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Tripken AP PSI Myers 4 DEVELOPMENT Name: Ladies and gentlemen: Never take these notes as complete…this is a review section and no replacement for class notes. Developmental Psychology: the study of the physical, cognitive, and social changes throughout the lifespan; CONCEPTION - DEATH THREE BIG ISSUES 1. Nature/Nurture: How do our genetic inheritance (our nature) and our experience in our environment (the nurture we receive) affect our development? 2. Continuity/Stages: Is development a gradual continuous process like riding an escalator, or does it proceed through a sequence of separate stages, like climbing a staircase? 3. Stability/Change: Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do they change significantly as we age? PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Conception A single sperm cell (male) penetrates the outer coating of the egg (female) and fuse to form one fertilized cell. Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company 8 Zygote: the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo. Embryo: the developing person from about 2 weeks following conception through the 2nd month. Fetus: the developing person from 9 weeks after conception to birth. Neonate: A newborn infant. Teratogens: chemicals or viruses that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. Ψ Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's drinking. INFANCY & CHILDHOOD Reflexes: sucking, grasping, & rooting (a baby's tendency when touched on the cheek, to open it's mouth and search for a nipple). Maturation: biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relative uninfluenced by the environment. Cognition: refers to all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. Schema: according to Piaget, a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. The lens through which we see and interpret the world around us. 1 Tripken AP PSI Myers 4 DEVELOPMENT Name: Assimilation: Interpreting one's new experiences in terms of one's existing schemas. versus Accommodation: changing or adapting one's current schemas to incorporate new information and experiences. Refer to your physical development Handout for Milestones in dev. Check this out and STUDY IT!!!!!!!!!!!!! Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Stage: (birth to 2 yrs) stage during which infants know the world through their senses and motor activities. Ψ Object Permanence: the awareness that things continue to exist even when they cannot be perceived. Ψ Stranger Anxiety: the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age. Preoperational Stage: (2-7 yrs) stage during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend concrete logic. Ψ Egocentrism: the inability of the preoperational child to take another person's perspective or point of view Ψ Theory of Mind: people’s ideas about their own and other peoples' mental states. Concrete Operational Stage: (7-11 yrs) stage during which children gain the mental operations that allow them to logically about concrete events. Ψ Conservation: the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects. Formal Operational Stage: (begins about 12 yrs) stage during which people begin to think logically about abstract events and develop the capacity for moral reasoning. 2 Tripken AP PSI Myers 4 DEVELOPMENT Name: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Typical Age Range Description of Stage Developmental Milestones Sensorimotor: Children experience the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, sucking, etc.) Object Permanence Stranger Anxiety About 2 to 6 years Preoperational: Children represent things with words and images, but lack logical reasoning. Pretend Play Egocentrism Language Development Private Speech Theory of Mind About 6 years to 11 years Concrete Operational: Children can think logically about concrete events and can perform arithmetical operations. However, they have problems with abstract thought (i.e., analogies and metaphors). Logical Thought Conservation Mathematical Transformations Reversibility Formal Operational: Individuals can logically explore both concrete and abstract concepts. They can systematically think about all possibilities, project into the future or recall the past, and reason by analogy and metaphor. Birth to about 2 years About 12 to Adulthood Abstract Reasoning Potential for Mature Moral Reasoning Attachment Ψ Attachment: an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation. Ψ Imprinting: As described by Lorenz, the process by which certain animals (not humans) form attachments during a critical period early in life. It is mainly seen in birds (i.e., a newly hatched chick will follow the first moving object it sees). Ψ Critical Period: an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development. *In his study with baby monkeys and cloth or wire "mothers", Harlow found that body contact not nourishment was most important in the formation of attachment in the baby monkeys. The most important psychological task for the infant is called attachment, meaning the Attachment is normally established by 8 months or so: Ψ Signs of attachment include separation anxiety, which is common between 6 and 18 months old Ψ And stranger anxiety, which is common between 8 months and 24 months. 3 Tripken AP PSI Myers 4 DEVELOPMENT Name: It was assumed that infants would attach to those who feed them, this is not so. This was part of the ’08 Free Response - Harlow and Bolby, Lorenz and Ainsworth********* Social Development Theories There is a great deal of research on the social development of children. John Bowlby(father of attachment theory) proposed one of the earliest theories of social development: Bowlby believed that early relationships with caregivers play a major role in child development and continue to influence social relationships throughout life. John Bowlby - Attachment Theory Attachment is a special emotional relationship that involves an exchange of comfort, care, and pleasure. The roots of research on attachment began with Freud’s theories about love, but another researcher is usually credited as the f John Bowlby devoted extensive research to the concept of attachment, describing it as a “…lasting psychological connectedness between human beings". Bowlby shared the psychoanalytic view that early experiences in childhood have an important influence on development and behavior later in life. Ψ Our early attachment styles are established in childhood through the infant/caregiver relationship. Harry and Margaret HARLOW: Ψ In his study with baby monkeys and cloth or wire "mothers", Harlow found that body contact not nourishment was most important in the formation of attachment in the baby monkeys. Ψ Physical touch is crucial to attachment: 4 Tripken AP PSI Myers 4 DEVELOPMENT Name: Evolutionary Psychology: Ψ Konrad Lorenz - imprinting and critical period Ψ Imprinting: As described by Konrad Lorenz, the process by which certain animals (not humans) form attachments during a critical period early in life. Ψ It is mainly seen in birds (i.e., a newly hatched chick will follow the first moving object it sees). Ψ Humans do not imprint but they do form fondness based on attachment Ψ Critical Period: an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development. Mary Ainsworth: Comparison of disrupted mother-child bonds to normal mother-child relationship showed that a child's lack of a mother figure leads to "adverse development effects." In 1954, she left Tavistock Clinic to do research in Africa, where she carried out her longitudinal field study of mother-infant interaction. She and her colleagues developed the Strange Situation Procedure (way infants relate to their caregivers), which is a widely used, well researched and validated, method of assessing an infant's pattern and style of attachment to a caregiver. Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation" Assessment Based on these observations, Ainsworth concluded that there were three major styles of attachment: 1. Secure Attachment – 5 Tripken AP PSI Myers 4 DEVELOPMENT 2. Ambivalent attachment – and 3. Insecure Attachment(in the bottom table Insecure= avoidment– 6 Name: Tripken AP PSI Myers 4 DEVELOPMENT Name: Parenting Styles Authoritarian: Parents who impose rules and expect unquestioned obedience. Permissive: Parents who submit to their children's desires, make few demands, and use little punishment. Authoritative: Parents who are both demanding and responsive. They exert control not only by setting rules and enforcing them but also by explaining the reasons and, especially with older children, encouraging open discussion and allowing exceptions to the rules when appropriate. ADOLESCENCE Physical Development Puberty: the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing. Primary Sex Characteristics: the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible. Secondary Sex Characteristics: non-reproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair. Menarche: the first menstrual period. Cognitive Development: An important aspect of cognitive development in teens is the ability to form moral judgments. Kohlberg outlined the Stages of Moral Development 1. Preconventional Morality: (before age 9) the morality of self-interest. Children obey either to avoid punishment or to obtain rewards. 2. Conventional Morality: (early adolescence) upholding the laws and social rules simply because they are laws and rules. Or obey rules to obtain social approval and avoid social disapproval. 3. Postconventional Morality: affirmation of people's agreed upon rights or following what one personally perceives as basic ethical principles. Social Development Identity: one's sense of self. According to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles. Intimacy: according to Erikson, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood. 7 Tripken AP PSI Myers 4 DEVELOPMENT Name: Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Approximate Age Description of Developmental Task Infancy Trust vs. Mistrust: During the first year, babies are torn between trusting and mistrusting their parents. If the baby’s needs are dependably met, they will develop a sense of basic trust in the predictability of their environment. Otherwise, frustrated infants may become suspicious, fearful, and overly concerned about security. (1st Year) Toddler (2nd Year) Preschooler (3-5 years) Elementary School (6 years to puberty) Adolescence Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt: Due to children’s growing physical development, they begin to have greater contact with their surroundings. They learn to hold things, manipulate objects, and control their excretory functions. If a child repeatedly fails to master skills during this stage, the child may experience self-doubt and shame. Initiative vs. Guilt: Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks, carry out plans, and undertake new projects. Parental support for these initiatives can lead to a sense of joy in the children. However, if children are unable to acquire a sense of initiative, they may develop strong feelings of guilt, unworthiness, and resentment. Competence (or "Industry") vs. Inferiority: At home and school, children encounter a new set of expectations. They need the skills to become fully-functioning adults. If the are unable to meet these expectations, they may conclude that they are inadequate, mediocre, or inferior and lose faith in their power to become competent. Identity vs. Role Confusion: At puberty, childhood ends and adulthood begins. The critical problem at this stage is to find one’s identity. Failure to forge an identity leads to role confusion and despair. (teen years into early 20’s) Young Adulthood (20’s to early 40’s) Middle Adulthood (40’s to 60’s) Late Adulthood (Late 60’s and up) 8 Intimacy vs. Isolation: During this stage, men and women must learn to be intimate (physically and emotionally) with another adult. Usually, this occurs in the form of marriage. Erikson felt we must have resolved earlier developmental issues in order to become intimate. To form an intimate relationship, lovers must be trusting, autonomous, capable of initiative, and must understand themselves. Failure at intimacy can bring a painful sense of loneliness and isolation. Generativity vs. Stagnation: During this stage, the challenge is to remain productive and creative in all aspects of one’s life. People who have successfully negotiated the earlier 6 stages are likely to find meaning and joy in all aspects of their lives—career, family, community, etc. For others, life becomes a drab routine. Integrity vs. Despair: As people get older, they must come to terms with the approach of death. People who have gained full maturity by resolving earlier stages possess the integrity to face death with a minimum of fear. Tripken AP PSI Myers 4 DEVELOPMENT Name: ADULTHOOD & AGING Menopause: the time of natural cessation of menstruation and decline in the woman's ability to reproduce. Alzheimer's Disease: a progressive, irreversible, and fatal brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and physical functioning. Cognitive Development Aging and Intelligence Cross-sectional Studies: researchers test and compare people of various ages. Early studies of this type showed a significant decline in intelligence as a person aged. Longitudinal Studies: researchers test and retest the same group of subjects over a long period of time. Studies of this type do not show a decline in intelligent and are likely more accurate than the crosssectional studies. Crystallized Intelligence: (measured as verbal IQ) one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; it tends to increase with age. Fluid Intelligence: (measures as non-verbal IQ) one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; it tends to decrease with age. Social Development Generativity vs Stagnation: According to Erikson, people in middle age discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family or work, or they may feel a lack of purpose. Integrity vs Despair: when reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure. DEATH AND DYING Elizabeth Kubler-Ross identified 5 stages that terminally ill people may pass through. They are: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, & acceptance: DABDA Successful Aging 83 9 Tripken 10 AP PSI Myers 4 DEVELOPMENT Name: