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Syllabus
Chemistry 436
AP Chemistry
Mr. Tom Andrewes
Course Description: Advanced Placement Chemistry is a challenging, fast-paced course that will
cover the topics of matter, states of matter, atomic structure and bonding, chemical stoichiometry and
reactions, descriptive chemistry, properties of solutions, nuclear chemistry, topics of organic
chemistry, along with a detailed concentration on thermodynamics, kinetics, chemical equilibrium,
acid-base reactions, and electrochemistry. An emphasis on laboratory work and analysis is required to
prepare for the AP Chemistry Exam. College credit depends upon the AP test score, verification of
laboratory work, and the requirements of the particular college. Additional work outside of class time
is required to master the course material and to prepare for the AP Chemistry Exam.
Required Text and Materials:
Textbook: Zumdahl, Steven S. and Susan Zumdahl. Chemistry. Seventh ed. Boston,
Houghton Mifflin Company 2007. ISBN: 978-0-618-71370-7
Lab Manual: Laboratory Experiments for Advanced Placement Chemistry, 2nd Ed.
Vanderbrink, Sally Ann. 2014. Flinn Scientific, Inc., 978-1-933709-46-8
Calculator: A scientific calculator is required.
Other: Hayden-McNeil 100 Carbonless Lab Notebook
AP Test Prep. Book: Your choice: Princeton Review, Barron’s, Five Steps to 5, etc.
Teaching Units:
Chapter-1: Chemical Foundations (summer assignment)
Review of previous material relating basic forms of matter and energy and the relationships
between the two; SI units and prefixes, accuracy and precision, temperature scales, conversion factors
density calculations, classification of matter, properties of matter, separation of mixtures,
physical and chemical properties and changes, homogeneous and heterogeneous matter, elements,
compounds and mixtures, exothermic and endothermic processes; reviewing and strengthening basic
math skills as applied to scientific calculations, dimensional analysis, problem solving in scientific
notation and algebraic calculations, density. Associated laboratory experiments.
Chapter-2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions (summer assignment)
The early history of chemistry relating basic assumptions of Dalton's Atomic Theory to the
structure of the atom; J. J. Thompson's determination of charge-to-mass ratio, Millikan's oil drop
experiment, Rutherford's nuclear atom, the modern view of atomic structure, mass spectrometer;
atoms, molecules, ions, and isotopes, determination of names of compounds, naming and writing
formulas for ionic and covalent compounds, basic organic nomenclature, naming common acids and
bases, introduction to the periodic table and resulting periodic properties; relating electron
configurations to bonding between atoms. Associated laboratory experiments.
Chapter-3: Stoichiometry (summer assignment)
Writing and balancing chemical equations, the mole concept, atomic and molar masses, percent
composition, determining empirical and molecular formulas, mass-mass-volume-particle and mixed
types of stoichiometric calculations, limiting reagent, and percent yield calculations. Associated
laboratory experiments.
Chapter-4: Types of Chemical Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry
The nature of solutions and solution stoichiometry, water as a solvent, strong and weak electrolytes,
concentration as expressed by molarity, stoichiometry calculations using solution concentrations, preparation of
solutions from solids and by dilution from stock solutions, types of chemical reactions, predicting reaction
products, describing reactions in solution, oxidation-reduction reactions, acid-base reactions and titrations,
assigning oxidation numbers and balancing redox reactions. Introduction to hydrogen ion concentrations of
strong acids and bases, Kw and pH, correlation to electrochemistry and characterizing electrochemical cells.
Associated laboratory experiments.
Chapter-5: Gases
The nature of pressure, units of pressure, pressure and temperature, pressure measurement with
barometers and manometers, Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases, the Gas Laws (Boyle’s Law,
Charles’s Law, Lussac’s Law, Avogadro’s Law, Combined Gas Law, Ideal Gas Law, Dalton’s Law,
Graham’s Law), collecting a gas over water, volume and number of moles, root mean square velocity,
effusion and diffusion, gas stoichiometry, behavior of real gases, and atmospheric chemistry.
Associated laboratory experiments.
Chapter-6: Thermochemistry
The nature of energy: potential energy, kinetic energy, and chemical energy: temperature, heat
and work: the First Law of Thermodynamics, state functions, the system and surroundings as they
relate to endothermic and exothermic reactions, internal energy of a system, calorimetry; use of a
calorimeter, heat capacity, energy released as heat; enthalpy change for a chemical reaction, Hess's
Law, standard enthalpies of formation, heat of reaction, heat of combustion, energy sources:
petroleum, coal, new energy sources, environmental issues. Associated laboratory experiments.
Chapter-7: Atomic Structure and Periodicity
The nature of matter, atomic structure, electromagnetic radiation and the electromagnetic
spectrum, the atomic spectrum of Hydrogen and the Bohr model, the quantum mechanical model of the
atom, the Photoelectric Effect, quantum numbers, orbital shapes and energies, electron spin (Pauli
Exclusion Principle), application of quantum mechanics to polyelectronic atoms, periodicity of
elemental properties, history of the periodic table, the Aufbau Principle and orbital filling across a
period, periodic trends in atomic properties: ionization energy, electron affinity, elecrotnegativity,
atomic radius, ionic radius, and alkali metals as an example of a group. Associated laboratory
experiments.
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Chapter-8: Bonding: General Concepts
The nature of bonding, types of chemical bonds (ionic, covalent, metallic), electronegativity,
bond polarity and dipole moments, hybridization, electron configuration and size of ions, energy
effects in binary ionic compounds, lattice energy, predicting formulas of ionic compounds, partial
ionic character of covalent bonds, covalent bond energies and chemical reactions, the localized
electron bonding model, writing Lewis structures, the Octet Rule and exceptions, resonance structures,
molecular structure and the VSEPR Model. Associated laboratory experiments.
Chapter-9: Covalent Bonding: Orbitals
Hybrid orbitals, hybridization and the localized electron model, types of hybridization (sp, sp2,
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sp , dsp3, d2sp3), bond order and the Molecular Orbital Model, bonding in homonuclear diatomic
molecules, paramagnetism and diamagnetism, bond order and the Molecular Orbital Model, bonding in
heteronuclear diatomic molecules, combining the Localized Electron and Molecular Orbital Models.
Associated laboratory experiments.
Chapter-10: Liquids and Solids
Intermolecular and intramolecular forces, dipole-dipole forces, London Dispersion Forces,
Hydrogen Bonding, structural model for liquids and the liquid state, structures and types of solids,
structure and bonding in metals, metal alloys, network atomic solids, molecular solids, ionic solids,
vapor pressure, vapor pressure curves and changes of state, heating and cooling curves (change of state
diagrams), phase diagrams and their interpretation. Associated laboratory experiments.
Chapter-11: Properties of Solutions
Solution concentration units, molarity, mole fraction, and molality; energies of solution
formation, factors affecting solubility (temperature, pressure, structure, polarity of the solvent and
solute): Henry’s Law, Raoult’s Law, vapor pressure of solutions, colligative properties (freezing point
depression, boiling point elevation, osmotic pressure), colligative properties of electrolytic and non
electrolytic solutions, and properties of colloids. Associated laboratory experiments.
Chapter-12: Chemical Kinetics
Reaction rates and the rate laws, determining the form of the rate law, interpreting initial rates
from reaction data, integrated rate laws: zero order rate law, first order rate law, and second order rate
law, rate laws for reactions with more than one reactant, relationship between the reaction pathway and
the rate laws, temperature dependence of reaction rates, collision model, activation energy, catalysts,
heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts. Associated laboratory experiments.
Chapter-13: Chemical Equilibrium
Characteristics of a chemical equilibrium, the equilibrium constant, equilibrium expressions
involving pressures, heterogeneous equilibria, applications of the equilibrium constant (the extent of a
reaction, the reaction quotient, calculating equilibrium pressures and concentrations), systems having
small equilibrium constants, Le Chatelier’s Principle and the effects of pressure, concentration, and
temperature on a reaction. Solving equilibrium problems. Associated laboratory experiments.
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Chapter-14: Acids and Bases
The nature of acids and bases, Arrhenius, Bronstead-Lowry, and Lewis definitions; acid
strength, water as an acid and a base, pH scale, pH of strong and weak acid solutions, pH of a mixture
of weak acids, percent dissociation, pH of strong and weak base solutions, detailed calculations using
Ka, Kb, and the “ICE” technique to determine changes in the system, polyprotic acids (phosphoric and
sulfuric acids), acid- base properties of salts (acidic, basic, and neutral salts), effect of structure on
acid-base properties, acid-base properties of oxides, and solving acid-base problems. Associated
laboratory experiments.
Chapter-15: Applications of Aqueous Equilibria
Acid- base equilibria, solutions of acids or bases containing a common ion, equilibrium
calculations, buffering in solutions, using the Henderson-Hasselbach equation, buffer capacity,
titrations and pH curves (strong acids- bases, weak acids with strong bases, weak bases with strong
acids), relationship between Ka and Kb, acid- base indicators, solubility equilibria, solubility equilibria
and the solubility product, the common ion effect, pH and solubility, selective precipitation and
qualitative analysis, and equilibrium involving complex ions and complex ion solubility. Associated
laboratory experiments.
Chapter-16: Spontaneity, Entropy, and Free Energy
Spontaneous processes and entropy, entropy and the second law of thermodynamics, the effect
of temperature on spontaneity, free energy, entropy changes in chemical reactions, free energy and
chemical reactions, the dependence of free energy on pressure, free energy and equilibrium, free
energy and work, spontaneity of a process determined by entropy calculation, calculation of G for a
process from standard free energies of formation, predicting spontaneity from G, calculation of G at
conditions other than standard temperature, and calculation of K from G. Associated laboratory
experiments.
Chapter-17: Electrochemistry
Electrochemical cells, galvanic cells, voltaic cells, electrolytic cells; standard reduction
potentials, cell potential, electrical work, and free energy, line notation, concentration cells,
concentration effects on cell potential, electrolysis, electroplating, Faraday’s Laws, the Nernst
equation, calculation of equilibrium constants for redox reactions, batteries and fuel cells. Associated
laboratory experiments.
Chapter-18: The Nucleus: A Chemist’s View
Nuclear stability and radioactive, types of radioactive decay, zone of stability, balancing
nuclear reactions, half-life, the kinetics of radioactive decay, nuclear binding energy, nuclear
transformations, detection and uses of radioactivity, carbon dating, medical applications, nuclear
fission and fusion, nuclear reactors, and effects of radiation. Associated laboratory experiments.
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Chapter-19: The Representative Elements: Groups 1A Through 4A
Review of representative elements, atomic size and group anomalies, abundance and
preparation, elements of Group 1A, hydrogen, elements of Group 2A, elements of Group 3A, elements
of Group 4A. Associated laboratory experiments.
Chapter-20: The Representative Elements: Groups 5A Through 8A
Review of group 5A elements, the chemistry of nitrogen, nitrogen hydrides, nitrogen oxides,
oxyacids of nitrogen, the chemistry of phosphorus, phosphorus oxides and oxyacids, phosphorus
halides, phosphorus in fertilizers, group 6A elements, the chemistry of oxygen and sulfur, sulfur oxides
and oxyacids, group 7A elements, hydrogen halides, oxyacids, oxyanions, and other halogen
compounds, and the noble gases of Group 8A. Associated laboratory experiments.
Chapter-21: Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry
Review of transition metals, general properties, electron configurations, oxidation states,
ionization energy, standard reduction potentials, coordination compounds, coordination number,
ligands, nomenclature, structural isomerism, stereoisomerism, bonding in complex ions, crystalline
structures, biological importance of coordination complexes, and metallurgy. Associated laboratory
experiments.
Chapter-22: Organic and Biological Molecules
Saturated hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, nomenclature, isomers, cyclic alkanes,
aromatic hydrocarbons, hydrogen derivatives, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters
amines, synthetic polymers, natural polymers, proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.
Associated laboratory experiments.
Classwork:
Read assigned text material ahead of the class in which it will be discussed.
Take notes. Students are responsible for all material in the text whether covered in class or not and any
material covered in class that may not be in the text.
Get your questions answered as soon as possible.
Participate in class by asking questions, offering answers to classmates including observations,
experiences you have had, or current science events applicable to the discussion at hand.
Homework:
Homework is an expeditious way to practice your proficiency with various concepts in chemistry.
Homework will be assigned as a block at the start of a chapter and is due at the start of class on the day
of the chapter test. Students are encouraged to complete reading and homework assignments daily. A
minimum of one hour of homework each night is not uncommon.
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Homework should be submitted on white paper with straight edges and be neat, and easy to read. All
vocabulary terms must be numbered sequentially. All work (calculations) must be shown along
with units. There will be a minimum 5-point deduction for late homework or for calculations
that do not show all work including unit conversions.
Extra Credit:
Students are expected to maintain an acceptable grade by successfully completing all assigned
work. As a result, extra credit assignments will NOT be given.
Labs:
Labs that reinforce concepts being studied in class will be assigned two or three days in advance.
Preparation for the lab is essential. You should read each lab along with the applicable theory before
the scheduled lab time. All pre-lab work must be completed and signed off by me before the start of
the lab.
At least one lab will be performed for each chapter covered. Lab assignments are usually due the
following week and must be completed in ink, legible, and easy to read, with all data and calculations
shown. (Refer to format). Labs are due at the start of class on the day assigned or by 3:00 pm if a class
does not meet on the assigned day. There will be a minimum 10-point deduction for late labs.
Lab Safety:
Safety in the chemistry lab is critical. Students will follow proper lab procedures and wear personal
protective equipment at all times while conducting experiments. Any student disregarding safety rules
or engaged in horseplay will be removed from the lab and receive a grade of “0” for the particular lab.
Safety glasses are required to be worn in the lab at all times.
Tests:
Tests will be given at the end of each chapter. If you are absent on the day of a test, you must make it
up within 1-3 days after you return to class depending upon the length of your absence. It is your
responsibility to arrange for the make up of a test. Please read the student handbook for course
attendance policies. Tests scores are not curved.
Notebooks:
Students are required to maintain a notebook (three ring binder either separately or shared with another
subject) for the purpose of organizing work, providing a record of progress, and as a source of
information. The notebook should contain separate indexes for the course syllabus, class notes,
homework, resource material, returned tests and quizzes, and completed labs. Save all work in the
event that a grade or assignment is in question.
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Extra Help:
Extra help is available upon request and you may make arrangements for this with me as necessary. If
you come in for help, be prepared to ask specific questions.
Grades:
Grading will be broken down approximately as follows:
Tests …………….……………………57%
Laboratory Reports………………….29%
Homework……………………………14%
Grading Scale
A……..93-100
A-…….90-92
B+…….87-89
B…..…83-86
B-…….80-82
C+…….77-79
C……..73-76
C-…….70-72
D……..65-69
F……..below 65
Grading: Grades are weighted and calculated as percentages. If you are within one half point of the
next highest grade, I look at quality and timeliness of completed lab reports and homework, class
conduct, and class participation to determine if the higher grade is deserved. There is no automatic
rounding up regardless of how close you are to the next highest grade!
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Laboratory Guidelines
AP Chemistry 436
Attire
1. During all experiments, students are required to wear safety glasses; aprons are optional.
2. Only school approved shoes may be worn; refer to Dress Code Policy.
3. Long hair will be tied back for experiments.
General Safety
1. Students are NEVER to work alone. No working without direct teacher supervision. No
unauthorized experiments are allowed.
2. No eating, drinking, or chewing gum while working in the lab as you may inadvertently ingest
some chemical substance.
3. No sitting down while experiments are being conducted.
4. Lab is not a social hour. Students will work quietly and must remain at their lab stations unless
obtaining supplies. Students may not “visit” with other groups. Excessive noise in the laboratory
is viewed as a safety hazard.
5. Students must know where the eyewash, fire extinguisher, and fire blanket are and how to use
them.
6. Accidents of any kind must be immediately reported to the teacher.
7. Never heat a “closed system” such as a stoppered flask.
8. Never leave a lit Bunsen burner unattended.
9. Dispose of broken glass in the specially marked waste receptacle.
10. Keep your work area clean, and help keep the common areas of the laboratory clean. If you spill
something, clean it up right away to avoid a slip hazard.
11. As always, students will conduct themselves in a decorous manner. No one has the right to
jeopardize the safety and well being of others.
12. Hot glass/metal look the same as cold glass/metal.
Chemical Handling
1.
2.
3.
4.
Consider all chemicals to be hazardous and read all labels carefully.
Never touch or taste chemicals.
Never directly inhale chemical fumes. Waft a tiny amount of vapor toward your nose.
Do not return excess chemicals to their original container. Always use the smallest amount of
substance required for an experiment.
5. Solids are not discarded in laboratory sinks.
6. Never add water to a concentrated reagent when diluting the reagent. Always add the
reagent to the water. If water is added to a concentrated reagent, local heating and density
effects may cause the water to be splashed back.
7. When in doubt, ASK.
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AP Lab Format:
A record of laboratory experiments is an important document that will show the quality of the
laboratory work that you have done. You may need to show your notebook to the Chemistry
Department at a university in order to obtain credit for the laboratory part of your AP Chemistry
course. As you record information in your notebook, keep in mind that someone who is unfamiliar
with your work may be using this notebook to evaluate your laboratory experience in chemistry. When
you explain your work, list your data, calculate values, explain theory, analyze error, and answer
questions. Be sure that the meaning will be obvious to anyone who reads your notebook. All pre-lab
information must be done before you get to class on the day of the lab. A 5-10 point deduction will be
assessed for incomplete pre-lab work.
Laboratory experiments will be conducted in pairs with students rotating for each lab. Everyone must
participate, not just observe. Each person is required to submit their own lab reports for each lab.
1.
A duplicator style composition notebook will be used for lab reports. Record all heading
information (instructions given below), data, observations, calculations, chemicals equations,
and summary in this notebook. All entries in the notebook must be in ink.
2.
Do not skip pages in the notebook. Use only the front side of the page. Use as many pages as
you need for a particular experiment.
Lab reports are the written result of a lab activity and will, along with what I observe during the
lab, form the grade for the lab activity. Sections a-c and the data tables can and must be
completed before class to save time for the lab activity and to prepare for the lab itself.
Neatness is important. Use only ink and the front sides of the paper. Mistakes are not to be
erased or covered with white-out, but have a single line drawn through them. The back sides
may be used for temporary notes and calculations that can be referred to you as you write the
lab.
3.
Pre-lab: You must prepare for each lab by understanding the theory and answering all pre-lab
questions and calculations in your lab notebook. The following is required to be completed
prior to the start of the lab period:
a.
Title: At the top of the first page include the following: the experiment number, the
name of the experiment, the date, your name, your partner/s name, and your P-day
number. The experiment title should be descriptive indicating what was actually done in
the lab. The titles given in the lab book can be easily improved upon. For example, one
experiment in the lab book is titled "Observing a Chemical Reaction." A better and
more descriptive title would be "Observing a Chemical Reaction Between Aluminum
and Copper (II) dichloride." ("Experiment 3" as a title is not acceptable).
b.
Purpose: for a well-designed experiment, the purpose may be a single simple sentence.
Some experiments will require two or three sentences, but if you get beyond three, you
have probably missed the point of the experiment.
c.
Procedure: Be as brief as possible. Do not copy the entire procedure as outlined in the
lab. Use an outline or flow chart of the procedure. Phrases are acceptable. In most
cases you will do the experiment from your outline or flow chart, so make sure it is
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complete and understandable. The procedure must state what you are physically doing
in the laboratory. There are some experiments where a narrative format is acceptable.
Many times, a T-format is more appropriate with the procedure on the left side and
data/observations on the right. A good procedure can be understood and used by
another person. Data tables are required and may be cut and pasted from the manual to
your notebook if desired to save time.
d. All pre-lab questions and calculations
This information must be completed and signed (initialed) by me at the start of class before
you begin the experiment.
4.
Data: This section will be a recording of the data collected as the lab is performed. The data
tables should be copied (cut and paste) from the lab manual to your lab report (or constructed
from the information given) before you come to class.
5. Data Analysis: In this section you will answer the questions listed in the section of the lab
manual and show all calculations and graphs.
a. For quantitative experiments calculations are required. You may want to complete
calculations on scrap paper first or the backside of your lab notebook. All calculations must
begin with the general formula and be neat and legible, scientific notation to the correct number
of significant fiqures is required. Correct labels and units must also be included. Writing must
be clear and legible, with adequate space to clearly show your work. Data analysis should
include mean, standard deviation, accuracy and precision, and percent error when appropriate.
b. For qualitative experiments, you will probably need a chemical equations section. On
occasion, you will need both sections. The information should be in chronological order
throughout the experiment and all entries must be clearly labeled and include units. Do not
leave large spaces between entries. If possible, do not skip lines. All your original data must
be included in data tables and all calculations must be shown along with the
corresponding units.
c. Answer the questions and calculations listed in the lab manual in the same numbered order as
they appear in the lab. Do not answer in paragraph form.
6. Discussion of Results and Conclusions: in this section you will summarize the findings of the
lab activity (should be closely tied to the purpose statement). Try to relate the data to the theories
behind the results. You must also evaluate the information you gathered. What is the error (or
errors) in your data? Are there any anomalies (unexpected results) and if so why are they there?
Do you accidentally spill part of a reactant altering the volume needed? Did you wait too long
during part of the lab procedure? It is not wrong to make mistakes during a lab procedure.
However, it is wrong to falsify or misrepresent results!
a. Discussion of theory: What do the calculations/observations/graphs reveal? Why does (or
doesn’t) the experiment work? What theory was demonstrated in this experiment?
b. Discuss experimental error and sources for this error: comparison of your results to
accepted values (additional research may be required), calculating percent error, and
general observations/theories that can be drawn from your results.
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c. Questions: includes answering all of the questions in the manual in complete sentences;
Note: Number your question responses as they appear in the lab manual. Do not
answer questions in paragraph form. It is not necessary to copy each question;
however, include the question in your answer.
7. Before leaving the lab, all duplicator copies must also be submitted to me. In addition, your work
area and equipment must be cleaned, wiped down, and put away unless directed otherwise.
8. Graphs: When graphs are to be done, use Excel (or an equivalent spreadsheet) and tape the
graph(s) into your lab book.
a.
A graph should be on a separate page from the data and fill a sheet of paper.
b.
All graphs will be a scatter (x-y) plot with data points. When a regression line is
required, lay it over the data points. If a regression line is not required, the “smooth
curve” with the data points is usually appropriate.
c.
There should be NO background shading on the graphs.
d.
Make sure the graph has both horizontal and vertical grid lines with major and minor
ticks, and is appropriately scaled (the data points “fill” the entire graph).
e.
All graphs contain an appropriate title [which tells something about what you are
finding out from the graph] and each axis is identified with labels and correct units. A
title simply restating the labels on each axis (i.e. distance vs. time) is NEVER
acceptable.
f.
Use Greek symbols, superscripts, and subscripts appropriately in titles and labels.
9. Lab Due Date: The lab report is due on the date assigned at the start of class. If a class drops on that
day, the report must be submitted to me before the end of the day. There will be a minimum10-point
deduction for late labs unless prior arrangements are made.
10. Late Work:
1. Homework is due at the start of class on the day of the test. Late homework is a
minimum 5-point deduction.
2. Lab reports are due at the start of class on the day assigned. If a class drops on the
assigned day, students have until the end of the assigned day (3:00 pm) to turn in the
report. There is a minimum 10-point deduction for late labs.
Note: There are no exceptions unless prior arrangements have been made with me.
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Academic Honor Code:
In order to create a learning environment that fosters and is conducive to the educational development
of students in a manner consistent with Catholic values, the Paul VI Catholic High School community
conducts itself with a sense of integrity, honest, fairness, accountability, responsibility, and trust in all
academic matters. Therefore, Paul VI adopts an Academic Honor Code that fundamentally accepts that
students will act responsibly to complete academic assignments in an ethical manner to maintain a
positive and healthy environment of trust among students and educators.
The AP Chemistry Exam:
The AP Chemistry Exam is designed to determine the level of a student’s skills and knowledge in
Chemistry. The exam is extremely challenging. It covers chemistry in great breadth and depth. One
area of emphasis in this course will be to develop and refine test taking skills. These skills will be
helpful, not only on the AP Chemistry Exam, but also on the SAT and exams taken in college.
All students who are taking AP Chemistry are required to take the AP Chemistry Exam.
There are two sections to the AP Chemistry Exam.
Section I: Multiple Choice: This section is 90 minutes long and contains 75 multiple-choice
questions with a broad coverage of topics. Calculators are not
allowed in this section and it constitutes 50% of the final score.
Section II: Free Response: This section is 90 minutes long, consists of two parts, and
constitutes 50% of the final score. The first question historically
deals with some aspect of chemical equilibrium. One of the
questions in this section is based on laboratory experience.
Part A: (55 minutes) There will be three comprehensive problems. Calculators are
permitted.
Part B: (40 minutes) Part B consists of one question requiring the writing of balanced
chemical equations and two essay questions. Calculators are not
permitted.
Topic Outline for the AP Chemistry Exam
The following is a guide to the topics covered on the AP Chemistry Exam. The percentage after each
major topic indicates the approximate proportion of multiple-choice questions on the exam that
correspond to the topic.
I.
II.
Structure of Matter (20%)
States of Matter (20%)
III.
Reactions (35-40%)
IV.
Descriptive Chemistry (10-15%)
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V.
Laboratory (5-10%)
I. Structure of Matter (20%)
A. Atomic theory and atomic structure
1. Evidence for the atomic theory
2. Atomic masses; determination by chemical and physical means
3. Atomic number and mass number; isotopes
4. Electron energy levels: atomic spectra, quantum numbers, atomic orbitals
5. Periodic relationships including, for example, atomic radii, ionization energies,
electron affinities, oxidation states
B. Chemical bonding
1. Binding forces
a. Types: ionic, covalent, metallic, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals
(including London dispersion forces)
b. Relationships to states, structure, and properties of matter
c. Polarity of bonds, electronegativity
2. Molecular models
a. Lewis structures
b. Valence bond: hybridization of orbitals, resonance, sigma and pi bonds
c. VSEPR
d. Geometry of molecules and ions, structural isomerism of simple organic
molecules and coordination complexes; dipole moments of molecules;
relation of properties to structure
3. Nuclear chemistry: nuclear equations, half-lives, and radioactivity; chemical
applications
II. States of Matter (20%)
A. Gases
1. Laws of ideal gases
a. Equations of state for an ideal gas
b. Partial pressures
2. Kinetic-molecular theory
a. Interpretation of ideal gas laws on the basis of this theory
b. Avogadro's hypothesis and the mole concept
c. Dependence of kinetic energy of molecules on temperature
d. Deviations from ideal gas laws
3. Liquids and solids
a. Liquids and solids from the kinetic-molecular viewpoint
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b. Phase diagrams of one-component systems
c. Changes of state, including critical points and triple points
d. Structure of solids; lattice energies
4. Solutions
a. Types of solutions and factors affecting solubility
b. Methods of expressing concentration
c. Raoult's law and colligative properties (nonvolatile solutes); osmosis
d. Non-ideal behavior (qualitative aspects)
III. Reactions (35-40%)
A. Reaction types
1. Acid-base reactions: concepts of Arrhenius, Brönsted-Lowry, and Lewis;
coordination complexes; amphoterism
2. Precipitation reactions
3. Oxidation-reduction reactions
a. Oxidation number
b. The role of the electron in oxidation-reduction
c. Electrochemistry: electrolytic and galvanic cells; Faraday's laws; standard
half-cell potentials; Nernst equation; prediction of the direction of redo
reactions
B. Stoichiometry
1. Ionic and molecular species present in chemical systems: net ionic equations
2. Balancing of equations including those for redox reactions
3. Mass and volume relations with emphasis on the mole concept, including empirical
formulas and limiting reactants
C. Equilibrium
1. Concept of dynamic equilibrium, physical and chemical; Le Chatelier's principle;
equilibrium constants
D. Quantitative treatment
1. Equilibrium constants for gaseous reactions: Kp, Kc
2. Equilibrium constants for reactions in solution
3. Constants for acids and bases; pK; pH
4. Solubility product constants and their application to precipitation and the dissolution
of slightly soluble compounds
5. Common ion effect; buffers; hydrolysis
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E. Kinetics
1. Concept of rate of reaction
a. Use of experimental data and graphical analysis to determine reactant order, rate
constants, and reaction rate laws
b. Effect of temperature change on rates
c. Energy of activation; the role of catalysts
d. The relationship between the rate-determining step and a mechanism
F. Thermodynamics
1. State functions
a. First law: change in enthalpy; heat of formation; heat of reaction; Hess's law; heats
of vaporization and fusion; calorimetry
b. Second law: entropy; free energy of formation; free energy of reaction; dependence
of change in free energy on enthalpy and entropy changes
c. Relationship of change in free energy to equilibrium constants and electrode
potentials
IV. Descriptive Chemistry (10-15%)
Knowledge of specific facts of chemistry is essential for an understanding of principles and concepts.
These descriptive facts, including the chemistry involved in environmental and societal issues, are not
isolated from the principles being studied but are taught throughout the course to illustrate and
illuminate the principles. The following areas are covered:
A.
Chemical reactivity and products of chemical reactions
1. Relationships in the periodic table: horizontal, vertical, and diagonal with examples
from alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, and the first series of transition
elements
2. Introduction to organic chemistry: hydrocarbons and functional groups (structure,
nomenclature, chemical properties). Physical and chemical properties of simple organic
compounds should also be included as exemplary material for the study of other areas
such as bonding, equilibria involving weak acids, kinetics, colligative properties, and
stoichiometric determinations of empirical and molecular formulas.
V. Laboratory (5-10%)
The differences between college chemistry and the usual secondary school chemistry course are
especially evident in the laboratory work. The AP Chemistry Exam includes some questions based on
experiences and skills students acquire in the laboratory: making observations of chemical reactions
and substances; recording data; calculating and interpreting results based on the quantitative data
obtained; and communicating effectively the results of experimental work.
Colleges have reported that some AP candidates, while doing well on the exam, have been at a serious
disadvantage because of inadequate laboratory experience. Meaningful laboratory work is important in
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fulfilling the requirements of a college-level course of a laboratory science and in preparing a student
for sophomore-level chemistry courses in college.
Because chemistry professors at some institutions ask to see a record of the laboratory work done by
an AP student before making a decision about granting credit, placement, or both, in the chemistry
program, students should keep reports of their laboratory work that can be readily reviewed.
Chemical Calculations:
The following list summarizes types of problems either explicitly or implicitly included in the topic
outline. Attention should be given to significant figures, precision of measured values, and the use of
logarithmic and exponential relationships. Critical analysis of the reasonableness of results is expected.
1. Percentage composition
2. Empirical and molecular formulas from experimental data
3. Molar masses from gas density, freezing-point, and boiling-point measurements
4. Gas laws, including the ideal gas law, Dalton's law, and Graham's law
5. Stoichiometric relations using the concept of the mole; titration calculations
6. Mole fractions; molar and molal solutions
7. Faraday's law of electrolysis
8. Equilibrium constants and their applications, including their use for simultaneous equilibria
9. Standard electrode potentials and their use; Nernst equation
10. Thermodynamic and thermochemical calculations
11. Kinetics calculations
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