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ORGANISMS:
A unit of living matter capable of independent function and reproduction
Complex organisms-an organism with cell tissues, and organs arranged to
function as a single unit
-Example: plants, humans, animals.
ORGAN:
-An arrangement of tissues which provides life support functions for an organism
-Ex: a leaf in a plant or a heart in an animal
TISSUE:
-Arrangement of cells with similar structures in clusters or sheets for specific
functions in an organ
CELL:
-Smallest structural unit of living matter than is capable of carrying out basic life
processes.
-Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665
-Basic building block of life
-Most basic life processed takes place at the cellular level.
HOW ERE CELLS UNDERSTOOD?
-Electron microscope- uses beams of electrons rather than beams of light to
illuminate the object.
-Allowed scientists to see how cells function
PROKARYOTIC CELLS:
-Single celled
-Contains genetic material
-Not confined to the nucleus.
-Neither plant nor animal
-Smallest of all the cells
-Bacterium
-Value to biotechnology
-Used to make cheese and ferment wine
-Used in medicine
-Genetically engineered bacteria that carry genetic material for insulin
production
-BST id produced by genetically altered bacteria
-Growth hormone used to make cows produce more milk
-Bovine somatopin
-Since bacteria multiply rapidly, large quantities of these substances can be
produced.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS:
What plants and animals are made of
-Have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
THE NUCLEUS:
-Control center for all activities of the cell
-Most cells have one nucleus
-Muscle cells may have may nuclei
CELL MEMBRANE:
-Encloses and protects the cells contents from the eternal environment
-Regulates the movement of materials into and out of the cell
-Taking in nutrients
-Expelling wastes
-Allows interaction with other cells
-Animals: plasma membrane
-Plants: cell wall
CYTOPLASM:
-Fluid that surrounds the nucleus
-Contains all the materials needed by the cell to conduct life processes
-Contains the organelles
DNA:
-Deoxyribonucleic Acid
-Contains the genetic code
-Double helix founded by Watson and Crick in 1953
Base pairs to form DNA “ladder”
-Nucleotides paired through hydrogen bonds
-Adenine – Thymine
-Guanine – Cytosine
CHROMOSOMES:
-Structures that are physical carriers of genes, are made up of DNA, and are
located in the cell nucleus
MITOCHANDRIA:
-Energy-producing structures in the cell cytoplasm that contain some DNA.
(ATP)
-Powerhouse of the cell
PLASMID:
-Extra chromosomal piece of DNA located in the cell cytoplasm
RIBOSOME:
-Site where new proteins are produced as a result of genetic expression
-Assemble the amino acid molecules
IMPORTANCE OF CELLS:
-Agr. Production begins with cells
-Healthy and unhealthy growth of plants and animals
-Tissues are composed of a group of specialized cells that allow the tissue to serve
it function
-Skeletal tissue, connective tissue, etc.
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE:
-1940’s and 1950’s- understanding of the anatomy and functions of cells was
greatly increased
-Uses beans of electrons to illuminate a cell
-We use compound microscopes
-Allowed u to look inside of a cell and see all of its components
CELL REPRODUCTION:
-Continuation of life is dependent on cell reproduction
-Used for reproduction and growth
-The difference between it is that meiosis is for sex cells and all the others are
mitosis
-Mitosis is used for growth, meiosis is used for reproduction
-Both are used for gene splicing, genetic engineering, and other biotech
MITOSIS:
-All growth in living organisms depends on mitosis
-Cells are going to increase in either size of numbers
-Used to heal wounds in either plants or animals
-Cells will grow until they reach their maximum size
-When this is reached the cells will divide into two cells and this process
continues
-Parent cell
INTERPHASE:
-Period when the cell is not actively dividing
-Cell is carrying on processes such as synthesizing materials and moving them in
and out of the cell
-Cell grows to it’s maximum size
-DNA is replaced and forms two complete sets of chromosomes
-Thread like molecules of DNA make up the chromosomes are called chromatin
and are spread throughout the nucleus.
-Cell is read to divide
PROPHASE:
-First stage
-Chromatin appears in the form of distinct, shortened rod-like structures
-Chromosomes are formed of the two strands called chromatids, attached at the
center called a Centromere
-Nuclear membrane is dissolving and entire nucleus is disappearing
-Spindle is formed in place of the nucleus
-Football like shaped structure
-Centrioles move to the opposite ends of the cell
METAPHASE:
-Chromatid move toward the center of the spindle (the equator)
-When they reach the center, the centromeres connect themselves to the spindle
fibers
ANAPHASE:
-Pairs of chromatids separate into an equal number of chromosomes and the
centromeres duplicate
-After separation, chromosomes move to the sides of the cell
TELOPHASE:
-Final phase
-Chromosome migrate to poles of the cell
-Spindle disappears
-Membrane formed around chromosomes (nuclear membrane)
-Two nuclei formed
CYTOKINESIS:
-2 fresh new daughter cells identical to the parent cell
-Cells are back in interphase
-Organisms can grow and repair
MEIOSIS:
-Cells are divided into cells that contain only ½ of chromosome needed for the
formation of a young animal
-SEX CELLS
-Testicles-form sperm
-Ovaries-form the egg
STEP ONE: REPLICATION
-Chromosomes make an exact copy of themselves
-Replicated chromosomes are called chromatids
STEP TWO: SYNAPSIS
-Chromatids come together and are matched up in pairs
STEP THREE:
-Cell divides and the chromosomes are separated
-Each cell receives one of each chromosome from each pair
STEP FOUR:
-Both the cells and the chromatids separate and the chromatids become
chromosomes
-End result: four sperm cells from one original reproductive cell
-Each one contains half the number of chromosome that the original sex
cell had
SPERMATOGENESIS;
-Production of the male gamete
OOGENESIS:
-Production of the female gamete
-Same as the process of spermatogenesis except that only one sex cell is created
-Polar bodies are created because production of one egg cell takes so much
nourishment/energy
ONCE FERTILIZATION HAS OCCURRED:
-A complete cell has formed with all the genetic material necessary for its
development into a complete organism
-The cells are totipotent
-Totipotency-capability of a cell to develop into any type of cell
-The cells then divide and group together into what is called a morula
-Cleavage- process where the cells in the morula keep dividing and clump
together
-Blastula: morula gets larger and forms a spherical shape with an outer layer and
an inner mass of cells
-Outer layer-placenta
-Inner masses: different types of body tissues
-Once the blastula develops and grows, cells begin to take on different
characteristics which then leads to organs-cell differentiation
-Stem cells-cells that begin the differentiation process
STEM CELLS:
-Hopefully in the future will be used to create new tissue to replace disease or
damaged human tissue
-Diseases such as Parkinson’s, diabetes, and heart disease could be cured.