is the study of the ways in which objects behave when
they are acted on by forces.
There are many different types of forces but there are only two types
of motion produced by those forces.
Linear motion is produced when an object is acted on by a force that
originates from a central point.
Such a quantity, in which both magnitude and direction are spec-ified
is called a vector.
29
The velocity of the particle is defined as the rate of change of the
displacement with temperature.
Multiplying the velocity of an object by its mass gives us anoth-er
vector quantity – momentum.
The first law of motion states that an object will remain at rest or will
continue to move uniformly in a straight line at variable velocity unless acted
on by a force.
The second law states that the rate of change of momentum of an
object is proportional to the force acting on it.
The third law states that if one object exerts a force on another, that
second object exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.
XII. Practice with someone asking and answering.
What is dynamics?
What are the forces that act on objects?
Are there many different types of motion produced by the forces?
What happens in linear motion?
When is circular motion produced?
What is kinematics?
What is the most basic concept in kinematics?
What is the displacement of a particle?
What is called «a vector»?
What quantity is called «a scalar»?
What gives us momentum?
What happens when the velocity of an object changes? 13.
What is the fundamental problem of dynamics?
XIII. Dictation-translation.
При прямолинейном движении тело движется по прямой линии
– падающее тело является этому примером.
Для понимания динамики необходимо иметь представление
кинематике, которая изучает исключительно движение, не принимая
во внимание факторы, которые вызывают движение.
Самое главное понятие в кинематике – это «смещение
материальной точки», т.е. длина и направление линии, вдоль которой
движется частица от какой-то фиксированной точки – начала координат.
Величина, для которой учитывается как численное значение, так
и направление, называется вектором.
Скорость частицы можно определить как темп изменения
перемещения частицы со временем.
Любая величина, которая измеряет только численное значение
частицы, но не её направление, называется скалярной величиной.
Умножение скорости тела на его массу даёт нам очень важную
векторную величину – импульс.
Три основных закона динамики называются законами движения
Ньютона, который сформулировал их в 17 веке, вместе с законом
всемирного тяготения.
Первый закон Ньютона гласит, что тело будет оставаться в
состоянии покоя или будет продолжать равномерное движение по
прямой (линии) с постоянной скоростью, если не подвергается
воздействию со стороны других тел.
30
Второй закон Ньютона гласит, что скорость изменения
импульса тела прямо пропорциональна силе, действующей на него.
Третий закон Ньютона гласит, что если одно тело оказывает
воздействие на второе тело, то второе тело воздействует с равной и
противоположно направленной силой на первое.
31
UNIT 7
I. Find out the words in the dictionary. Write them down and learn.
heat, sound, radiant energy, nuclear energy, by virtue of, to equal,
to increase, to reduce, translational, rotational, to revolve, X – rays,
elastic, pressure, medium, to split apart, nuclear fission, fusion, longitudinal, transverse, wavelength
II. Read the text. Use a dictionary, if necessary.
TEXT: «ENERGY»
Energy can be defined as the ability to do work. Physicists classify
energy into several types: kinetic, potential, heat, sound, radiant energy (light,
for example), and electrical, chemical, and nuclear energy.
Kinetic energy is possessed by a moving object by virtue of its mo-tion.
It equals the work done to accelerate the object to a particular veloc-ity; it
also equals the work done to bring a moving object to rest. The two principal
forms of kinetic energy are known as translational and rotation-al. The first is
possessed by an object moving from one position to anoth-er. The second is
possessed by rotating objects, which revolve about an axis and therefore
periodically return to the same position.
An object has potential energy by virtue of its position. Two com-mon
types are gravitational and elastic potential energy.
An object possesses heat, or thermal, energy by virtue of its temperature. It is, in fact, merely a form of kinetic energy, because the temperature of a substance depends on the motion of its component atoms or
molecules; the higher its temperature, the faster the molecules move.
Radiant energy consists of electromagnetic radiation and includes radio
waves, visible light, ultraviolet and infrared radiation, and X-rays. The only
form of energy that can exist in the absence of matter, it con-sists of a wave
motion in electric and magnetic fields. Radiant energy is emitted when
electrons within atoms fall from a higher to a lower ener-gy level and release
the «excess» energy as radiation.
Sound energy consists of moving waves of pressure in a medium such
as air, water, or metal. They consist of vibrations in the molecules of the
medium.
Matter that has gained or lost some electric charge has electrical energy.
The movement of charges constitutes an electric current, which flows
between two objects at different potentials when they are joined by a
conductor.
Chemical energy is possessed by substances that undergo a chem-ical
reaction, such as combustion. It is stored in the chemical bonds between the
atoms that make up the molecules of a substance.
Nuclear energy is produced when the nuclei of atoms change, ei-ther by
splitting apart or joining together. The splitting process is known as nuclear
fission, the joining together as nuclear fusion. Such changes can be
accompanied by the release of enormous amounts of energy in the form of
32
heat, light, and radioactivity (the emission of atomic parti-cles or gamma
radiation, or both).
When an object loses or gains one type of energy, another kind is
correspondingly gained or lost. The total amount of energy, possessed by an
object, remains the same. This phenomenon is the principle of conservation
of energy, which states, that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but
only converted into other forms.
If mass and energy are considered together, the total amount of mass
and energy remains the same. Consequently the principle of mass
conservation has been modified into what is called the principle of
conservation of mass-energy. The Theory of Relativity shows that mass and
energy can be consid-ered to be totally interconvertible, and the amount of
energy produced, when matter is destroyed, is given by the well-known
equation E = mc2 (E is the energy released, m is the mass destroyed, and c is
the velocity of light).
The transmission of energy. Energy is often transmitted by wave
motions, and for this reason the study of waves is of crucial importance in
physics – from the wave mechanics of the atom to the study of grav-itational
waves produced by black holes. In general, a travelling wave is the
movement of a disturbance from a source, and energy is transported as the
disturbance moves outwards.
If the disturbance produced is parallel to the direction of energy travel,
the wave is said to be longitudinal; sound waves are of this type. If the disturbance is perpendicular to the direction of energy travel – as in electromagnetic radiation and waves on the surface of water – then the wave is transverse.
Four properties of a wave can be distinguished and described mathematically: wavelength, frequency, velocity, and amplitude.
III. Find a noun in each line and translate it. Translate also the
underlined words.
Electric, heat, consist, undergo, transverse;
Frequency, normal, consequently, include, modify;
Interconvertible, possess, thermal, wavelength, define;
Longitudinal, mathematically, outwards, multiply, equation;
Disturbance, abnormal, merely, emit, enormous;
Accelerate, particular, rotational, axis, invisible;
Translation, revolve, periodically, uncommon, conductor.
IV. Find the sentences that can’t be found in the text.
Physicists classify energy into several types: kinetic, potential, heat,
sound, radiant energy and electrical, chemical and nuclear energy.
The two principal forms of kinetic energy are known as transla-tion
and rotational.
Elastic potential energy is gained as work is done to stretch or
compress an elastic object such as a spring.
Sound can be considered as a special form of kinetic energy.
The total amount of energy possessed by an object remains the same.
A whole series of similar energy conversions accompanies eve-ry
production of work.
Energy is often transmitted by wave motions, and for this reason the
study of waves is of crucial importance in physics.
V. Find English equivalents in the text.
33
энергия поступательного движения _____________________
энергия вращения ____________________________________
тепловая энергия _____________________________________
энергия излучения __________________________________
электрическая энергия _______________________________
химическая энергия __________________________________
ядерная энергия ______________________________________
кинетическая энергия равна работе, необходимой для _____
потенциальная энергия упруго деформированного тела ____
существовать при отсутствии материи __________________
испускают избыточную энергию в виде излучения ________
колебания в молекулах среды _________________________
приобретать или терять электрический заряд ____________
электрический ток __________________________________
закон сохранения энергии ____________________________
количество произведённой энергии ____________________
перпендикулярно направлению ________________________
VI. Find Russian equivalents to the following expressions in the text.
the ability to do work ___________________________________
to classify energy ______________________________________
by virtue of its motion __________________________________
to accelerate the object to a particular velocity _______________
the temperature depends on the motion _____________________
ultraviolet radiation ____________________________________
moving waves of pressure _______________________________
visible light __________________________________________
the movement of charges ________________________________
nuclear fission _______________________________________
nuclear fusion _______________________________________
the emission of atomic particles _________________________
the resulting motion __________________________________
the movement of a disturbance from a source _______________
neither ...nor ________________________________________
either ... or __________________________________________
the wave is said to be longitudinal ________________________
the wave is transverse _________________________________
VII. Fill in the missing words.
Energy can be defined as the _____ to do work.
Kinetic energy is possessed by a _____ object by virtue of its
motion.
The two principal forms of kinetic energy are known as _____
and _____.
Radiant energy is ______ when electrons within atoms fall from a
higher to a lower energy level and ______ the «excess» energy as radiation.
Sound energy consists of moving waves of ______ in a medium such
as air, water, or metal.
The movement of charges constitutes an ______ ______, which
flows between two objects at different potentials when they are joined by a
______.
The splitting process is known as nuclear _____, the joining together
as nuclear _______.
34
In general a travelling wave is the movement of a ______ from a
source and energy is transported as the disturbance moves ______.
VIII. Define whether the sentences are true or false.
The two principal forms of kinetic energy are known as transla-tional
and rotational.
An object has potential energy by virtue of its temperature.
Radiant energy is the only form of energy that can exist in the
absence of matter.
Radiant energy is emitted when electrons within atoms rise from a
lower to a higher energy level and release the «excess» energy as radiation.
Matter that has gained or lost some electric charge has sound energy.
Chemical energy is possessed by substances that undergo a chem-ical
reaction, such as combustion.
The splitting process is known as nuclear fusion.
The total amount of energy possessed by an object remains the same.
Three properties of a wave can be distinguished and described
mathematically: wavelength, frequency and velocity.
IX. Answer the question.
What is energy?
What types of energy do you know?
Is kinetic energy possessed by a moving object by virtue of its
motion?
What forms have kinetic energy?
What are two common types of potential energy?
When is radiant energy emitted?
What does sound energy consist of?
When has matter electrical energy?
What energy is released in chemical reactions?
When is nuclear energy produced?
What phenomenon is called the principle of conservation of energy?
What does it state?
What does the Theory of Relativity show?
Why is the study of waves very important in physics?
Can any properties of a wave be distinguished and described
mathematically?
X. Put question to the following sentences.
Energy can be defined as the ability to do work. (General)
Physicists classify energy into several types: kinetic, potential, heat,
sound, radiant energy, electrical, chemical, and nuclear energy. (Special)
Kinetic energy equals the work done to accelerate the object to a
particular velocity. (Disjunctive)
An object possesses heat, or thermal energy by virtue of its temperature. (Special)
The splitting process is known as nuclear fission. (Alternative)
The Theory of Relativity shows that mass and energy can be
considered to be totally interconvertible. (Special)
A travelling wave is the movement of a disturbance from a source.
(What ...)
XI. Dictate the following sentences in English to your fellow-students.
Check them together.
35
Physicists classify energy into several types: kinetic, potential, heat,
sound, radiant energy and electrical, chemical, and nuclear energy.
The two principal forms of kinetic energy are known as transla-tional
and rotational.
An object possesses heat, or thermal energy by virtue of its temperature.
Radiant energy consists of electromagnetic radiation and includes
radio waves, visible light, ultraviolet and infrared radiation, and X-rays.
Chemical energy is possessed by substances that undergo a chem-ical
reaction, such as combustion.
The splitting process is known as nuclear fission, the joining
together as nuclear fusion.
The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither
be created nor destroyed but only converted into other forms.
Four properties of a wave can be distinguished and described
mathematically: wavelength, frequency, velocity and amplitude.
XII. Dictation-translation.
Две основные формы кинетической энергии известны как
энергия поступательного движения и энергия вращения.
Тело обладает тепловой энергией благодаря своей температуре.
Как единственная форма энергии, которая может существовать
при отсутствии материи, лучистая энергия состоит из волнового
движения в электрических и магнитных полях.
Такие изменения могут сопровождаться выбросом огромного
количества энергии в форме тепла, света и радиоактивности.
Энергия часто передаётся волновым движением, и по этой
причине изучение волн является крайне важным в физике – начиная от
квантовой механики атома до изучения гравитационных волн,
производимых чёрными дырами.
Если возмущение перпендикулярно направлению движения
энергии, как в электромагнитной радиации или волнах на поверхности
воды – тогда волна является поперечной.
36
UNIT 8
I. Find out the words in the dictionary. Write them down and learn.
spectrum (spectra), wavelength, frequency, microwave, infra-red
radiation, ultraviolet radiation, to comprise, apart from, visible, to be
detected, application, to emit, a source of energy, a dual wave/ particle
nature, to traverse, to travel, to penetrate, transparent, cur-rent, cell,
retina
II. Read the text. Use a dictionary, if necessary.
TEXT: «RADIANT ENERGY»
Energy may take various forms – sound, chemical, and electrical
energy, for example. One whole range of related forms is known as radi-ant
energy or electromagnetic radiation. Together they make up the electromagnetic spectrum, whose various radiations are characterized by
particular ranges of wavelengths and frequencies. At the long-wave-length,
low-frequency end of the spectrum are radio waves, followed by microwaves
and infrared radiation. Then comes visible light and ultra-violet radiation, and
the shortest wavelengths and highest frequencies comprise X-rays and
gamma-rays.
Apart from light, all forms are invisible to the human eye, al-though
many can be detected by electronic devices and special types of photographic
film. Almost all have found practical applications: in radio communications
and radar, infrared and microwave heating, pho-tography and spectrographic
analysis, and medical and industrial radi-ology. The most important forms of
electromagnetic radiation are vis-ible light and infrared radiation (both of
which are emitted by the sun, our principal natural source of radiant energy).
Without them, life would be impossible.
Nature and properties of radiant energy. The various forms of radi-ant
energy have many common characteristics, the most fundamental of which
concerns their nature. They are all wave motion, consisting of varying
electric and magnetic fields, but they can also be considered as being made
up of «particles,» or quanta, of energy called photons. Radi-ant energy
therefore has a dual wave/particle nature.
In theory it is possible to explain all the effects and properties exhibited by radiant energy in terms of both wave motion and photons. But in
practice it is usually more convenient to employ whichever of the two
concepts explains a particular effect most easily.
Another basic characteristic of electromagnetic radiation is the fact that
it does not need a medium in which to travel, and so it can traverse the vast
emptiness of space. But the various forms of radiation can also travel through
other mediums: light travels through air, water, and glass, for example, and
X-rays and gamma-rays can penetrate body tissues and even pass through
metal; that is to say, even a metal is «transparent» to X rays and gamma rays.
In a vacuum, all forms of electromagnetic radiation travel at the same
constant velocity – called the speed of light. In other transparent mediums,
they travel more slowly, the velocity depending on the wave-length of the
radiation and, generally, on the density of the medium. In other mediums,
37
different wavelengths travel at slightly different veloci-ties; the longer the
wavelength, the faster the radiation travels. So in the case of visible light, red
light travels faster than blue light in any partic-ular transparent medium does.
The various types of radiant energy have different wavelengths and
frequencies. These two characteristics multiplied by the frequency are equal
to the velocity. Because the velocity is constant in any particular medium,
wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional to each other; the longer
the wavelength, the lower the frequency is, and vice versa.
Effects of radiant energy. Radiant energy can be detected only when it
is absorbed and brings about an observable effect–usually by causing a
physical or chemical change. Gamma-rays ionize certain gases when
absorbed by their molecules. X-rays and visible light cause chemical changes
in a photographic emulsion that darken it when it is developed. Ultraviolet
radiation causes substances such as fluorite to fluoresce (emit light). Visible
light stimulates the nerve cells in the retina of the eye, thereby making vision
possible.
III. Find an adjective in each line and translate it. Translate also the
underlined words.
Invisible, frequency, comprise, generally, density;
Detect, transparent, uncertainty, source, naturally;
Wavelength, field, vast, inversely, ray;
Application, uncommonly, emit, particularly, magnetic;
Impossible, microwave, quanta, consist of, molecule;
Absorb, current, various, traverse, spectra;
Penetrate, emptiness, slightly, cell, dual;
IV. Find the sentences that can’t be found in the text.
Energy may take various forms – sound, chemical and electrical
energy, for example.
The various forms of radiant energy have many common characteristics, the most fundamental of which concerns their nature.
Another basic characteristic of electromagnetic radiation is the fact
that it does not need a medium in which to travel.
The speed of light in air is nearly the same as its speed in a vacuum
and for practical purposes they are regarded as being identical.
In a vacuum all forms of electromagnetic radiation travel at the same
constant velocity.
A beam of white light is dispersed into spectral colours when it
passes into a prism or lens.
V. Put the following sentences in the right order.
The various types of radiant energy have different wavelengths and
frequencies.
Radiant energy can be detected only when it is absorbed and brings
about an observable effect.
Another basic characteristic of electromagnetic radiation is the fact
that it does not need a medium in which to travel.
In a vacuum all forms of electromagnetic radiation travel at the same
constant velocity.
One whole range of related forms of energy is known as radiant
energy.
Radiant energy has a dual wave/particle nature.
38
VI. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and expres-sions
and find them in the text.
to make up the electromagnetic spectrum ___________________
to comprise X-rays and gamma-rays _______________________
can be detected ______________________________________
practical applications __________________________________
to be emitted by the sun _________________________________
life would be impossible ________________________________
can be considered as being made up of «particles» ____________
to penetrate body tissues ________________________________
to pass through metal __________________________________
called the speed of light _______________________________
to be nearly the same as ________________________________
equal to more than ___________________________________
in the case of visible light ______________________________
to be inversely proportional to ___________________________
to bring about an observable effect _______________________
VII. Translate the following noun groups into Russian.
range of related forms _________________________________
particular rangers of wavelengths and frequencies ____________
special types of photographic film ________________________
infrared and microwave heating __________________________
common characteristics _______________________________
vast emptiness of space ________________________________
the speed of light _____________________________________
density of the medium __________________________________
retina of the eye _______________________________________
VIII. Find English equivalents in the text.
ряд, линия _________________________________________
заключать в себе, охватывать _________________________
могут быть найдены __________________________________
практические применения _____________________________
природный источник _________________________________
двойственное происхождение __________________________
среда ______________________________________________
пересекать огромную пустоту пространства _____________
проходить через воздух _______________________________
прозрачный ________________________________________
плотность среды ____________________________________
экспериментально измеренное значение ________________
постоянный ________________________________________
обратно пропорциональный __________________________
физическое или химическое изменение ________________
IX. Fill in the missing words.
One whole _______ of related forms is known as radiant _______
or electromagnetic radiation.
Almost all have found practical _______ in radio communica-tion,
radar and so on.
The most important forms of electromagnetic radiation are _______
light.
39
The most fundamental radiant energy characteristics _______
their nature.
Another basic characteristic of electromagnetic radiation is the fact
that it does not need a _______ in which to travel.
All forms of electromagnetic radiation travel at the same con-stant
_______.
Radiant energy can be _______ only when it is absorbed.
Gamma rays ionize certain gases when _______ by their molecules.
X. Define whether sentences are true or false.
Energy may take only two forms – sound and electrical energy.
Visible light and ultraviolet radiation come before microwaves and
infrared radiation.
Only X-rays and gamma-rays have found practical application.
Various forms of radiant energy can be considered as being made up
of «particles», or quanta.
Light travels through air, water and glass and X-rays, gamma rays
can penetrate body tissues and even pass through metal.
In a vacuum all forms of electromagnetic radiation don’t travel
at all.
The speed of light varies greatly in the air and in a vacuum.
The various types of radiant energy don’t have different wavelengths and frequencies.
XI. Practice with someone asking and answering.
What is known as radiant energy?
What makes up the electromagnetic spectrum?
What can be detected by electronic devices and special types of
photographic film?
Why do the various forms of radiant energy have many common
characteristics?
What is called the speed of light?
What can you say about the speed of light in the air and in a
vacuum?
When can radiant energy be detected?
XII. Put questions to the following sentences.
Various radiations are characterized by particular ranges of wavelengths and frequencies (General).
The shortest wavelengths and highest frequencies comprise X-rays
and gamma-rays (What?)
Metal is «transparent» to X-rays and gamma-rays (General)
The velocity is constant in any particular medium (Alternative).
Gamma-rays ionize certain gases (Disjunctive).
XIII. Dictate the following text in English to your fellow-students.
Energy takes various forms – sound and electrical energy, for
example.
40
The range of related forms is known as radiant energy or electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation can traverse the vast emptiness of space.
Only visible light, radio waves and some infrared and ultraviolet
radiation can penetrate the earth’s atmosphere.
But the various forms of radiation can travel through other mediums: light travel through air, water, glass, and X-rays, gamma-rays can
penetrate body tissues and even pass through metal.
XIV. Dictation-translation.
Энергия может быть в различных формах, например звуковая,
электрическая и др.
Самыми важными формами электромагнитного излучения являются
видимый свет и инфракрасное излучение: без них жизнь была бы
невозможна.
Различные формы лучистой энергии имеют много общих свойств.
Теоретически возможно объяснить все свойства лучистой энергии с
помощью понятий «волновое движение» и «фотон».
Волновое движение – это одна из форм радиоактивной энергии.
Электромагнитная радиация может пересекать пространство.
Только радиоволны, инфракрасное и ультрафиолетовое излучение
могут проникать внутрь земной атмосферы.
Различные формы излучения могут проходить через различные
среды.
Свет проходит через воздух, воду, стекло.
Рентгеновские лучи могут проходить сквозь ткани человеческого тела
и даже через металл.
41
UNIT 9
I. Find out the words in the dictionary. Write them down and learn.
influential, widely accepted, distinguished, a researcher, to probe,
to emerge, bundles of energy, to conclude, speculation, cer-tainty,
probabilities, stable, a quantum jump, to urge, exchange, to encourage, to
earn the respect
II. Read the text. Use a dictionary, if necessary.
TEXT: «NIELS BOHR AND QUANTUM MECHANICS»
Niels Bohr (1885-1962), a Danish physicist, was one of the great-est
and most influential scientists of the twentieth century. Bohr devel-oped basic
ideas about the structure of an atom. These ideas have been widely accepted
by scientists ever since. For his important work, Bohr was awarded the Nobel
Prize in physics in 1922.
Bohr, along with other distinguished physicists of the early 1900’s,
developed a new branch of physics known as quantum mechanics. These
physicists recognized that the laws of motion and gravity formulated by Sir
Isaac Newton in the 1600’s (called the Newtonian laws) could not properly
explain motion at the atomic level. Newton had developed his physics with
the movements of planets in mind. Early atomic research-ers – scientists such
as Ernest Rutherford and J.J.Thomson – had thought of atoms as tiny models
of the solar system. As physicists probed deeper into the atom, however, they
gradually realized that the solar system was not an accurate model for atomic
motion.
Albert Einstein, Max Planck, Niels Bohr, and others developed the
theories of quantum mechanics in the early 1900’s to better describe the atom
and its motion. Several important ideas emerged. One idea is that radiation –
such as light – is emitted in a stream of separate bundles of energy called
quanta. This principle can also be applied to atomic radia-tion, such as that of
electrons. These speculations led physicists to con-clude that atomic particles,
such as electrons, have properties of both par-ticles and waves. This idea
came to be known as the «wave-particle dual-ity» principle. It revolutionized
physics. No longer could scientists calcu-late with certainty the position of an
electron in its orbit at a particular moment. Such movements, according to
quantum mechanics, can be math-ematically described only as probabilities.
In other words, since a particle, such as an electron, has qualities of both a
particle and a wave, the tradi-tional Newtonian laws of bodies in motion do
not apply to it.
Niels Bohr developed these ideas further. He claimed that an atom
exists in a series of stable states. Between such states, a jump in energy level
– a «quantum jump» – occurs in the atom. The jump can be to a higher
energy level (increase) or to a lower energy level (decrease). Such a change
in energy happens in a fraction of time. With every quantum jump, light
photons are given off. Photons are quanta – tiny bundles – of light energy.
Bohr based this theory on observations of the spectrum of light that the
element hydrogen gives off. Every chemical element gives off a unique
spectrum – that is, band of light frequencies. Bohr thought that the band of
42
light frequencies given off by a chemical element could only be explained by
the theory of «quantum jumps» of energy in the atom. Scientific observations made during and after his lifetime have proved his theory true.
Niels Bohr strongly influenced the physicists and scientists of his time.
The reasons for this influence went beyond Bohr’s own contributions to
physics. In 1921 the University of Copenhagen opened a new Institute of
Theoretic Physics with Niels Bohr as its director. This institute became the
world center for exchange of ideas among physicists. The institute owed
much of its success and influence to its director. Bohr was a scientist who
welcomed the exchange of ideas. He also formed close friendships with his
co-workers and encouraged them in their work. In his own country as well as
abroad, Niels Bohr earned the respect of fellow scientists. He served as
president of the Royal Danish Academy from 1939 until his death in 1962.
III. Find an adverb in each line and translate it. Translate also the
underlined words.
Conclude, motion, traditionally, unique, encourage.
Probability, unstable, conclude, gradually, fraction.
Exchange, abroad, observation, tiny, occur.
Certainty, widely, inaccurate, frequency, prove.
Influential, co-worker, chemical, properly, distinguish.
Strongly, subatomic, apply, success, urge.
IV. Find the sentences that can’t be found in the text.
Bohr developed basic ideas about the structure of an atom.
Bohr’s work contributed strongly to most of the important discoveries in physics during and since his lifetime.
Bohr, along with other distinguished physicists of the early 1900’s,
developed a new branch of physics known as quantum mechanics.
Albert Einstein, Max Planck, Niels Bohr, and other developed the
theories of quantum mechanics in the early 1900’s to better describe the atom
and its motion.
He claimed that an atom exists in a series of stable states.
Bohr based this theory on observations of the spectrum of light that
the element hydrogen gives off.
Bohr thought that the band of light frequencies given off by a
chemical element could only be explained by the theory of «quantum jumps»
of energy in the atom.
V. Find English equivalents to the following words and expres-sions in
the text.
один из самых влиятельных учёных ____________________
не могли объяснить должным образом __________________
модели солнечной системы ____________________________
чтобы лучше объяснить атом и его движение ______________
идеи возникли ______________________________________
этот принцип можно применить ________________________
принцип корпускулярно-волнового дуализма _____________
совершил революцию в физике _________________________
устойчивые состояния _______________________________
более высокий энергетический уровень _________________
излучаются фотоны света _____________________________
43
свой собственный спектр _____________________________
значительно повлиял на учёных своего времени __________
вклад в физику _____________________________________
VI. Find Russian equivalents to the following words and expres-sions in
the text.
the ideas have been widely accepted _______________________
along with other distinguished physicists ___________________
with the movements of planets in mind _____________________
probed deeper into the atom _____________________________
an accurate model for atomic motion ______________________
a stream of bundles of energy ____________________________
probabilities _________________________________________
a quantum jump ______________________________________
happens in a fraction of time _____________________________
band of light frequencies _______________________________
welcomed the exchange of ideas _________________________
earned the respect ___________________________________
VII. Analyze the structure of the following sentences.
These speculations led physicists to conclude that atomic parti-cles,
such as electrons, have properties of both particles and waves.
No longer could scientists calculate with certainly the position of an
electron in its orbit at a particular moment.
Bohr thought that the band of light frequencies given off by a
chemical element could only be explained by the theory of «quantum jumps»
of energy in the atom.
Scientific observations made during and after his lifetime have
proved his theory true.
VIII. Fill in the missing words.
Niels Bohr was one of the greatest and most ______ scientists of the
twentieth century.
For his important work, Bohr was ______ the Nobel Prize in
_______
in 1922.
Bohr developed a new branch of physics known as ________
mechanics.
As physicists _______ deeper into the atom, however, they gradually
realized that the solar system is not an ________ model for atomic motion.
One idea is that radiation – such as light – is emitted in a stream of
separate ________ of energy called quanta.
This idea came to be known as the «_______ _______ duality»
principle.
Such movements, according to quantum mechanics, can be mathematically described only as _________.
Niels Bohr ________ these ideas further.
Between such states, a ________ in energy level ________ in the
atom.
With every quantum jump, light photons are ________ ________.
44
IX. Fill in the prepositions if necessary.
Bohr developed basic ideas ___ the structure ___ an atom.
___ his important work, Bohr was awarded the Nobel Prize ___
physics ___ 1922.
The laws ___ motion and gravity formulated ___ Newton ___
the 1600’s could not explain motion ___ the atomic level.
Newton had developed his physics ___ the movements ___ plan-ets
___ mind.
No longer could scientists calculate ___ certainly the position ___
an electron ___ its orbit ___ a particular moment.
The jump can be ___ a higher energy level or ___ a lower energy
level.
___ every quantum jump, light photons are given ___.
Bohr based this theory ___ observations ___ the spectrum ___
light that the element hydrogen gives ___.
The reason ___ this influence went ___ Bohr’s own contribution ___
physics.
The institute owned much ___ its success and influence ___ its
director.
X. Practice with someone asking and answering.
What was Niels Bohr?
What ideas did Bohr develop?
Was Bohr awarded any prize for his work?
What branch of physics did Bohr develop?
Why couldn’t the laws of motion and gravity formulated by Sir Isaac
Newton properly explain motion at the atomic level?
When did physicists realize that the solar system was not an accurate
model for atomic motion?
Why did Albert Einstein, Max Planck, Niels Bohr and others
develop the theories of quantum mechanics?
What important principle was formulated in connection with the
theories of quantum mechanics?
How can the movements of an electron in its orbit be mathematically described?
What did Niels Bohr claim?
What did Bohr base his theory on?
Why did he earn the respect of fellow scientists?
XI. Translating in Russian without using a dictionary.
Bohr appreciated friendly disagreements in science. Niels Bohr was
born in Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1885. His father was a famous pro-fessor
at the University of Copenhagen. His mother was from a family that had been
important in banking and in government. The Bohr chil-dren were
encouraged to excel in their studies. Niels’s brother, Harald, became a
brilliant mathematician.
Niels attended the University of Copenhagen, where he won a gold
medal from the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters for orig-inal
scientific research. In 1911 he went to England to study with the great
physicist Sir J.J.Thomson at Cambridge University. The next year he went to
the University of Manchester, where he studied with Ernest Rutherford. At
this time, Rutherford was developing his nuclear model of the atom.
45
Rutherford’s ideas profoundly affected Bohr and led to the younger man’s
own landmark theories. In 1912 Bohr returned to Copen-hagen. Eventually
he became a professor at the University of Copenha-gen and director of the
Institute of Theoretical Physics.
During the 1920’s and 1 930’s, Bohr exchanged ideas with most of the
physicists of the time and travelled widely. This creative and satisfy-ing
period came to an abrupt end in 1940 when Nazi Germany invaded and
occupied Denmark. Bohr and his family escaped to Sweden in a fishing boat.
Later Bohr and his son went to England, where they worked on projects to
develop a nuclear fission bomb. This research eventually led Bohrs, father
and son, to the Los Alamos, New Mexico, laboratory that made the first
practical atomic bomb in 1945.
Meanwhile, Bohr had become deeply worried about the dangers of the
atomic weapon upon which he was working. He talked to both Pres-ident
Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill about the need for inter-national
atomic cooperation.
Bohr also promoted such postwar international efforts as the First
International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (Ge-neva,
Switzerland, 1955). He also helped create the European Council for Nuclear
Research (CERN). For these efforts, Niels Bohr received the first U.S. Atoms
for Peace Award in 1957. When Bohr died in 1962 he was widely recognized
as one of the greatest scientists, public fig-ures, and peace advocates of his
time.
XII. Dictation-translation.
Нильс Бор – один из самых влиятельных учёных ХХ века.
Бор разработал основные идеи относительно структуры атома.
Бор вместе с другими выдающимися учёными начала XX века
разработал новую область физики, известную как квантовая механика.
Эти учёные утверждали, что законы движения и гравитации,
сформулированные Ньютоном, не могли полностью объяснить
движение на атомном уровне.
По мере того, как физики в своих исследованиях погружались
глубже внутрь атома, они постепенно убеждались, что солнечная
система не является точной моделью движения на уровне атома.
Эти размышления привели физиков к выводу, что частицы
атома, такие как электроны, обладают свойствами как частицы, так
волны.
Учёные больше не могли определить с точностью положение
электрона на орбите в определённый момент.
Так как частица, такая как электрон, обладает свойствами как
частицы, так и волны, традиционные законы движения Ньютона не
применимы к ней.
При каждом квантовом скачке излучаются фотоны света.
Бор строил свою теорию на наблюдениях за спектром света,
который излучает такой элемент, как водород.
46
UNIT 10
I. Find out the words in the dictionary. Write them down and learn.
Relating to, unique, spectrum (spectra), generation, concept,
quantum (quanta), to reveal, to deal with, to exist, to absorb, to emit,
state, frequency.
II. Read the text. Use a dictionary, if necessary.
TEXT: «ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND QUANTUM THEORY»
At the turn of the 20th century, physicists spent much effort in trying to
derive all the observed phenomena relating to elements from a mathemati-cal
model of the atom. One key phenomenon was the spectral lines pro-duced by
atoms on being heated: each element has its own unique atomic spectrum. In
trying to explain the generation and appearance of atomic spec-tra, physicists
found that they had to introduce the concept of quantum.
Close scrutiny of a black-and-white newspaper photograph reveals that
the apparent differences in light and dark tones are not the result of gradual
shading but rather are created by subtly different sizes of dots, or «packets»
of ink on the plain paper. Physicists have discovered that, in dealing with
matter on the smallest scale, even energy must be treated as existing in
«packets» or quanta, and not as being continuous. The quantum concept
provides the key to understanding how atoms can ab-sorb and emit energy,
and how the various atomic spectra are produced.
In a simple quantum-based visualization of the atom, the electrons orbit
the central nucleus like planets in a miniature solar system. The electrons can
move only in certain orbits about the nucleus. By giving up that energy, they
drop back into the original lower orbits (called the ground state). With each
energy change, radiation of a particular frequency is absorbed or emitted.
From this analysis, the origin of atomic spectra can be explained. The
individual spectral lines (of certain frequencies) represent electrons falling
from high-energy excited states back to their low-energy ground states. As
they do so, they emit quanta of radiation (photons).
III. Put the sentences in the right order.
In an atom the electrons orbit the central nucleus like planets in a miniature
solar system.
In trying to explain the generation of atomic spectra, physicists introduced
the concept of quantum.
The individual spectral lines represent electrons falling from high-energy
excited states back to their low energy ground states.
At the beginning of the 20th century scientists tried to derive all the
observed phenomena from a mathematical model of the atom.
The quantum concept provides the key to understanding how atoms can
absorb and emit energy.
IV. Translate the following noun groups into Russian.
key phenomenon;
energy change;
the appearance of spectra;
47
the concept of quanta;
the study of a photograph;
different sizes of dots;
«packets» of ink;
a visualization of the atom;
a miniature solar system;
radiation of a particular frequency
the origin of atomic spectra;
quanta of radiation.
V. Find Russian equivalents to the following expressions in the text.
spent much effort;
its own unique atomic spectrum;
in dealing with matter on the smallest scale;
the result of gradual shading;
the concept of quantum;
the quantum concept;
the ground state
emit quanta of radiation.
VI. Find English equivalents in the text.
на рубеже столетий __________________________________
наблюдаемые явления ________________________________
пытаясь объяснить __________________________________
тщательное изучение _________________________________
ключ к пониманию ___________________________________
квантовое представление атома ________________________
вращаться вокруг ядра _______________________________
двигаться по определённым орбитам ____________________
вывести все явления из математической модели атома ______
производимые атомами при нагревании ________________
VII. Practice with someone asking and answering.
When did physicists spend much effort in trying to derive all the
observed phenomena from a mathematical model of the atom?
What was one of the key phenomena?
What concept did physicists have to introduce?
What does close scrutiny of a black-and-white newspaper photograph reveal?
What is a simple quantum-based visualization of the atom?
Can the electrons move randomly or in certain orbits?
What happens to the electrons when they give up the energy?
What do individual spectral lines represent?
VIII. Dictate the following sentences in English to your fellow-students.
Check them together.
The quantum concept provides the key to understanding how atoms
can absorb and emit energy.
The electrons orbit the central nucleus like planets in a minia-ture
solar system.
The electrons can move only in certain orbits about the nucleus.
By giving up the energy, they drop back into the original lower
orbits.
48
With each energy charge, radiation of a particular frequency is
absorbed or emitted.
From this analysis, the origin of atomic spectra can be explained.
IX. Put special questions to the following sentences.
At the turn of the 20th century physicists spent much effort trying to
understand atomic structure. (When ...?)
Close scrutiny of a newspaper photograph reveals that the differences in light and dark tones are created by different sizes of dots on the
paper. (What ...?)
The electrons orbit the central nucleus like planets in a minia-ture
solar system. (How ...?)
In trying to explain the appearance of atomic spectra, physicists
introduced the concept of quantum. (Why ...?)
The electrons can move only in certain orbits about the nucleus.
(How ...?)
X. Dictation-translation.
Ученые-физики потратили много усилий, пытаясь вывести все
наблюдаемые явления из математической модели атома.
Они вынуждены были ввести одно из основных понятий в
современной физике – квант.
Понятие «квант» даёт ключ к пониманию, как атомы
поглощают и излучают энергию.
Электроны могут двигаться вокруг ядра только по
определённым орбитам.
Исходя из этого анализа, можно объяснить происхождение
атомных спектров.
49
UNIT 11
I. Find out the words in the dictionary. Write them down and learn.
point electric charge, to behave like, collision, wave-particle
duality, wavelength, value, probability, certainty, to measure
II. Read the text. Use a dictionary, if necessary.
TEXT: «THE NATURE OF THE ELECTRON AND WAVE
MECHANICS»
According to the theory of wave mechanics, electrons orbiting a
nucleus are not particles moving in orbits. There are standing waves that can
be represented mathematically by what is called a wave function (which
measures the probability of an electron being at a particular point in space).
Peak values of this function can be taken to represent the orbits of the
electrons. There is only a high probability – not a certain-ty – that the
electrons will be found in the orbits. The certainty of the old theory has been
replaced by a statistical probability measured by the wave function.
According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, which arises from
wave-particle duality, it is impossible to measure simultaneously both the
position and momentum of a particle within certain limits. It can also be
shown that it is similarly impossible to measure the total energy and lifetime
of a particle simultaneously and with limitless accuracy.
Although the seemingly totally accurate and certain theories of classical physics have been replaced by the probability arguments and uncertainties of the quantum theory, it turns out that such concepts as Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle predict new, hitherto unexpected phenomena. For example, the law of conservation of energy has been interpreted in a new light; that is, energy cannot be created or destroyed but it may
be developed from matter and turned into matter. The presence of this
«created» energy – so-called vacuum particles – has been demon-strated
experimentally.
III. Translate the following noun groups into Russian.
point charges;
electron diffraction;
wave-particle duality of electrons;
wave mechanics;
a wave function;
values of the function;
the certainty of the old theory;
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle;
the position of a particle;
the momentum of a particle;
the law of conservation of energy;
vacuum particles.
IV. Find English equivalents in the text.
точечный электрический заряд;
столкновение;
50
корпускулярно-волновой дуализм;
длина волны;
определённая точка в пространстве;
измерять одновременно;
в определённых пределах;
оказывается, что;
предсказывать;
следовательно.
V. Find Russian equivalents to the following expressions in the text.
according to the theory;
to behave like hard spheres;
it lies at the heart of the theory;
standing waves;
peak value of the function;
to interpret in a new light;
to develop from matter and turn into matter.
VI. Practice with someone asking and answering.
In what way have electrons been considered previously?
How do electrons behave?
Where is the wave-particle duality of electrons recognized?
What relationship assigns a wavelength to any particle of known mass and
velocity?
What is the nature of the electron according to the theory of wave
mechanics?
What principle makes it possible to measure simultaneously both the
position and momentum of a particle within certain limits.
VII. Put disjunctive questions to the following sentences.
Electrons sometimes behave like hard spheres.
According to the theory of wave mechanics, electrons orbiting a
nucleus are not particles moving in orbits, but standing waves.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle arises from wave-particle duality.
The law of conservation of energy has been interpreted in a new light.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
VIII. Dictation-translation.
Согласно теории волновой механики электроны, вращающиеся
вокруг ядра, не являются частицами, движущимися по орбитам.
Волновая функция измеряет вероятность нахождения электрона
в определённой точке пространства.
Определённость
старой
теории
была
заменена
на
статистическую вероятность, измеряемую с помощью волновой
функции.
Невозможно измерить одновременно и положение, и импульс
частицы в определённых пределах.
Закон сохранения энергии интерпретировался в новом свете.
Присутствие такой «созданной» энергии – так называемых
вакуумных частиц – было продемонстрировано с помощью
эксперимента.
51
UNIT 12
I. Find out the words in the dictionary. Write them down and learn.
to constitute, frequency, to identify, to exhibit, reflection, refraction, dispersion, opaque, to encounter, matte, to absorb, to ob-tain,
surface, concave, convex, the angle of incidence, image
II. Read the text. Use a dictionary, if necessary.
TEXT: «LIGHT AND REFLECTION»
Visible light constitutes only a very small part of the electromag-netic
spectrum of wavelengths, just over a hundred- thousandth of an inch long.
The longest visible wavelengths (lowest frequencies) are seen as red light, the
shortest (highest frequencies) as violet. Various other colors can be identified
between these two extremes. Conven-tionally, the spectral colors are red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indi-go, and violet.
Being a form of electromagnetic radiation, visible light exhibits all the
properties characteristic of such radiation – for example, wave-par-ticle
(photon) duality, reflection, refraction, diffraction, dispersion, in-terference,
and polarization.
Light waves travel outwards in all directions from their source, thereby
forming an expanding spherical wavefront. Each individual wave travels in a
straight line in a vacuum, or in any isotropic medium (one with uniform
properties throughout).
As light travels in straight lines, shadows are formed behind opaque
objects. If the light source is very small, effectively a point source, the entire
shadow is equally dark and has well-defined edges. If, on the other hand, the
source is relatively large – which is usually the case – the shadow is blurred
at the edges and has a dark central region of com-plete shadow (called the
umbra) surrounded by a region of partial shad-ow (the penumbra), which is
illuminated by light from part of the source.
Reflection. All objects and surfaces encountered in everyday life reflect
light. That is why they are visible. Only a perfectly matte, black surface
absorbs all light, and such a surface is extremely difficult to obtain. Many
surfaces reflect only light of certain wavelengths, and so they appear colored
when illuminated with light, which contains all vis-ible wavelengths.
The nature of the surface also affects the type of reflection. Irregu-lar
surfaces and smooth, matte ones reflect light randomly and so cannot form
images. For example, the pages of the book reflect light randomly, so
enabling the type to be read rather than reflecting an image of the reader.
Very smooth, shiny surfaces on the other hand, reflect light in a regular way
and these types of «mirror» surfaces can therefore form well-defined images.
Mirrors and images. There are three main types of mirrors: plane,
concave, and convex. Plane mirrors are flat and are the most familiar type.
Concave mirrors are hollowed – shaving mirrors are an example. And convex
mirrors bulge outwards – they are used for some driving mirrors, for instance,
because they give a wide angle of view.
52
Reflection in all three types of mirrors is governed by two princi-pal
laws. The first law of reflection states that the incident ray (or beam) striking
the surface and the reflected ray (or beam) leaving it are in the same plane as
the normal (an imaginary line perpendicular to the sur-face at the point where
the incident ray hits it). The second law of reflec-tion states that the angle of
incidence (between the incident ray, or beam, and the normal) is equal to the
angle of reflection (between the reflected ray, or beam, and the normal).
Using these two laws it is possible to determine the types of imag-es
formed by the different sorts of mirrors.
III. Find the sentences that can’t be found in the text.
The surface of still water can act as an almost perfect mirror.
In fact, the only difference among images formed by a convex mirror
is their degree of diminution.
The farther the object is from the mirror, the smaller is the image.
The spectral colors are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and
violet.
The nature of the surface also affects the type of reflection.
As the object is moved nearer the mirror, the image becomes larger.
Moving the object just inside the focus produces an upright, much
magnified virtual image.
The image formed by a plane mirror is the same size as the object.
IV. Find English equivalents in the text.
самые низкие частоты _______________________________
фиолетовый ________________________________________
обычно ____________________________________________
будучи одной из форм электромагнитного излучения ______
поглощать свет _____________________________________
содержать все видимые длины волн _____________________
гладкие, матовые поверхности _________________________
формировать чёткие изображения ______________________
тень _______________________________________________
полутень __________________________________________
выпуклое зеркало ___________________________________
вогнутое зеркало ____________________________________
закон гласит ________________________________________
угол падения равен углу отражения ____________________
V. Find Russian equivalents to the following expression in the text.
electromagnetic spectrum of wave lengths __________________
to exhibit the properties ________________________________
diffraction __________________________________________
all surfaces encountered in everyday life ____________________
they appear coloured when illuminated _____________________
irregular surfaces _____________________________________
to reflect light randomly _______________________________
to reflect light in a regular way __________________________
well-defined images ___________________________________
plane mirrors ________________________________________
the incident ray ______________________________________
to determine the types of images _________________________
VI. Fill in the missing words.
53
Visible light constitutes only a very small part of the _______
_______ of wavelengths.
Conventionally, the spectral colours are listed as red, or-ange,
_______, _______, _______, _______ and violet.
Visible light exhibits all the _______ characteristic of electromagnetic radiation.
All objects and surfaces _______ in everyday life _______ light.
Only a perfectly matte, black surface _______ all light.
The nature of the surface _______ the type of reflection.
Irregular surfaces reflect light _______.
Very smooth, shiny surfaces reflect light _______.
There are three main types of mirrors: _______.
Reflection in all three types of mirrors _______ by two princi-pal
laws.
The first law of reflection states that the incident ray _______ the
surface and the reflected ray _______ it are in the same plane as the
normal.
The second law of reflection states that _______ is equal to the angle of
reflection.
VII. Fill in the prepositions, if necessary.
Many surfaces appear coloured when illuminated ___ light.
The nature ___ the surface affects the type of reflection.
Very smooth surfaces ___ the other hand reflect light ___ a reg-ular
way.
Reflection ___ all three types of mirrors is governed ___ two
principal laws.
The angle ___ incidence is equal ___ the angle of reflection.
Using this two laws it is possible to determine the types of imag-es
formed ___ the different sorts ___ mirrors.
The type of image formed by a concave mirrors depends ___ the
distance ___ the object and mirrors.
VIII. Define whether the sentences are true or false.
Visible light constitutes a very large part of the electromagnetic
spectrum of wavelengths.
The spectral colours are listed as white, red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, and violet.
Visible light exhibits all the properties characteristic of electromagnetic radiation.
A perfectly matte, black surface reflects all light.
The nature of the surface affects the type of reflection.
Very smooth, shiny surfaces reflect light randomly.
There are two main types of mirrors: concave and convex.
Reflection in all types of mirrors is governed by four principal laws.
IX. Practice with someone asking and answering.
What part of the electromagnetic spectrum of wavelengths does
visible light constitute?
How are the longest and the shortest visible wavelengths seen?
54
visible?
How can various other colours be identified?
How are the spectral colour listed?
What properties does visible light exhibit?
Why are the objects and surface encountered in everyday life
What surface absorbs all light?
What affects the type of reflection?
How do irregular surfaces reflect light?
How do very smooth and shiny surfaces reflect light?
How many types of mirrors are there?
What is the reflection in all three types of mirrors governed by?
What does the first law of reflection state?
What does the second law of reflection state?
X. Put questions to the following sentences.
Irregular surfaces reflect light randomly.
There are three main types of mirrors.
Reflection in all types of mirrors is governed by two principal laws.
Visible light exhibits all the properties characteristic of electromagnetic radiation.
All objects and surfaces encountered in everyday life reflect light.
Many surfaces reflect only light of certain wavelengths.
The image formed by a plane mirror is the same size as the object.
XI. Dictate the following sentences in English to your fellow-stu-dents.
Check them together.
Visible light constitutes only a very small part of the electromagnetic spectrum of wavelengths.
Visible light exhibits all the properties characteristic of such
radiation – wave particle duality, reflection, refraction, diffraction, dispersion, interference and polarization.
The nature of the surface also affects the type of reflection.
The incident ray (or beam) striking the surface and the reflected ray
(or beam) leaving it are in the same plane as the normal.
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
II. Dictation-translation.
Углы падения и отражения увеличиваются, т.к. чем больше
углы, тем меньше света преломляется и больше отражается.
Самая большая длина волны с самой низкой частотностью
видна как красный свет.
Самая короткая длина волны с самой высокой частотностью
видна как фиолетовый свет.
Так как свет проходит по прямым линиям, позади
светонепроницаемого предмета образуется тень.
Все предметы и поверхности отражают свет, и поэтому они
видны.
Тёмная поверхность поглощает свет.
Очень гладкие светлые поверхности отражают свет.
Существует три типа зеркал: плоское, вогнутое и выпуклое.
Нормаль – это воображаемая линия, перпендикулярная
поверхности в той точке, где падающий луч касается её.
Угол падения равен углу отражения.
55
UNIT 13
I. Find out the words in the dictionary. Write them down and learn.
a filament, incandescence, a source, to emit, to acquire, to de-cay,
ground state, excited state, a light range, to derive, to persist, excitation,
steady, removal, to diminish, vapor, coherent, incoherent
II. Read the text. Use a dictionary, if necessary.
TEXT: «LUMINESCENCE»
Nearly all light-emitters are extremely hot; examples include the sun
and other stars, the filament of an electric lamp, and a candle flame. In
physical terms they are all incandescent light sources. But there is another
smaller group of «cold» sources that emit light by the phenom-enon of
luminescence. Fluorescent lamps and the luminescent numerals on a clock,
which glow in the dark are examples. And a third type of light source – also
not incandescent – is the laser.
Both incandescence and luminescence have the same fundamental
origin, which results from energy changes within the atoms of the radi-ating
object. Electrons within the atoms acquire energy, are «excited» to higher
energy levels, and in decaying again to their ground states emit
electromagnetic radiation in the visible light range. In an incandescent object,
the exciting energy is externally applied heat; in a luminescent object, it
derives from within the object itself or from an external source other than
heat. There are two kinds of luminescence. The type that ceases when
external excitation stops is known as fluorescence; the type, that persists even
in the absence of external excitation, is called phos-phorescence.
Certain bacteria and some minerals and organic chemical com-pounds
that readily glow when irradiated by ultraviolet light are exam-ples of
fluorescence. Some washing powders contain fluorescent com-pounds called
optical brighteners that make fabrics appear brighter and cleaner.
The cold, steady light given off by certain fungi is an example of
phosphorescence: it persists after the removal of the initial stimulus. An
inorganic example is the glow of one type of luminous paint, for which the
energy source is daylight, which is re-emitted as green light, the glow fading
as the «stored» energy diminishes.
Incoherent and coherent light. In a fluorescent lamp, atoms of mer-cury
vapor are bombarded by electrons and emit ultraviolet light. This radiation in
turn excites a phosphor coating inside the tube that emits visible light. But
not all the mercury atoms are hit by electrons at the same instant. Thus, some
are in an excited state while others are in the ground state. The overall light
output is therefore a randomly discontin-uous series of extremely brief
pulses. This kind of light, which is also produced by all normal incandescent
sources, is said to be incoherent.
Waves of light from two such sources do not stay in phase (in step)
with each other for any length of time. Where they meet, they cannot,
therefore, produce the regular pattern of intensification and extinction that is
typical of what is called the interference of light waves, even though the
wavelengths may be more or less identical and the light thus monochromatic.
An interference pattern results when two sources emit light of the same
wavelength and in phase; such light is called coherent. It is pro-duced, by a
56
process similar to fluorescence, in a laser – a name that denotes Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Stim-ulated emission
can be best understood by considering light as a stream of electromagnetic
radiation particles (photons).
III. Find a verb in each line and translate it. Translate also the
underlined words.
Relatively, opaque, encounter, uncertain, image;
Straight, conventionally, matte, surface, obtain;
Identify, randomly, angle, irregular, mirror;
Invisible, interference, constitute, equally, refraction;
Reflection, perfectly, wavelength, unfamiliar, disappear;
Absorb, spectrum, incomplete, extremely, incidence.
IV. Find the sentences that can’t be found in the text.
There is another smaller group of «cold» sources that emit light by
the phenomenon of luminescence.
Every source of light is known to have a luminous intensity, which is
measurable.
In an incandescent object, the exciting energy is externally ap-plied
heat; in a luminescent object, it derives from within the object itself or from
an external source other than heat.
This radiation in turn excites a phosphor coating inside the tube that
emits visible light.
The overall light output is therefore a randomly discontinuous series
of extremely brief pulses.
Incandescence is the emission of light caused by high temperatures.
The luminescent substance absorbs the energy and the re-radiation
may be immediate, so that excitation and luminescence coincide in time.
An interference pattern results when two sources emit light of the
same wavelength and in phase; such light is called coherent.
V. Find English equivalents in the text.
пламя свечи ________________________________________
нить накала электрической лампы ______________________
явление люминесценции ______________________________
излучать свет ________________________________________
как температурное свечение, так и люминесценция ________
накаливание ________________________________________
правильная/чёткая модель ____________________________
в пределах, внутри ___________________________________
область распространения видимого света ________________
основное состояние/нижний уровень ___________________
прекращать (ся) ____________________________________
продолжать существовать/оставаться ___________________
постоянный/устойчивый ____________________________
некогерентный ____________________________________
одновременно _____________________________________
интерференция световых волн ________________________
угасание, затухание _________________________________
устранение ________________________________________
следовать, проистекать _______________________________
более или менее _____________________________________
поток частиц электромагнитного излучения _____________
57
VI. Find Russian equivalents to the following expressions in the text.
light-emitters _____________________________________
are extremely hot _____________________________
incandescent light sources ______________________
the same fundamental origin _____________________
results from __________________________________
the radiating object ____________________________________
electrons within the atoms ______________________________
higher energy level ____________________________________
in decaying to their ground states _________________________
emit electromagnetic radiation in the visible light range _______
an external source other than heat ________________________
excitation _________________________________________
organic chemical compounds __________________________
when irradiated by ultraviolet light ______________________
atoms of mercury vapor_______________________________
are bombarded by electrons ____________________________
a phosphor coating __________________________________
at the same instance __________________________________
do not stay in phase __________________________________
VII. Analyse the structure of the following sentences.
Electrons within the atoms acquire energy, are «excited» to higher
energy levels, and in decaying again to their ground states emit electromagnetic radiation in the visible light range.
Certain bacteria and some minerals and organic chemical compounds that readily glow when irradiated by ultraviolet light are exam-ples of
fluorescence.
The type that ceases when external excitation stops is known as
fluorescence.
An inorganic example is the glow of one type of luminous paint, for
which the energy source is daylight, which is re-emitted as green light, the
glow fading as the «stored» energy diminishes.
VIII. Fill in the missing words.
Nearly all light-emitters are extremely hot; examples _______ the
sun and other stars, the filament of an electric lamp, and a candle light.
In physical terms they are all _______ light sources.
Fluorescent lamps and the luminescent numerals on a clock, which
_______ in the dark are examples.
Both incandescence and luminescence have the same fundamen-tal
_______, which results from energy _______ within the atoms of the
radiating object.
In a luminescent object the exciting energy derives from within the
object itself or from _______ source other than heat.
The type of luminescence that ______ when external excitation, is
called _____.
The overall light _______ is a randomly ______ series of ex-tremely
brief pulses.
This kind of light, which is also produced by all normal _______
sources, is said to be ________.
Waves of light from two such sources do not stay in _______
58
with each other for any length of time.
Stimulated _______ can be best understood by considering light as
a _______ of electromagnetic radiation particles.
IX. Fill in the prepositions, if necessary.
Fluorescent lamps and luminescent numerals ___ a clock, which
glow ___ the dark are examples.
Both incandescence and luminescence have the same fundamental
origin, which results ___ energy changes ___ the atoms ___ the radiat-ing
object.
In a luminescent object the exciting energy derives ___ ___ the
object itself or ___ an external source other than heat.
Certain bacteria and some minerals and organic chemical compounds that readily glow when irradiated ___ ultraviolet light are exam-ples
of fluorescence.
___ a fluorescent lamp, atoms ___ mercury vapor are bombard-ed
___ electrons and emit ultraviolet light.
But not all the mercury atoms are hit ___ electrons ___ the same
instant.
Waves ___ light ___ two such sources do not stay ___ phase ___
each other ___ any length ___ time.
Stimulated emission can be best understood ___ considering light as
a stream ___ electromagnetic radiation particles.
X. Define whether the sentences are true or false.
Nearly all light-emitters are extremely cold.
There is another smaller group of «cold» sources that emit light by
the phenomenon of luminescence.
And a third type of light source – also incandescent – is the laser.
In an incandescent object, the exciting energy derives from within the
object itself or from an external source other than heat.
There are three kinds of luminescence.
The type that ceases when external excitation stops is known as
fluorescence; the type that persists even in the absence of external exci-tation,
is called phosphorescence.
In a fluorescent lamp, atoms of mercury vapor are bombarded by
electrons and emit infrared light.
All the mercury atoms are hit by electrons at the same instant.
An interference pattern results when two sources emit light of the
same wavelength and in phase; such light is called coherent.
XI. Answer the question.
Are all light-emitters extremely hot or cold?
What are the examples of hot light-emitters?
How are they called in physics?
There is also a group of «cold» sources. Is it larger or smaller?
In what way do «cold» sources emit light?
What are the examples of «cold» sources of light?
There is a third type of light source. What is it?
Do incandescence and luminescence have the same fundamen-tal
origin? What does it result from?
How do electrons behave in an atom?
59
What is the source of the exciting energy in an incandescent object?
And where does the exciting energy derive from in a lumines-cent
object?
Are there two or three kinds of luminescent? What are they?
What are the examples of fluorescence?
What compounds do some washing powders contain?
What are the organic and inorganic examples of phosphores-cence?
XII. Put questions to the following sentences.
Both incandescence and luminescence have the same fundamental
origin. (General)
In an incandescent object the exciting energy is externally ap-plied
heat. (Alternative)
There are two kinds of luminescence. (Disjunctive)
This radiation in turn excites a phosphor coating inside the tube.
(Special)
An interference pattern results when two sources emit light of the
same wavelength and in phase. (Special)
XIII. Dictate the following sentences in English to your follow-students.
Check them together.
Both incandescence and luminescence have the same fundamental
origin, which results from energy changes within the atoms of the radi-ating
object.
In an incandescent object, the exciting energy is externally ap-plied
heat.
In a luminescent object, it derives from within the object itself or
from an external source other than heat.
In a fluorescent lamp, atoms of mercury vapor are bombarded by
electrons and emit ultraviolet light.
The overall light output is therefore a randomly discontinuous series
of extremely brief pulses.
An interference pattern results when two sources emit light of the
same wavelength and in phase; such light is called coherent.
It is produced, by process similar to fluorescence, in a laser – a name
that denotes Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
XIV. Dictation-translation.
Почти все тела, которые испускают свет, чрезвычайно горячие;
примерами являются солнце и другие звёзды, нить накала
электрической лампы и пламя свечи.
Существует ещё одна, меньшая группа «холодных»
источников, которые испускают свет посредством люминесценции.
Как температурное свечение, так и люминесценция имеют один
и тот же основной источник, который возникает в результате
энергетических изменений внутри атомов излучающего предмета.
Вид люминесценции, который продолжает существовать даже
при отсутствии внешнего возбуждения, называется фосфо-ресценцией.
60
Во флуоресцентной лампе атомы паров ртути бомбардируются
электронами и излучают ультрафиолетовый свет.
Вынужденное излучение можно лучше понять, рассматривая
свет как поток частиц электромагнитного излучения (фотонов).
61
UNIT 14
I. Find out the words in the dictionary. Write them down and learn.
alternate, to alter, compression, rarefaction, originate, vocal cords,
throat, drum, string, to convert, longitudinal, transverse, prop-agation,
large-coiled, backward and forward, to bunch, to occur, to distinguish,
pure, pitch, intensity, to assess, to perceive, to diminish, to affect
II. Read the text. Use a dictionary, if necessary.
TEXT: «SOUND»
Sound consists of waves of alternate compression and rarefaction that
transmit kinetic energy through a medium. If there is no medium, there is no
sound; sound waves cannot pass through a vacuum. All sounds originate from
vibrating objects, such as the vocal cords in the human throat, the skin of a
drum, or the strings of a violin. The vibrations are then passed on through a
medium – most commonly air – until they strike the ear drum; the ear converts
the vibrations into nerve impulses, which pass to the brain where they are
interpreted as sounds. Microphones are the other most common instruments of
sound waves into electrical signals.
Waves and sound. There are two types of waves in physics: longi-tudinal
and transverse. Sound waves are of the longitudinal type – that is, their
vibrations take place in the same direction as they travel. The phenomenon of
longitudinal wave propagation can be demonstrated with a long, large-coiled
spring. When the string is fixed at one end and the other end is moved
backwards and forwards, alternating regions of com-pression (where the coils
are bunched together) and rarefaction (where the coils are farther apart than
normal) move along the spring.
Transverse waves are those in which the vibrations occur at right angles
to the direction, in which the waves travel – as happens, for ex-ample, when a
length of rope is moved regularly up and down to give it a wavelike
appearance. Ocean waves and light waves also travel by trans-verse
propagation.
Frequency and intensity. Two obvious ways of distinguishing one «pure»
sound (that is, a «pure» tone) from another are by their pitch and loudness.
Neither property is a scientifically accurate notion. Pitch is a word used by
musicians and is closely related to frequency; but it is a subjective term,
whereas frequency can be measured physically. Similar-ly loudness, closely
related to a sound’s intensity, differs according to the sensitivity of the hearer’s
ears, whereas intensity can be measured in ex-act physical quantities. (Real
sounds are mixtures of many different pure sounds and also have a
characteristic «quality», which can be assessed by detailed examination of the
shape of a real sound’s waveform.)
The frequency of a sound wave is the number of wavelengths that are
completed in a given period of time. The universal unit of measure-ment is the
hertz (Hz), which represents one complete wavelength, or cycle, per second.
The human ear is sensitive to sound in the frequency range from about 20 Hz.
As people grow older, their ability to perceive high frequencies diminishes.
The intensity of sound is measured in terms of the amount of pow-er that
passes each second through a given area perpendicular to the direction of the
sound wave. The intensity unit is the decibel (db). There is no absolute decibel
scale; it is a relative scale.
Velocity. Sound can be transmitted by any medium – gas, liquid, or solid
– and all sound waves travel at a constant velocity through any given medium
at a constant temperature. But depending on their elastic-ity and density, some
mediums transmit waves faster than others. It is extremely difficult for sound
waves to pass from a medium of one den-sity to another of a much higher or
lower density.
Anything that changes the density of a medium also alters the speed at
which sound travels through it. Hence the velocity of sound is affected by
temperature; as the temperature increases, the medium expands. Its density
decreases, with the result that the velocity of sound increases.
III. Find the sentences that can’t be found in the text.
A sound wave consists of a series of alternate compressions and
rarefactions of the medium through which it passes.
Waves of alternate compression and rarefaction transmit kinetic
energy through a medium.
The vibrations pass through a medium and it works by convert-ing
sound waves into electrical signals.
The power of sound, perceived as loudness, is measured in decibels.
The decibels scale is a relative one, with an arbitrary zero point
(usually taken as the lower threshold of human hearing).
There are two types of waves in physics: longitudinal and transverse.
As with longitudinal waves along a spring, sound waves consist of a
series of compressions and rare factions.
The wavelength is the distance between two adjacent points (or particles)
that are in the identical phase of the wave’s vibration.
IV. Translate the following noun groups into Russian.
the skin of drum _______________________________________
the strings of violin ____________________________________
common instruments of sound detection ____________________
phenomenon of longitudinal wave propagation ______________
regions of compression _________________________________
sensitivity of the hearer’s ears ___________________________
mixtures of pure sounds ________________________________
detailed examination of the shape ________________________
the shape of a real sound’s waveform ______________________
frequency of a sound wave _____________________________
number of wavelengths ________________________________
intensity of sound ____________________________________
63
a medium of one density _______________________________
velocity of sound _____________________________________
V. Find English words and equivalents in the text.
чередующиеся сжатия _______________________________
передавать кинетическую энергию _____________________
происходить _______________________________________
преобразовывать в импульсы __________________________
в том же направлении ________________________________
может быть показана ________________________________
зафиксированная нить ________________________________
подобно ___________________________________________
данный период времени ______________________________
возможность воспринимать __________________________
направление звуковой волны __________________________
быстрее, чем другие _________________________________
более высокой или более низкой плотности ______________
VI. Find Russian equivalents to the following words and expres-sions in
the text.
alternate compression _________________________________
originate from vibrating objects _________________________
sound detection _____________________________________
to be father apart _____________________________________
to move backward and forward __________________________
right angle __________________________________________
to move up and down __________________________________
a scientifically accurate notation _________________________
to be completed in a given period of time __________________
intensity unit _______________________________________
as the temperature increases ___________________________
the medium expands __________________________________
VII. Fill in the missing words.
Sound consists of waves of _____ compression and _____.
If there is no _____, there is no sound.
Sound waves are of the _____ type – that is their vibrations take place
in the same direction as they _____.
When the spring is fixed at one end and the other end is moved _____
and _____.
_____ waves are those in which the vibrations occur at _____ _____
to the direction
Ocean waves and light waves also travel by transverse _____.
The obvious ways of distinguishing sound are by their _____
and _____.
Real sounds are _____ of many different pure sounds.
The universal unit is the _____.
The velocity of sound is _____ by temperature.
VIII. Fill in the preposition, if necessary.
64
Sound waves cannot pass ___ a vacuum.
All sounds originate ___ vibrating objects.
The vibrating objects are then passed ___ ___ a medium.
The phenomenon of longitudinal wave propagation can be demonstrated ___ a long, large-coiled spring.
Pitch is a word used ___ musicians, and it is closely related ___
frequency.
Frequency can be measured ___ physically.
The human ear is sensitive ___ sound ___ the frequency range ___
___ Hz.
The intensity of sound is measured ___ terms of the amount of power.
IX. Define whether sentences are true or false.
All sounds originate from still and vibrating objects, because all
objects have their own waves.
Microphones can’t be instruments of sound direction, because we
used them just to close our ears.
When the spring is fixed at one end and the other end is moved backward and forward, alternating regions of compression move along the spring.
Loudness, closely related to a sound’s density, and depends on the
sensivity of the hearer’s ears.
The frequency of a sound wave is the number of vibrations that are
completed in a given period of time.
The human ear is sensitive to sound in the frequency range from about
10 Hz.
As people grow older, they loose their ability to perceive high
frequencies.
The intensity of sound is the amount of power that passes each second
through a given area perpendicular to the direction of the sound wave.
There is absolute decibel scale.
Sound waves depend on velocity and temperature of a medium.
X. Practice with someone asking and answering.
What originates from vibrating objects?
How can all living beings hear sounds?
What are the types of waves in physics?
What kind of experiment can show us the phenomenon of longitudinal wave propagation?
Are there any ways of distinguishing one «pure» sound from another
object? What are these ways, if any?
What is intensity of sound?
How does sound depend on medium and temperature?
XI. Put questions to the following sentences.
Sound waves cannot pass through a vacuum. (Disjunctive)
The ear converts the vibrations into nerve impulses. (Special)
65
Microphones are the most common instruments of sound detec-tion.
(What)
Frequency can be measured physically (General)
Decibel scale is a relative scale. (Alternative)
XII. Dictate the following text in English to your fellow-students.
A sound wave consists of a series of alternate compressions and
rarefactions of medium.
Alternate compression and rarefaction transmit kinetic energy through
a medium which they pass.
Sound can not pass through a vacuum.
Vocal cords in human throat, the skin of a drum or the strings of a
violin are good examples of vibrating objects.
The phenomenon of longitudinal wave propagation can be demonstrated with a long large spring.
Each complete wave cycle is made up of one compression and one
rarefaction.
The wavelength is the distance between two adjacent point, that are in
the identical phase of the wave’s vibration.
XIII. Dictation- translation.
Звук состоит из чередующихся сжатий.
Звука нет, если нет среды.
Все звуки возникают от колеблющихся предметов.
В физике существует 2 типа волн: продольные и поперечные.
Продольные волны могут быть продемонстрированы при
помощи длинного шнура.
Поперечные волны – это волны, в которых вибрация происходит
под прямым углом по отношению к направлению движения.
Частота звуковой волны – это количество длин волн за данный
период времени.
Универсальная единица измерения частоты волны звука – это
герц.
Интенсивность звука измеряется исходя из мощности количества
силы, которая проходит каждую секунду через данную площадь
перпендикулярно направлению звуковой волны.
Универсальная единица измерения интенсивности звука – это
децибел.
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Part II
UNIT 1
Analyze the instruction for writing a summary. Try to remember the sequence
of steps. Answer a question: what makes a good summary?
INTRODUCTION: «HOW TO WRITE A SUMMARY»
You may have to write a summary to prove that you have read and
understood a text or article in English – or a number of texts and articles.
Tips for writing a summary
1. First, read the text or article to get a general idea of the subject matter as
well as the author's attitude.
2. Then read through a second time to identify the main points – either
paragraph by paragraph, or heading by heading / sub-heading.
Identify the topic sentences. These are usually the first sentences of each
paragraph. They give the main idea for the paragraph (with the following
sentences supporting this main idea). Also look for the concluding sentence in
the paragraph, as this often summarises the paragraph.
3. Now write the main idea of each paragraph (or section) in one sentence. Use
your own words, rather than the author's words. This is important: if you copy
what the author has written, you risk writing too much!
4. Start pulling out key facts or findings from the text which support the
author's main idea (or ideas). You may need to either summarise these (if there
are a lot of them) or decide which are the most important or relevant.
However, if you are summarising a number of texts or articles, start to look for
common themes running through all the texts. Are the texts broadly in
agreement, or do they have different points of view or findings? Choose only a
few supporting details to illustrate similarity or contrast.
5. When you have written all your sentences, you should be able to get a good
overview of the whole text. This overview can be your introduction to your
summary. In your introduction, you'll also need to give the author's name and
the title of the text you are summarising.
Your summary should now look like this:
Text / author information. Your overview (the introduction). The single
sentences summarising the main ideas, with the key facts or figures that
support the ideas.
6. At this point, you'll need to organise all the information in the most logical
way. You might also have repeated ideas or details that you'll need to delete.
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7. Don't forget to include linking or transitional words so your reader can
easily follow your thoughts. This will help your summary flow better, and help
you avoid writing short sentences without any connection between them.
Important points to remember
Don't copy the article. Instead, paraphrase. For example, “the author claims /
states / suggests …”. If you quote directly from the original text, use quotation
marks. (Minimise how often you do this.)
Don't give your opinion.
Edit what you write. Check your English grammar, spelling and punctuation
mistakes.
What Makes a Good Summary?
A summary condenses ideas into as few sentences as possible. Good
summaries:
1. Tell the main idea clearly.
2. Are written in your own style.
3. Are shorter than the original document.
UNIT 2
Study the list of transitional words and phrases. Try to remember them.
INTRODUCTION: «TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES»
Using transitional words and phrases helps papers read more
smoothly, and at the same time allows the reader to flow more smoothly from
one point to the next.
Transitions enhance logical organization and understandability and
improve the connections between thoughts. They indicate relations, whether
within a sentence, paragraph, or paper.
This list illustrates categories of "relationships" between ideas, followed by
words and phrases that can make the connections:
Addition:
also, again, as well as, besides, coupled with, furthermore, in addition,
likewise, moreover, similarly
When there is a trusting relationship coupled with positive reinforcement, the
partners will be able to overcome difficult situations.
Consequence:
accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, for this purpose,
hence, otherwise, so then, subsequently, therefore, thus, thereupon, wherefore
Highway traffic came to a stop as a result of an accident that morning.
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Contrast
and
Comparison:
contrast, by the same token, conversely, instead, likewise,
on one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, rather,
similarly, yet, but, however, still, nevertheless, in contrast
The children were very happy. On the other hand, and perhaps more
importantly, their parents were very proactive in providing good care.
Direction:
here, there, over there, beyond, nearly, opposite, under, above,
to the left, to the right, in the distance
She scanned the horizon for any sign though in the distance she could not see
the surprise coming her way.
Diversion:
by the way, incidentally
He stumbled upon the nesting pair incidentally found only on this hill.
Emphasis
above all, chiefly, with attention to, especially, particularly, singularly
The Quakers gathered each month with attention to deciding the business of
their Meeting.
Exception:
aside from, barring, beside, except, excepting, excluding, exclusive of, other
than, outside of, save
Consensus was arrived at by all of the members exclusive of those who could
not vote.
Exemplifying:
chiefly, especially, for instance, in particular, markedly, namely,
particularly, including, specifically, such as
Some friends and I drove up the beautiful coast chiefly to avoid the heat island
of the city.
Generalizing:
as a rule, as usual, for the most part, generally, generally speaking, ordinarily,
usually
There were a few very talented artists in the class, but for the most part the
students only wanted to avoid the alternative course.
Illustration:
for example, for instance, for one thing, as an illustration,
illustrated with, as an example, in this case
The chapter provided complex sequences and examples illustrated with a very
simple schematic diagram.
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Similarity:
comparatively, coupled with, correspondingly, identically, likewise, similar,
moreover, together with
The research was presented in a very dry style though was coupled with
examples that made the audience tear up.
Restatement:
in essence, in other words, namely, that is, that is to say, in short, in brief, to
put it differently
In their advertising business, saying things directly was not the rule. That is to
say, they tried to convey the message subtly though with creativity.
Sequence:
at first, first of all, to begin with, in the first place, at the same time,
for now, for the time being, the next step, in time, in turn, later on,
meanwhile, next, then, soon, the meantime, later, while, earlier,
simultaneously, afterward, in conclusion, with this in mind,
The music had a very retro sound but at the same time incorporated a complex
modern rhythm.
Summarizing:
after all, all in all, all things considered, briefly, by and large, in any case, in
any
event,
in brief, in conclusion, on the whole, in short, in summary, in the final
analysis,
in the long run, on balance, to sum up, to summarize, finally
She didn't seem willing to sell the car this week, but in any case I don't get paid
until the end of the month.
UNIT 3
Task: write a summary of the following text.
TEXT: «NOBEL PRIZE – NEUTRINOS OSCILLATE»
The 2015 Nobel Prize in physics recognizes the discovery that
neutrinos transform or “oscillate” among three different types. In a single
stroke, it both solved a long-standing puzzle about these most elusive of
fundamental particles and also exposed an incompleteness in the current
bedrock theory of physics, called the standard model. The key findings behind
the award were reported in three papers published in Physical Review Letters
between 1998 and 2002.
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Neutrinos are extremely hard to detect because they have very little
mass, no electric charge, and only weak interactions with other fundamental
particles. Yet they are, after photons, the second most abundant known particle
in the Universe and are essential for understanding the nuclear reactions
involved in fusion, which powers stars, and in radioactive beta decay.
Although it was not clear, even after they were first detected in 1956,
whether neutrinos have any mass, the standard model, which describes all of
the particles currently known, assumes that they do not. It also says that there
are three types (“flavors”) of neutrino, called electron, muon, and tau
neutrinos. Neutrinos produced in solar nuclear fusion were first detected in the
late 1960s, and over the ensuing three decades, such measurements showed
that there was a deficit of about 70% compared with the number of neutrinos
predicted from calculations.
This shortfall of solar neutrinos was explained by experiments led by
this year's laureates, Arthur McDonald of Queen’s University in Kingston,
Canada, and Takaaki Kajita of the University of Tokyo. The work revealed
that the three flavors of neutrino can interconvert as the particles stream
through space. Thus, some electron neutrinos produced in the Sun become
muon and tau neutrinos in transit—but the earlier detectors were not sensitive
to these latter two flavors. The possibility of neutrino oscillations was first
raised in 1957, but the Nobel-winning work demonstrated that such
oscillations really do occur.
Kajita headed a team working at the Super-Kamiokande detector in
Japan. The detector consists of a tank of 50,000 tons of water buried
underground to shield it from cosmic rays. It detects electron and muon
neutrinos coming not from the Sun but from the Earth’s atmosphere, where
neutrinos are produced by collisions of cosmic rays with atmospheric atoms.
Very rarely, these neutrinos will collide with atomic nuclei in the detector's
water molecules and generate flashes of light.
Neutrinos interact so weakly with matter that they mostly pass
straight through the Earth without disturbance, so Super-Kamiokande can
detect neutrinos coming from any direction. In 1998, the researchers reported
that they detected fewer muon neutrinos coming up through the Earth than
coming down from above. This asymmetry suggested that some atmospheric
muon neutrinos coming through the Earth had oscillated to (undetectable) tau
neutrinos in transit, while those coming from above, having a far shorter path,
had not had time to do so.
The experiment led by McDonald confirmed this conclusion in 2001
and 2002. It used a detector called the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO)
inside a mine in Sudbury, Canada, containing 1000 tons of heavy water. In this
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case there were two types of collisions between neutrinos and heavy hydrogen
(deuterium) atoms, one involving only electron neutrinos and the other
involving all three flavors. So the relative amounts of the different flavors
could be compared.
“The resolution of the solar neutrino flux was the major result,” says
Frank Close, a particle physicist at the University of Oxford. “It was a problem
that hung around for about 40 years.” He adds that SNO “would not exist in
the way it does but for the persistence and energy of Art McDonald.”
In addition to explaining the solar neutrino deficit, these discoveries implied
that neutrinos are not massless—according to theory, oscillations are only
possible if there are differences in mass between the three flavors. It’s not yet
known what these masses are, but they are very small, at least a million times
less than the electron mass. And yet neutrinos are so numerous that they add
up to a mass roughly equivalent to that of all the luminous matter in the
Universe. Moreover, because the standard model is predicated on massless
neutrinos, new theories will be required to explain why they have mass, so the
discoveries of McDonald, Kajita, and their teams, point to future directions in
physics research. Close says there are several current urgent questions
regarding neutrinos, such as their potential connections with the mysterious
dark matter and with the puzzling asymmetry between matter and antimatter.
Philip Ball (October, 2015, Physics 8, 97)
UNIT 4
Task: write a summary of the following text.
TEXT: «PUTTING QUNTUM SYSTEMS TO WORK»
Engines in cars and airplanes are thermal machines that are capable of
doing work. Scientists have recently demonstrated the existence of so-called
quantum thermal machines, tiny versions of engines and refrigerators
consisting of only a few quantum-mechanical units. When calculating how
much work such microscopic systems can accomplish, quantum effects such as
coherence and entanglement must be taken into account. Now, researchers
have shown that systems in which quantum effects are pronounced can store
more energy than systems that are purely classical.
Antonio Acín at the Institute of Photonic Sciences, Spain, and coworkers studied how isolated ensembles of n quantum particles could
optimally store usable energy. The researchers imagined a set of correlated
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particles at the same temperature. These particles are useless individually—
one cannot, for example, run a thermal machine without a temperature
gradient—but correlations among them can be exploited for extracting work.
Acín and his colleagues theoretically demonstrated that entangled states can
store more energy than nonentangled states. However, this advantage vanishes
as the number of particles increases. For example, small ensembles of
entangled particles (n=2) stored 100% more energy than purely classical
particles; for n=50 the quantum advantage reduced to only 2%. This finding
supports the hypothesis that thermodynamics on a macroscopic scale is
insensitive to the underlying microscopic mechanics. The team now plans to
study how different kinds of entanglement affect energy storage.
Katherine Kornei (October, 2015, Physical Review X)
UNIT 5
Task: write a summary of the following text.
TEXT: «A BUMPY RIDE FOR ATOMS»
Metallic glasses—alloys with an amorphous glasslike structure—are
popular technological materials because of their strength and resistance to
fracture. However, these properties can decay over time, making the glass
more brittle and prone to cracking. How this “aging” occurs, though, is
unclear: Macroscopic measurements suggest a slow and steady rearrangement
of the alloy’s atoms, but atomic-scale probes indicate a more complex and
heterogeneous process. Providing support for this second picture, Zach
Evenson at the Technical University Munich, Germany, and colleagues show
that aging of a metallic glass occurs via localized and intermittent
rearrangements of atoms. Understanding how atoms behave in metallic glasses
as they age could allow more robust versions of these materials to be designed.
Evenson and co-workers cooled a palladium-based metallic glass
from a liquid to a glassy state. Using x rays, they monitored the subsequent
density fluctuations of the alloy as a function of time. These fluctuations are
proportional to the frequency of the structural rearrangement of the atoms.
They found that just after the glass had formed, it sat in a uniform state with
density fluctuations that stayed constant with time. The alloy then entered an
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“aging” regime with slower density fluctuations. This slow down was not a
continuous process; instead, the density fluctuations abruptly decreased to a
fixed value, stayed there for a short period of time, and then abruptly dropped
again—much like stop-and-go traffic on a congested freeway. Evenson and
colleagues think these complicated dynamics indicate a system in which
internal stresses, stored at the atomic level, relax in an intermittent and
discontinuous manner.
Katherine Wright (October, 2015, Physical Review Letters)
UNIT 6
Task: write a summary of the following text.
TEXT: «ULTRACOLD NEUTRONS MEASURE MAGNETIC
FIELD»
A new technique measures the range of energies in a cloud of
ultracold neutrons and also detects variations in the magnetic field applied to
the cloud with an unprecedented degree of sensitivity. The method uses a trick
borrowed from medical imaging and could significantly benefit experiments
searching for a neutron electric dipole moment, which in turn could reveal why
there is an imbalance between matter and antimatter.
One of the biggest unanswered questions about the neutron concerns
its “roundness”—whether its electric charge is distributed with perfect
spherical symmetry or is, say, distributed with slightly more positive charge at
one end and more negative charge at the other. Such an asymmetry is called an
electric dipole moment (EDM). A nonzero neutron EDM is predicted by some
theories that explain the differing amounts of matter and antimatter in the early
Universe, so measuring it could point the way to more comprehensive theories.
But so far no neutron EDM has been found, despite efforts dating back to the
1950s.
A neutron has a spin related to its known magnetic dipole moment, so
it rotates (precesses) in a magnetic field; with an EDM, it would also precess
in an electric field. The EDM experiment measures the neutron's precession in
a combined electric and magnetic field (comparing parallel with antiparallel
fields). But this measurement is often thwarted by unknown variations in what
should be a perfectly uniform magnetic field. For example, there could be a
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vertical gradient, meaning that the field slightly increases or decreases in
strength going from the bottom to the top of the neutron chamber.
Now a team led by Philipp Schmidt-Wellenburg of the Paul Scherrer
Institute in Switzerland has found a way to measure such tiny gradients with
unprecedented accuracy and thus reduce one of the biggest systematic errors in
EDM experiments.
The trapped neutrons in these experiments are typically ultracold
(temperatures around 3 millikelvin) and move so slowly that they are
noticeably affected by the force of gravity. Like bouncing ping-pong balls, the
neutrons with the largest speeds (energies) bounce the highest and experience,
on average, a slightly weaker magnetic-field strength than the lower-energy
neutrons at the bottom of the container. Field strength determines precession
frequency, so the frequency varies with neutron height and energy, an effect
first theoretically described last year.
The team applied a vertical magnetic-field gradient to their cylinder containing
ultracold neutrons and measured the field with the low accuracy available with
magnetic sensors spaced around the chamber. The researchers then aligned all
of the neutron spins with an electromagnetic pulse. Schmidt-Wellenburg
describes this pulse as the “whistle” that starts a running race, where the
runners are the neutron spins precessing in the magnetic field. During the race,
each neutron precesses to a different degree, depending on its average height.
A second pulse turned the runners around. By measuring the progress of the
neutron spins—the overall spin alignment, or polarization, of the population—
after a fixed amount of time, the researchers reconstructed the neutron height
distribution.
This method is akin to MRI, where precession of nuclei in a known
magnetic-field gradient leads to a map of the density of those nuclei. By
accounting for gravity, the team derived the neutron energy distribution, which
could be useful for other experiments that measure the lifetime of the neutron.
To improve on the accuracy of their rough measurements of the
magnetic-field gradient, the researchers made polarization measurements in
three different field gradients. They fit the data to their model and came up
with a fixed gradient correction with a precision of about a picotesla per
centimeter, which is about 8 times more precise than previous measurements.
With this new level of accuracy and precision, Schmidt-Wellenburg and his
colleagues have already started collecting data in what should be a more
sensitive search for the neutron EDM.
This work is a “great example of how different fields can learn from
one another in order to make a breakthrough,” says Jeffery Martin, of the
University of Winnipeg in Canada, referring to the use of an MRI principle in
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EDM experiments. Many research groups, including Martin’s, are currently
building up bigger samples of ultracold neutrons in order to do similar
experiments in a bid to set the new limit on the “roundness” of the neutron.
Tamela Maciel (October, 2015, Physical Review Letters)
UNIT 7
Task: write a summary of the following text.
TEXT: «OPTICAL COMPUTING UNDER THE LENS»
Photons and linear optical components, such as mirrors and beam
splitters, have been touted as a practical means to make a quantum computer.
But what does it really take to build, block by block, such a linear optical
quantum computer? Ying Li from the University of Oxford, UK, and
colleagues now describe a theoretical analysis that puts numbers on the
technical resources required to build such a machine.
Their work goes beyond previous analyses because it does two things
simultaneously. One, it determines the overall number of components needed
to build a useful linear optical quantum computing (LOQC) machine. And
two, it establishes the maximum photon-loss and error rates that each
component should have to enable fault-free computation. It also provides a
comparison with computing schemes that use matter such as atoms and
superconducting circuits, as opposed to photons, to encode quantum
information.
The authors estimate that, for a photon-loss rate per component of
one in a thousand and an error rate per component of one in a hundred
thousand, the total number of components required is at least 5 orders of
magnitude larger than for a matter-based processor. This is because photons
interact with each other much more weakly than matter particles do. LOQC
schemes overcome this limitation only at the cost of massively more complex
circuits. While these results may be regarded as bad news for LOQC, they
could guide researchers in the search for improved protocols for LOQC. In the
end, hybrid architectures that combine photons and matter may turn out to be
better than pure optical approaches.
Ana Lopes (October, 2015, Physical Review X)
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UNIT 8
Task: write a summary of the following text.
TEXT: «BRIGHT TWINS»
By exploiting quantum correlations between photons, scientists can
generate light with exceptionally low noise. Such “squeezed noise” is
observed, for example, in twin beams—pairs of beams carrying the exact same
number of photons. By using one of the beams to probe a sample and the other
as a reference, researchers can achieve measurement accuracies impossible
with classical light. Martin Finger at the Max Planck Institute for the Science
of Light, Germany, and colleagues have now demonstrated a fiber-based
source of twin beams with record brightness.
Twin beams are typically produced in thin nonlinear optical crystals,
which convert a laser photon into a “signal” and an “idler” photon. Since a
signal photon is always generated with an idler photon, the photon number in
the two beams is identical. Optical fibers could, in principle, replace crystals,
realizing similar conversion processes over much longer lengths to create
brighter twin beams. But certain light scattering processes, due to the so-called
Raman effect, increase the twin beam’s noise as it propagates in a fiber.
Finger and co-workers overcome this problem using a crystal fiber
with a hollow core filled with argon. Through a conversion process known as
modulational instability, a propagating laser pulse modifies the fiber refractive
index, generating two beams at frequencies slightly below and above the
laser's wavelength. Since light propagates in a noble gas, rather than in the
glass core of conventional fibers, it is immune from the Raman scattering
processes that plague fiber-based schemes. The setup delivers a tunable and
highly correlated twin beam with over 3 times the brightness of previous
demonstrations.
Matteo Rini (October, 2015, Physical Review Letters)
UNIT 9
Task: write a summary of the following text.
77
TEXT: «TESTING RELATIVITY WITH PLANETARY
MOTION»
Lorentz invariance is a central tenet of general relativity and the
standard model of particle physics. It states that any two observers moving
through space at a constant velocity share the same laws of physics, no matter
their orientation and velocity. Any hint of breakdown of this spacetime
symmetry could guide researchers in the search for a theory that unifies
relativity and the standard model. Aurelien Hees from Rhodes University,
South Africa, and colleagues report a test of Lorentz symmetry based on
existing observations of the orbits of planets around the Sun. Their study
indicates no breakdown of Lorentz invariance but places stringent constraints
on it.
Lorentz symmetry can be tested using the so-called standard model
extension (SME). This framework describes Lorentz symmetry for all known
particles and forces, including gravity, in terms of coefficients that vanish
when the symmetry holds exactly. Hees and colleagues determined SME
coefficients using the observed shifts of two planetary orbital elements: the
longitude of the ascending node (the point where a planet crosses the plane of
Earth’s orbit from south to north), and the argument of the perihelion (the
angle between the ascending node and the point of closest approach to the
Sun). These shifts depend on other observables—such as a planet’s mean
motion, orbital eccentricity and inclination—as well as on some of the SME
coefficients. Therefore, they can be used to derive the values of the latter. The
team found that these SME coefficients are zero to an accuracy on the order of
parts per billion or less, improving current limits set by Solar System tests by
ten- to a thousand-fold.
Ana Lopes (October, 2015, Physical Review D)
UNIT 10
Task: write a summary of the following text.
TEXT: «A DIODE FOR FLUIDS»
A diode is a common electronic component that restricts current flow
in one direction. Researchers have developed a microfluidic device that
78
produces this “one way” action with fluids. This fluid diode is an array of
nanochannels with openings that are hydrophilic (water-attracting) on one side
and hydrophobic (water-repelling) on the other. Because there are no moving
parts, this device could be easily integrated into lab-on-a-chip technologies.
Fluid diodes can manipulate flow streams in micro- and nanofluidic
devices. They can, for example, prevent contamination between reaction
vessels. Microvalves can perform as diodes, but they are active (i.e., need to be
powered) and have moving parts that can break down. Researchers have
developed passive devices with direction-dependent flow, but they only work
for special fluids, like gels and polymers, with unusual viscous properties.
Zhigang Li and colleagues from the Hong Kong University of Science and
Technology have created a passive diode for fluids with conventional
viscosity, like water or blood. The device consists of 200 nanochannels, each
having one end made with hydrophilic silicon dioxide, the other end with
hydrophobic aluminum oxide. The nanochannels are aligned in parallel
between two larger microchannels filled with deionized water. The team
varied the pressure across the diode and measured the resulting flow. For
pressures below 6 atmospheres, only forward flow (hydrophilic to
hydrophobic) occurred. Backward flow was restricted by molecular repulsion
at the hydrophobic entrance. At higher pressure, water did flow in the
backward direction but at a slower rate than forward. This so-called
rectification behavior continued up to pressures of 30 atmospheres, at which
point the flows in both directions became equal.
Michael Schirber (September, 2015, Physical Review Letters)
UNIT 11
Task: write a summary of the following text.
TEXT: «GYROSCOPIC MOLECULES»
Specially tailored laser pulses can spin gas molecules into a “superrotor” state,
but how exactly this rotational energy dissipates is unclear. New experiments
track the behavior of these fast-rotating molecules, demonstrating a short-lived
“gyroscopic” stage, in which the molecules spin in the same direction despite
79
collisions with each other. The molecular alignment gives the gas unique
optical properties that might be useful in optical switches.
Researchers have developed several laser techniques for rapidly twirling the
molecules in a gas. The molecules initially rotate in unison, but collisions
quickly disrupt this coherence, and eventually the rotational energy is
dissipated into thermal energy. This localized heating has applications, for
example, in generating short-lived optical waveguides in air. Theoretical
models predict that the gas molecules may continue spinning in the same
direction for a short time before thermalization occurs, but so far, experiments
have not been able to confirm this hypothesis.
Valery Milner and his colleagues at the University of British Columbia in
Canada studied the dynamics of fast-rotating oxygen molecules inside a gas
cell. To induce rotation, the team used an optical centrifuge—a laser pulse that
has a linear polarization rotating around the propagation axis. Molecules in the
pulse’s path are spun up to a rotation rate of 10 terahertz (10 trillion turns per
second). These superrotors form a narrow channel, which the team filmed
using phase-contrast imaging. At early times, the channel exhibited
polarization-dependent light propagation—implying that the molecules were
still aligned in spite of collisional effects. The short duration (7 nanoseconds)
of this gyroscopic stage might prove useful as a fast way to switch the
polarization of light in an optical device.
Michael Schirber (September, 2015, Physical Review X)
UNIT 12
Task: write a summary of the following text.
TEXT: «CONNECTING QUBITS WITH SOUND»
As quantum computers eventually become larger, they will need a way to
connect distant qubits. Sound waves that skirt along a surface may provide a
solution. A new theoretical analysis details how surface acoustic waves
(SAWs) can be coupled to qubits embedded in a micrometer-scale acoustic
cavity. Through this coupling, the SAWs can act as a “quantum bus,” relaying
information over SAW waveguides.
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Photons have been a natural choice for carrying quantum information, and
recent experiments have connected two qubits with microwave photons inside
a millimeter-long cavity. A possible alternative medium is acoustic phonons,
which can potentially couple to qubits in chip-compatible cavities that are
much smaller than those used for photons.
Previous work on phonon-qubit coupling has largely focused on phonons
localized within cantilevers or similar resonators. Ignacio Cirac of the Max
Planck Institute for Quantum Optics, Germany, and his colleagues explored
the potential of SAWs. These surface-bound “ripples” can be confined in
cavities by grooves that act like mirrors. And—unlike phonon modes in a
cantilever—SAWs can travel long distances over surface-etched waveguides.
To couple SAW phonons to a qubit, Cirac and his collaborators modeled a
SAW cavity in which the surface material is piezoelectric. SAWs inside such a
cavity would generate an oscillating electric field, which could interact with a
nearby qubit—no matter what type it is. This “universality” implies that a
qubit made from quantum dots, for example, could transfer its information to a
SAW phonon, and this phonon could deliver the information to a distant qubit
that might be a trapped atom or other type qubit.
Michael Schirber (September, 2015, Physical Review X)
UNIT 13
Task: write a summary of the following text.
TEXT: «HOW TO TAME A TROJAN HORSE»
Like its ancient namesake, a Trojan-horse attack is a ploy to penetrate a
securely protected space. In the context of optical quantum key distribution
(QKD) protocols, the attack involves “Trojan photons” sneaking into a QKD
system in an attempt to learn the encryption key. Optical elements that require
no external power to operate have been suggested as a way to halt these
intrusions. But so far, researchers have lacked a method to quantify how
effective such a passive defense system could be. Andrew Shields from
Toshiba Research Europe Limited, UK, and colleagues have now come up
with just such a method by looking at the Trojan-horse attack in terms of a
problem of leakage of quantum information.
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In optical QKD, a transmitter sends a quantum encryption key, encoded on
photons, to a receiver. Shields and co-workers propose an optical QKD system
comprising a sequence of passive components at the transmitter end. These
components filter and attenuate photons that don’t come from the transmitter,
limiting the number of Trojan photons that can be injected into and retrieved
from the system by an attacker. As a result, they curb the amount of
information that is leaked to the attacker through the retrieval of the Trojan
photons. This entirely passive approach has practical advantages over active
architectures. Compared to their passive counterparts, active protocols
typically add extra complexity to the QKD setup, may provide more “wiggle
room” to the attacker, and are generally more expensive.
Ana Lopes (September, 2015, Physical Review X)
UNIT 14
Task: write a summary of the following text.
TEXT: «RADIO SIGNALS MAY REVEAL COSMOKOGICAL
STRUCTURE»
A basic goal of observational cosmology is mapping the threedimensional distribution of matter in the Universe. Such efforts require
accurate estimates of distances to faint, faraway galaxies, a task that has
always been difficult. Two cosmologists now propose an entirely new way to
gauge large-scale cosmological structure. The technique involves analyzing
brief bursts of radio waves from a recently discovered class of astronomical
objects—the further these signals travel, the greater the distortions that appear
in them. The feasibility of the method depends, however, on as-yet unknown
properties of the emission sources.
Comparison of the observed large-scale structure of the Universe to
theoretical predictions is an important test of cosmological theories, but
astronomers have few ways to estimate cosmological distances. They can
measure the brightness of an object with a known intrinsic luminosity or
measure the redshift of the object's spectrum, but both of these methods suffer
from uncertainties or systematic biases. A new method to estimate large-scale
structure potentially offers an independent perspective on an issue of
fundamental significance.
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In 2007, astronomers detected a burst of broadband radio emission
lasting only a few milliseconds. They found that the burst's longer wavelengths
arrived later than the shorter wavelengths, the time lag being proportional to
the square of the wavelength. This delay is characteristic of “dispersion” in the
speed of electromagnetic radiation traveling through a charged plasma, such as
the exceedingly sparse free electrons that fill intergalactic space. According to
this explanation, the source of the burst was extremely bright and at a distance
of almost 1000 megaparsecs (Mpc), or 3 billion light years, the astronomers
found.
Ten such fast radio bursts (FRBs) have now been reported, says
Kiyoshi Masui of the University of British Columbia (UBC) in Vancouver,
Canada. He and UBC colleague Kris Sigurdson have now considered whether
observations of a large number of FRBs could yield estimates of their
distances, which could then serve to probe the three-dimensional distribution
of matter in the Universe.
The dispersion in a signal arriving from an FRB depends on the
number of electrons along the line of sight. Masui and Sigurdson define what
they call a “dispersion distance” for an FRB—the distance obtained by
assuming that the electron density is the same everywhere at a given time but
decreases uniformly as the Universe expands.
In reality, electron density varies in space. Masui and Sigurdson describe
several ways in which electron density variations lead to errors in distance
estimates and therefore in cosmological parameters. For example, a region of
higher electron density between us and a galaxy cluster containing FRBs will
make them appear farther away. This would lead to an overestimate of the true
distance between the FRBs and an underestimate of the extent to which they
and surrounding matter are found in clumps or clusters.
To gauge the magnitude of such distortions, the researchers analyze a
simple model in which electron density follows the density of galaxies, which
in turn reflects variations in the density of the dark matter that constitutes the
bulk of the mass in the Universe. With these assumptions, Masui and
Sigurdson show that dispersion measurements of about 10,000 FRBs could
yield an informative estimate of cosmic density variations, despite the various
sources of inaccuracy, and even in the absence of direct redshift or other
distance measurements.
The researchers also point out some significant caveats. Dispersion is
produced not only by intergalactic electron density but also by the immediate
environment of an FRB, whatever that might be, and by our own Galaxy. The
galactic contribution can, in principle, be measured and subtracted out, the
researchers say, but dealing with the unknown dispersion close to the FRBs
83
will be more difficult. A large survey might reveal similarities in FRB
emissions, which could simplify the analysis. But if individual FRBs turn out
to vary wildly, Masui says, interpretation of dispersion distance will be far
more difficult.
“Finding distances to objects is one of the hardest things to do, so any
new ideas are warmly welcomed,” says Martin White of the University of
California at Berkeley. The proposed new method appears very promising,
provided enough FRBs are found, he adds, but whether it is observationally
feasible, “we’ll have to wait and see.”
David Lindley (September, 2015, Physical Review Letters)
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http:www.aps.org/htm. – Дата доступа: 22.11.2015.
7. Physical Review Letters / aps.org [Электронный ресурс]. – 2015. – Режим
доступа: http:www.aps.org/journals.aps.org/prl/htm. – Дата доступа:
22.11.2015.
8. Physical Review X / aps.org [Электронный ресурс]. – 2015. – Режим
доступа: http:www.aps.org/journals.aps.org/prx/htm. – Дата доступа:
22.11.2015.
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22.11.2015.
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22.11.2015.
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22.11.2015.
85
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
ВВЕДЕНИЕ
PART I
UNIT 1. TEXT: «THE NATURE OF MATTER»
UNIT 2. TEXT: «STATES OF MATTER»
UNIT 3. TEXT: «PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS»
UNIT 4. TEXT: «UNUSUAL STATES OF MATTER»
UNIT 5. TEXT: «STATICS»
UNIT 6. TEXT: «DYNAMICS. LAWS OF MOTION»
UNIT 7. TEXT: «ENERGY»
UNIT 8. TEXT: «RADIANT ENERGY»
UNIT 9. TEXT: «NIELS BOHR AND QUANTUM MECHANICS»
UNIT 10. TEXT: «ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND QUANTUM THEORY»
UNIT 11 . TEXT: «THE NATURE OF THE ELECTRON AND WAVE
MECHANICS»
UNIT 12. TEXT: «LIGHT AND REFLECTION»
UNIT 13. TEXT: «LUMINESCENCE»
UNIT 14. TEXT: «SOUND»
PART II
UNIT 1. INTRODUCTION: «HOW TO WRITE A SUMMARY»
UNIT 2. INTRODUCTION: «TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES»
UNIT 3. TEXT: «NOBEL PRIZE – NEUTRINOS OSCILLATE»
UNIT 4. TEXT: «PUTTING QUNTUM SYSTEMS TO WORK»
UNIT 5. TEXT: «A BUMPY RIDE FOR ATOMS»
UNIT 6. TEXT: «ULTRACOLD NEUTRONS MEASURE MAGNETIC
FIELD»
UNIT 7. TEXT: «OPTICAL COMPUTING UNDER THE LENS»
UNIT 8. TEXT: «BRIGHT TWINS»
UNIT 9. TEXT: «TESTING RELATIVITY WITH PLANETARY MOTION»
UNIT 10.
TEXT: «A DIODE FOR FLUIDS»
UNIT 11 .
TEXT: «GYROSCOPIC MOLECULES»
UNIT 12.
TEXT: «CONNECTING QUBITS WITH SOUND»
UNIT 13.
TEXT: «HOW TO TAME A TROJAN HORSE»
UNIT 14. TEXT: «RADIO SIGNALS MAY REVEAL COSMOKOGICAL
STRUCTURE»
РЕКОМЕНДУЕМАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА
86