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Homework due Monday – Free Responses – Test 12/13 early next week – work on terms Notes missed on Friday below this Directions: DO NOT REVIEW THE FREE RESPONSES PRIOR TO STARTING TO WRITE. There is no grade on the free response itself. Time yourself 60 minutes. Use all ‘tricks’ – pen, spacing, underlining, etc. Mike is a 15 year old HS student who is considering what classes to take in his next year of high school. Discuss how each of the following aspects of development would impact his decision about which classes to take: Early physical maturation Emergence of formal operation thought Emergence of post-conventional morality Adolescent egocentricism Androgynous sex role Secure attachment as an infant Growing up under Authoritarian parents History and Perspectives Philosophers and psychologists have long debated the relative influences of heredity and environment on behavior. Give and example of how each of the following perspectives would explain their position on what is commonly referred to as the “nature versus nurture controversy.” Students must identify which side of the “controversy their example is addressing. Humanistic psychology Evolutionary psychology Psychoanalysis/psychodynamic Developmental psychology Cognitive psychology Sexual Motivation Describe the human sexual response cycle, and discuss some causes of sexual disorders. Sexual Motivation Sexual motivation is nature’s clever way of making people procreate, enabling our species to survive. 34 The Physiology of Sex Masters and Johnson (1966) describe the human sexual response to consist of four phases: Phase Physiological Response Genitals become engorged with blood. Vagina Excitement expands secretes lubricant. Penis enlarges. Plateau Excitement peaks such as breathing, pulse and blood pressure. Orgasm Contractions all over the body. Increase in breathing, pulse & blood pressure. Sexual release. Resolution Engorged genital release blood. Male goes through refractory phase. Women resolve slower. 35 Evolutionary function of orgasm Male orgasms that expel sperm from the body into the vagina during intercourse may result in conception. Evolutionary biologists have several hypotheses about the role, if any, of the female orgasm in the reproductive process. 1. In 1967, Desmond Morris , The Naked Ape, atests that female orgasm evolved to encourage physical intimacy with a male partner and help reinforce the pair bond. Morris suggested that the relative difficulty in achieving female orgasm, in comparison to the male's, might be favorable in Darwinian evolution by leading the female to select mates who bear qualities like patience, care, imagination, intelligence, as opposed to qualities like size and aggression, which pertain to mate selection in other primates. 2. It has also been proposed that orgasm might facilitate conception by exhausting the female and keeping her horizontal, thus preventing the sperm from leaking out. This possibility, sometimes called the "Poleax Hypothesis" or the "Knockout Hypothesis," is now considered highly doubtful. A number of feminists see this as misogynistic, as it favors the concept of sex as female subjugation. 3. Other theories are based on the idea that the female orgasm might increase fertility. For example, the 30% reduction in size of the vagina could help clench onto the penis (much like, or perhaps caused by, the pubococcygeus muscles), which would make it more stimulating for the male (thus ensuring faster or more voluminous ejaculation). 4. The British biologists Baker and Bellis have suggested that the female orgasm may have an "upsuck" action (similar to the esophagus' ability to swallow when upside down), resulting in the retaining of favorable sperm and making conception more likely. A 1994 Learning Channel documentary on sex had fiber optic cameras inside the vagina of a woman while she had sexual intercourse. During her orgasm, her pelvic muscles contracted and her cervix repeatedly dipped into a pool of semen in the vaginal fornix, "Sperm Upsuck”, of a sort, did occur. The observation that women tend to reach orgasm more easily when they are ovulating suggests that it is tied to increasing fertility. Other biologists surmise that the orgasm simply serves to motivate sex, thus increasing the rate of reproduction, which would be selected for during evolution. Since males typically reach orgasms faster than females, it potentially encourages a female's desire to engage in intercourse more frequently, increasing the likelihood of conception. Sexual disorders are problems that consistently impair sexual functioning Premature ejaculation and female orgasmic disorder are being successfully treated by new methods that assume that people learn and can modify their sexual responses. Discuss the impact of hormones on sexual motivation and behavior. The sex hormones direct the physical development of male and female sex characteristics and, especially in nonhuman animals, activate sexual behavior. Although testosterone and estrogen are present in both sexes, males have a higher level of testosterone and females a higher level of estrogen. Testosterone Levels of testosterone remain constant in males, so it is difficult to manipulate and activate sexual behavior. Castration, which reduces testosterone levels, lowers sexual interest. 38 Estrogen Female animals “in heat” express peak levels of estrogen. Female receptivity may be heightened with estrogen injections. Sex hormones may have milder affects on humans than on animals. Women are more likely to have sex when close to ovulation (increased testosterone), and men show increased testosterone levels when socializing with women. 39 External stimuli, such as sexually explicit materials, can trigger arousal in both men and women, although the activated brain areas differ somewhat. Sexually coercive material tends to increase viewers’ acceptance of rape and violence toward women. Images of sexually attractive men and women may lead people to devalue their own partners and relationships. Imagined Stimuli Sotographs/The Gamma-Liaison Network/ Getty Images Our imagination in our brain can influence sexual arousal and desire. People with spinal cord injuries and no genital sensation can still feel sexual desire. 42 Our imaginations also influence sexual motivation. For example, in nearly all men and some 40 percent of women, dreams sometimes do contain sexual imagery that leads to orgasm. The increase in premarital sexual activity among American teenagers has led to an increase in the adolescent pregnancy rate. Contraception 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Ignorance: Canadian teen girls do not have the right ideas about birth control methods. Guilt Related to Sexual Activity: Guilt reduces sexual activity, but it also reduces the use of contraceptives. Minimal Communication: Many teenagers feel uncomfortable about discussing contraceptives. Alcohol Use: Those who use alcohol prior to sex are less likely to use contraceptives. Mass Media: The media’s portrayal of unsafe extramarital sex decreases the use of contraceptives. 45 Sexually Transmitted Infections Factors that reduce sexual activity in teens. 1. 2. 3. 4. High Intelligence: Teens with higher intelligence are likely to delay sex. Religiosity: Religious teens and adults often reserve sex for a marital commitment. Father Presence: A father’s absence from home can contribute to higher teen sexual activity. Learning Programs: Teens who volunteer and tutor in programs dedicated to reducing teen pregnancy are less likely to engage in unsafe sex. 46 Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex, the other sex, and/or either sex. Homosexual Heterosexual Bisexual 47 Sexual orientation is our enduring sexual attraction toward members of either our own sex (homosexual) or the other sex (heterosexual). Studies in both Europe and the United States suggest that about 3 or 4 percent of men and 1 or 2 percent of women are exclusively homosexual. Estimates derived from the sex of unmarried partners reported in the 2000 U.S. Census suggest that 2.5 percent of the population is gay or lesbian. Such studies also tell us that sexual orientation is enduring Animal Homosexuality David Hecker/ AFP/ Getty Images A number of animal species are devoted to same-sex partners, suggesting that homosexuality exists in the animal world. Wendell and Cass 50 The Brain In homosexual men, the size of the anterior hypothalamus is smaller (LeVay, 1991) and the anterior commissure is larger (Allen & Gorski, 1992). http://www.msu.edu Anterior Commissure Anterior Hypothalamus 51 Genes & Sexual Orientation A number of reasons suggest that homosexuality may be due to genetic factors. 1. 2. 3. Family: Homosexuality seems to run in families. Twin studies: Homosexuality is more common in identical twins than fraternal twins. However, there are mixed results. Fruit flies: Genetic engineers can genetically manipulate females to act like males during courtship and males to act like females. 52 Sexual Orientation: Biology 54 The Need to Belong Belongingness 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Wanting to Belong: The need to belong colors our thinking and emotions. Social Acceptance: A sense of belonging with others increases our self-esteem. Social segregation decreases it. Maintaining Relationships: We resist breaking social bonds, even bad ones. Ostracism: Social exclusion leads to demoralization, depression, and at times nasty behavior. Fortifying Health: People who tend to have close friends are happier and healthier. 59 Motivation at Work Discuss the importance of flow, and identify the three subfields of industrial-organizational psychology. Flow & Rewards Flow is the experience between no work and a lot of work. Flow marks immersion into one’s work. People who “flow” in their work (artists, dancers, composers etc.) are driven less by extrinsic rewards (money, praise, promotion) and more by intrinsic rewards. 62 Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology Applies psychological principles to the workplace. 1. Personnel Psychology: Studies the principles of selecting and evaluating workers. 2. Organizational Psychology: Studies how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity. 64 The Interviewer Illusion Interviewers often overrate their discernment. 1. 2. 3. 4. Intention vs. Habits: Intensions matter, but longlasting habits matter even more. Successful Employees: Interviewers are more likely to talk about those employees that turned out successful. Presumptions about Candidates: Interviewers presume (wrongly) that what we see (candidate) is what we get. Preconceptions: An interviewer’s prior knowledge about the candidate may affect her judgment. 68 Define achievement motivation, and explain why organizations would employ an I/O psychologist to help motivate employees and foster employee satisfaction. Achievement motivation is the desire for significant accomplishment, for mastering skills or ideals, for control, and for rapidly attaining a high standard. » Those who achieve the most are distinguished not so much by natural ability as by hard work and daily discipline. » Engaged workers know what’s expected of them, feel fulfilled in their work, and perceive that they are part of something significant. Worker satisfaction and engagement are associated with lower absenteeism, higher productivity, and greater profits. Leadership Style Different organizational demands need different kinds of leaders. Leadership varies from a bossfocused style to a democratic style. 1. 2. Task Leadership: Involves setting standards, organizing work, and focusing on goals. Social Leadership: Involves mediating conflicts and building high achieving teams. 77 Theory X: assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money and, thus, should be directed from above. Theory Y: assumes that, given challenges and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity.