Download The Verb. General notion

THE ENGLISH VERB
AND ITS PROPERTIES
Lecture 14
14.1. The Verb. General notion.
14.2. Non-Finite Forms of the Verb
The Verb. General notion
The verb is the most complex part of speech and has the
central role mostly due to the expression of the predicative
functions of the sentence. The predicative functions imply
establishing the connection between the situation named in
the utterance and the reality.
The verb is inherent not only in the complex structure of its
grammatical categories but also in its various subclass
divisions: the finite set and the non-finite set.
As for the outward structure, the verb may be:
simple;
stress-replacive
expanded;
composite;
sound-replacive;
phrasal.
The Verb. General notion
• Simple verb stems, e.g., run, like, read, etc. Conversion is highly
productive: a park - to park, a house - to house, etc.
• The stress-replacive type and the sound-replacive type are
unproductive: food - to feed, blood - to bleed; 'transport - to
transport.
• Expanded stems are formed with the help of the typical suffixes: ate, -en, -ify, -ize; the verb-deriving prefixes: be-; some other
typical verbal prefixes are: re-, under-, over-, etc.
• The compound verb stems coincide with the composite non-verb
stems from which they are etymologically derived: blackmail n.blackmail v and vacuum-cleaner n. - to vacuum-clean v.
• The phrasal verb stems can be of two particular constructions.
The first construction comprises a combination of the headverb give, do, take. The combination has its equivalent expressed
by an ordinary verb: to have a sleep - to sleep; to give a smile - to
smile; to have a swim – to swim.
The second construction includes a combination of headverb with a preposition: go on, be off, put up, get along, etc.
The Verb. General notion
Verbs are divided into verbs of full nominative value (notional verbs),
and verbs of partial nominative value (semi-notional and functional
verbs).
Notional verbs bear the main lexical meaning. Semi-notional and
functional verbs are the markers of predication, they show the
connection between the nominative content of the sentence and reality.
On the basis of the subject-process relation: actional and statal verbs.
Actional verbs convey the meaning of the action carried out by the
subject. With the help of statal verbs the state of the subject is
expressed. They can characterize the subject as an inactive recipient
of some action, or express the mode of its existence.
On the basis of combinability: transitive and intransitive verbs.
Transitive verbs require direct object to complete their meaning.
Transitive verbs can be used in passive voice.
Intransitive verbs cannot take direct object. They cannot take passive
forms.
The Verb. General notion
All verbs can be analyzed in accordance with the category
of finitude. Under the category of finitude all verbal forms
are characterized by their ability of expressing various
grammatical meanings. Consequently, all verbs fall into two
basic groups: finite and non-finite forms.
The main difference between finite and non-finite forms of
the verb is the ability to express grammatical category of
person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood, typical of
the group of finite notional verbs.
The Verb. General notion
The category of person
It serves to relate the process to the speaker (I, we), the
addressee (you) and the ones not taking part in the
process of communication (he, she, it, they). The speaker
is the deictic center of the communicative act, which means
that the center of communication tends to be shifted. For
example, from I to you; from he to they, and etc.
The category of person is expressed a) lexically; b) by
grammatical means (he comeS). However, grammatical
paradigm of forms expressing the category of person is
incomplete, i.e. not all the forms express the stated
category: I do – you do – they do.
The third person is the marked, strong member, whereas
the first person is the unmarked or weak member.
The Verb. General notion
The category of number characterizes the action as
associated with one or several doers, The category of
number is a two-member opposition, where singular form
stands for the weak, unmarked member, while plural form
represents the strong, marked member.
The categories of person and number are both expressed
in the present tense.
• Mary goes to school. vs. Mary went to school.
• The teachers explain the rules. vs. the teachers explained
the rules.
The characteristics of person and number can be obvious
only in present forms of the verb BE (am, is, are).
Modal verbs are incapable of bearing the meaning the
category of number.
The Verb. General notion
TIME vs TENSE The category of tense
!!! Time is an unlimited duration in which things are considered
as happening in the past, present or future. Time stands for a
concept with which all mankind is familiar. Time is independent
of language
Tense is used to express a relation to the time of the action.
Time is the equal category to all mankind whereas tenses can
be different in various languages.
In language the category of tense can be expressed in two basic
ways:
1) lexically and 2) grammatically. Define the way:
• 1) He + work + now.
• 2) He + work + yesterday.
• 3) He + work + tomorrow.
The Verb. General notion
Define the way:
• 1) He + work + now.
• 2) He + work + yesterday.
• 3) He + work + tomorrow.
• 1) He works.
• 2) He was working.
• 3) He will work.
• 4) He will be working.
The Verb. General notion
Tense is deictic since it relates processes to the present
moment:
• processes that occur at the same time as the present moment
are expressed by the present tense;
• processes that occur before the present moment are
expressed by the past tense;
• processes that occur after the present moment are expressed
by the future tense.
Any process or activity should be located in time. “To locate it in
time, it is necessary to establish some arbitrary reference point.
Such a reference point is the present moment, or the moment of
speaking”. These tenses will be called absolute. Tenses being
established with reference to some other point in time are
relative.
Mary is walking in the garden vs. Peter said that Mary was
walking in the garden
The Verb. General notion
The category of aspect
The verb can express the internal character of the process,
which means that the verb can be durative (being in progress)
or non-durative (completed). Compare:
• John read stories yesterday. vs. John read two stories
yesterday
The category of aspect is a two-member opposition where the
first member progressive and the second member is nonprogressive. The progressive form is the marked member while
the non-progressive is unmarked.
Verbs are divided into two groups:
• those that don’t possess the aspect opposites and
• those that possess.
The first group is represented by stative verbs (mental,
relational, and existential), whereas the second group comprises
verbs denoting process, achievement, and accomplishment.
The Verb. General notion
The category of Mood
It identifies the verbal action in relation to such conditions
as certainty, obligation, necessity, possibility.
Grammatical category of mood expresses the speaker’s
attitude towards the process, indicating it as a fact or as a
non-fact. Therefore, two moods – fact and non-fact are
distinguished in English.
The category of mood is represented by two oppositions:
the indicative mood and the spective mood.
The Verb. General notion
The basic mood of the English verb is the indicative mood. From
the semantic point of view, it is a fact mood that is the least
subjective of all the moods.
As for the non-fact, i.e. the subjunctive mood, various semantic
varieties of the mood are distinguished: subjunctive I,
subjunctive II, conditional, suppositional.
Non-modal and modal constructions are used in the subjunctive
variety of the spective mood. As for non-modal construction,
such means as the base form of a verb, the verb were, forms
identical with indicative mood forms are mostly used.
In modal constructions the forms identical with indicative mood
forms are preferably used: Mother suggests I put on a coat. My
friends wishes she came to me more often.
Modal constructions are built with components shall/should,
will/would, may/might, can/could and the base form of a verb.
The Verb. General notion
Non-Finite forms of the verb.
Finites are used to express a primary predication, i.e. they relate
a situation described by a preposition to the context.
Finites can be characterized by the categories of person,
number, tense, mood, as well as aspect, voice and order.
Non-finites express a secondary predication.
Compare: She was painting the picture. vs. I saw her painting
the picture.
Non-finite forms of the verb do not express the categories of
tense, person, number, mood.
However, they tend to express time which can be either prior to
or simultaneous with the time expressed by the finite verb.
Verbids express a transposed process, which means that the
processual meaning can be conveyed by the component of
substantivity (thingness) or the component of quality or property.
The Verb. General notion
The infinitive
The infinitive is a verbal noun. It is characterized by its double
nature; it comprises the features of the verb with the features of
the noun. It is the form of the verb expressing a process in
general sense without the specification of person, number, tense
and mood. The infinitive is the head-form of the verb paradigm.
There are two forms of the infinitive: with particle to and without
it. The infinitive with the particle stands for the strong, marked
member while bare infinitive represents the weak, unmarked
form of the opposition.
The infinitive is characterized by the presence of nounal
features.
From the point of view of morphology and semantics, the
infinitive is much more similar to the verb than to the noun. As
the noun, the infinitive is able to be used as the subject or part of
the subject, the attribute, part of the objective complement and
the predicative.
The Verb. General notion
The Gerund
Originally the gerund is a verbal noun in –ing. The gerund
denotes a process but its substantive side of meaning is more
strongly pronounced than that of the infinitive. It is possible to
modify the gerund by a noun in the genitive case or by the
possessive pronoun. The gerund can be used with prepositions.
Similar to the verb, the gerund has the categories of voice and
order: asking – being asked, having asked – having been asked.
In the sentence the gerund can perform the function of a part of
the verbal predicate (stop talking): it can precede an objective
complement (I remember calling him) and an adverbial (He
avoids smoking at home). Since the gerund possesses the
nounal features, it can be modified by a noun in the genitive
case or in the common case.
The gerund is unable to be preceded by the article and modified
by the adjective.
The Verb. General notion
The participle
The participle is treated as adjectival forms of the verb. Two
types of participles: the present and the past participle.
The present participle is applied to words of adjective-like
use. Present participle denotes a process which is prior to
or simultaneous with the process of the finite verb, it may
express the meaning of present, past and future.
• I saw/see/will see a boy talking on the phone in the
street.
The present participle in its form is homonymous with the
gerund, as both forms have the meaning of a process.
The participle (present and past) denotes a qualifying
process while the gerund has the meaning of a substantival
process.