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Clauses Complete ideas that contain BOTH a subject and a verb. Phrases Clusters of words that form a meaningful unit but DO NOT contain BOTH a subject and verb (e.g., on the desk, singing in the rain). Phrases generally function as modifiers. Pronouns Substitute for nouns. Three types: Personal: I, you, she, he, it Demonstrative: this, that, these, those Relative (often introduce modifying clauses): what, who, whom, that, which Antecedents Nouns to which pronouns refer. Complete Predicate Transitive Verbs Intransitive Verbs Linking Verbs The verb and all words and phrases that modify it. Verbs that take direct objects (e.g., I RAISED the child). Verbs that do not take direct objects (e.g., The sun ROSE). Subclass of intransitive verbs. Express the relationship between the subject and its noun or adjective complement (a predicate nominative or a predicate adjective.) E.g., be, become, seem, appear, and verbs that pertain to the senses. Predicate Nominatives Rename the subject (e.g., He is a BOY). Predicate Adjectives Describe the subject (e.g., He is TALL). Helping (or Auxiliary) Verbs Combine with another verb of any kind to form a verb phrase. E.g., do, does, did, can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, and must. Complements Nouns or adjectives that complete the ideas expressed by verbs. Four kinds: Following Transitive Verbs to tell who or what received the actions. • Direct Objects • Indirect Objects Following Linking Verbs to describe the subject of the sentence. • Predicate Nominatives • Predicate adjectives Verbals Any form of verb that functions as another part of speech. Participles Can function as verbals; they often function as adjectives. Present participles end in ing. Past participles end in ed. Gerunds Verbals functioning as nouns and ending in ing. Infinitives Verbals that are usually nouns but can be adjectives or adverbs. Usually made up of to and a present-tense verb (e.g., to obtain). Modifiers Headwords Articles Coordinating Conjunctions Words, phrases, or clauses that qualify the meaning of other words. Any part of speech that functions as an adjective or adverb is a modifier. Words modified by a modifier. Function words that specify nouns, and act as adjectives. E.g., The boy selected a bagel from the bakery shelf. Join multiple sentence elements or clauses that are of equal rank. Coordinating conjunctions: but, or, yet, for, and, nor, and sometimes so (mnemonic: Boyfans). Subordinating Conjunctions Join words, phrases, or clauses to independent clauses, linking ideas of lesser rank to ideas of higher rank. E.g., as, before, because, although, until, that, if, unless, since, when, while. Prepositions Relate a noun to another word in a sentence. A preposition and its object (and its object’s modifiers) create a prepositional phrase, that acts as a modifier. E.g., above, across, against, as, at, in, to, on, under. Main (Independent) Clauses Contain subject/verb units, each expressing a complete idea. Independent clauses can stand alone with terminal punctuation. Subordinate (Dependent) Clauses Contain subject/verb units, but these clauses must be linked to an independent clause to complete their meaning. If left alone, they form a sentence fragment. Relative Clauses Subordinate dependent clauses that begin with a relative pronoun and function as adjectives. The subject is often a relative pronoun and they are often embedded inside other clauses. Restrictive Clauses Subordinate clauses that are essential to the meaning of a sentence because they delimit the idea expressed by the independent clause. Avoid enclosing them in commas. Nonrestrictive Clauses Nonessential subordinate clauses that add information but do not delimit the main idea of the sentence. They are often placed inside commas. Simple Sentences Contain one independent clause and have one subject and verb, which may or may not be compound. Compound Sentences Combine at least two independent clauses and one coordination method. Complex Sentences Contain one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Dependent clauses are usually joined to the independent clause by a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun. Compound/Complex Sentences Meet the criteria for both compound and complex sentences. Coordination Implies a balance of elements that are of equal semantic value in a sentence. You can use coordinating conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs (CA), or punctuation to combine short independent clauses into a compound sentence. Remember: independent clauses linked by CAs require a semicolon before the CA and a comma after the CA. Subordination Transforms independent ideas (frequently clauses) into dependent ideas (frequently clauses) through the use of subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns. E.g., The football game has been postponed. We’ll have to do something else. VS. Because the football game was postponed, we’ll have to do something else. Structural Links Most links between clauses function as both structural and semantic links. Two exceptions: • Punctuation functions primarily as a structural link (commas are not considered structural links in professional writing). • Conjunctive adverbs do not function as a structural link. To use a conjunctive adverb between two independent clauses, surround it with a semicolon and comma. Comma Splice Conjunctive Adverbs The illegal use of a comma as a structural link between two independent clauses. The one type of semantic link that does not function as a structural link. To link clauses with a CA, surround it with a semicolon and comma. CA examples: however, moreover, furthermore, nevertheless, consequently, additionally, etc.