* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download 句法理論研究習題第三章
Preposition and postposition wikipedia , lookup
Japanese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Portuguese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Udmurt grammar wikipedia , lookup
American Sign Language grammar wikipedia , lookup
Arabic grammar wikipedia , lookup
Antisymmetry wikipedia , lookup
Agglutination wikipedia , lookup
Ukrainian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Cognitive semantics wikipedia , lookup
Sloppy identity wikipedia , lookup
Old English grammar wikipedia , lookup
English clause syntax wikipedia , lookup
Modern Greek grammar wikipedia , lookup
Malay grammar wikipedia , lookup
Compound (linguistics) wikipedia , lookup
Chinese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Distributed morphology wikipedia , lookup
Navajo grammar wikipedia , lookup
Georgian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Morphology (linguistics) wikipedia , lookup
Swedish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Scottish Gaelic grammar wikipedia , lookup
Modern Hebrew grammar wikipedia , lookup
Serbo-Croatian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Kannada grammar wikipedia , lookup
Zulu grammar wikipedia , lookup
Romanian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Italian grammar wikipedia , lookup
French grammar wikipedia , lookup
Ancient Greek grammar wikipedia , lookup
Lexical semantics wikipedia , lookup
Esperanto grammar wikipedia , lookup
Icelandic grammar wikipedia , lookup
Spanish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Latin syntax wikipedia , lookup
Yiddish grammar wikipedia , lookup
英研所一年級英語教學組 69312206 陳景鴻 句法理論研究習題第三章 英研所一年級英語教學組 69312206 陳景鴻 Exercise 3.1 Work out the subcategorization frame of each of the lexical item listed in 1~4. Make sure you justify your proposals with relevant examples: 1. fond 2. declare 3. transport 4. within Ans: 1. fond: [Adj; ___ N’ ___ PP ] Examples: I am fond [NPof music]. The fond [NPfather] smiled with pleasure. Notes: A lexical item’s subcategorization frame should limit to its maximal projection. That is, the subcategorization frame for “fond” should limit to AdjP. However, fond cannot be used as attributively; it must be followed by a PP or NP. However, the following NP does not belong to AdjP. And this pose a problem for writing subcategorization frame for “fond”. 2. declare: [V; ___ S’ ___NP ___PP ] Example: She declared [Sthat she does not like him]. America declared [NPa war with Germany]. We declared [PPfor their proposal]. 3. transport: [V; NP (PP)] Example: The organization refuses to transport [NPanimals][PPto America]. transport: [N; ___ ] Example: The city must improve its public transport. 英研所一年級英語教學組 69312206 陳景鴻 4. within: [ P; ___ NP] Example: He finished the work within [NPtwo days]. within: [ Adv; ___ ] Example: She is pure within. within: [N; ____] Example: The farmers revolt from within. within: [Adj; ____ NP] Example: If you have any question, see the within [NPdocument]. (Examples are from Merriam-Webster 11th Collegiate Dictionary.) Exercise 3.2 Using examples of your own, explain whether the derivationally related pairs of items in 1~6 have similar or different subcategorization frame: 1. derive/ derivation 2. believe/ belief 3. export/ export 4. fond/ fondness 5. eager/ eagerness Ans. 1. (1) derive: [V; ___ NP ] ___ PP Example: We should try to derive [NPthe meaning of the word] from contexts. This English word derives [PPfrom French]. (2) derivation: [N; ___ PP ___ ] Example: The derivation [PPof the word] is unclear. The word is of old French derivation. 2. (1) believe: [V; ___ NP ___S’ ] Example: I don’t believe [your words]. They believe [S’that God will save us]. 英研所一年級英語教學組 69312206 陳景鴻 (2) belief: [N; ___PP ___ S’ ] Example: Their belief [PPin God] is firm. The belief [S’that the earth is round] is true. 3. (1) export: [V; ___ NP ___ PP ] Example: We export [NPrice] but import wheat. Our factory exports [PPto Europe]. (2) export: [N; ___ ] Example: Rice is our primary export. 4. (1) fond: [ Adj; ___ N’ ___ NP ] Example: I am fond [NPof music]. The fond [NPfather] smiled with pleasure. (2) fondness: [N; ___ PP] Example: I have no fondness [PPfor syntax]. 5. (1) eager: [Adj; ___ ] Example: Who is the most eager? (2) eagerness: [N; ___ PP ] ___ S’ Example: She showed great eagerness [PPfor success]. She showed great eagerness [S’to win the prize]. 英研所一年級英語教學組 69312206 陳景鴻 Exercise 3.3 The verbs believe and wonder are similar in that they both subcategorize for a clausal complement S’(as shown in 1 and 2). However, each of the two verbs seems to be particular about the type of clause it takes as complement, as shown in 3 and 4. Suggest a formal way of encoding this particular property in the subcategorization frame of each verb such that the sentences 3 and 4 are excluded. 1. Bill believes that John left early. 2. Bill wonders if John left early. 3. *Bill believes if John left early. 4. *Bill wonders that John left early. Ans. From following two sentences, the distinction between the subcategorization requirement between believe and wonder become more salient. 5. *Bill believes which problem John has solved. 6. Bill wonders which problem John has solved. Then, there are differences in subcategorization of two verbs. The word “believe” subcategorizes for a declarative clause, not an interrogative sentence. On the contrary, the word “wonder” subcategorizes for an interrogative clause, not a declarative sentence. The subcategorization properties of the two verbs can be encoded in terms of the feature [+/- Q(uestion)].Thus, “believe” subcategorizes a clause marked as [-Q] and “wonder” subcategorizes a clause marked as [+Q]. And the declarative clause could be marked with the feature [-Q]; the interrogative sentence, [+Q]. Now look back sentences 1~4, “believe” can use that-clause as a complement, but “wonder” use if-clause clause as a complement. It is suggested that, that-clause, like the declarative clause, is marked with the feature [-Q], since that-clause and the declarative clause could occupy the same position in the sentence. Likewise, if-clause is marked with [+Q]. And the subcategorization of “believe” and “wonder” can be shown in the following: believe: [___ S’] [-Q] wonder: [___ S’] [+Q] Other verbs subcategorize a clause marked as [-Q] are assert, claim, and insist. Other verbs subcategorize a clause marked as [+Q] are ask, question, and inquire. Verbs subcategorize a clause marked as [-Q] or [+Q] are know, speculate, and doubt. 英研所一年級英語教學組 69312206 陳景鴻 Notes: Wonder can be followed by a [-Q] that-clause, when “wonder” means “feel surprised” For example: We wonder that the little boy is a university student. (我們很 驚奇這小男孩是大學生) Exercise 3.4 Explain if examples 1 and 2, compared to 3 and 4, pose a problem for the claim that violation of the subcategorization requirements of lexical items gives rise to ungrammaticality. 1. This problem, I can solve. 2. I can sole *(this problem). 3. I wonder which city he comes from. 4. He comes from *(London). Ans: The subcategorization frame of “solve” and “from” are listed in the below: solve: [V; ___ NP] from: [P; ___ NP] Both “solve” and “from” subcategorize for NP-complement. However, sentence1 and 3 seem to violate subcategorization requirement of “solve” and “from”. However, both sentence1 and 3 are grammatically. By a further look, “this problem” in sentence 1 and “which city” in sentence 2 serve as the objects or NP-complements of “solve” and “from” in interpreting sentences 1 and 3. Thus, it is hypothesized that “this problem” in sentence 1 followed “solve” and “which city” in sentence 2 followed “from” in deep-structure. Then through an application of transformational rule, “this problem” and “which city” are moved out of their original position. Thus, sentences 1 and 3 are grammatical since there s no violation of subcategorization requirement of “solve” and “from”, both of which receive their complements in their deep-structure. Exercise 3.5 Assign a tree structure to each of the complex categories listed in 1~5. Make sure that you justify your proposals: 1. musical 2. establishment 3. modernization 4. interpretations 5. colonized (as a past tense verb) 英研所一年級英語教學組 69312206 陳景鴻 Ans: 1. Adj 2. N Adj Music cal N V establish 3. N V Adj modern V N ize ation 4. N N V N N ment 英研所一年級英語教學組 69312206 陳景鴻 interpret ation s- [+plural] 5. V V N colony V ize -ed [+past] Notes: 1. “Musical” is an adjective, and “music” is a noun. The derivational morpheme “al” adds to the base, “music”, and results in a derivation of an adjective. Thus, the morpheme “al” is specified for category information, which is specified as Adj. And the category of the derived complex is the same as the category of the suffix. Therefore, the morpheme “al” is viewed as the head of the complex category, since it determines the category of the derived complex. This case also justifies the Righthand Head Rule. 2. “Establish” is a verb, and “establishment” is a noun. The derivational morpheme “ment” adds to the base, “establish”, and results in a derivation of a noun. Thus, the morpheme “ment” is specified for category information, which is specified as N. And the category of the derived complex is the same as the category of the suffix. Therefore, the morpheme “ment” is viewed as the head of the complex category, since it determines the category of the derived complex. This case also justifies the Righthand Head Rule. 3. “Modern” is an adjective, and “modernization” is a noun. The derivational morpheme “ize” adds to the base, “modern”, and results in a derivation of a verb, “modernize”. And then the derivational morpheme “ation” adds to the base, “modernize”, and results in a derivation of a noun, “modernization”. Thus, the morphemes “ize” and “ation” are specified for category information, which are specified as V and N, respectively. And the category of the derived complex is the 英研所一年級英語教學組 69312206 陳景鴻 same as the category of the suffix: “ize” and “modernize”; “ation” and “modernization”. For “modernization”, the morpheme “ation” is viewed as the head of the complex category, since it determines the category of the derived complex. This case justifies the Righthand Head Rule. 4. “Interpret” is a verb, and “interpretations” is a noun. The derivational morpheme “ation” adds to the base, “interpret”, and results in a derivation of a noun. Thus, the morpheme “ation” is specified for category information, which is specified as N. And the category of the derived complex is the same as the category of the suffix. Therefore, the morpheme “ation” is viewed as the head of the complex category, since it determines the category of the derived complex. This case justifies the Righthand Head Rule. For the inflectional morpheme “s”, its number feature is plural and leads to the plural character of the noun, interpretations. And from this case, the inflectional morpheme is subject to Righthand Head Rule. 5. “Colony” is a noun, and “colonized” is a verb. The derivational morpheme “ize” adds to the base, “colony”, and results in a derivation of a verb. Thus, the morpheme “ize” is specified for category information, which is specified as V. And the category of the derived complex is the same as the category of the suffix. Therefore, the morpheme “ize” is viewed as the head of the complex category, since it determines the category of the derived complex. This case justifies the Righthand Head Rule. For the inflectional morpheme “ed”, its tense feature is [+past] and leads to the past tense property of the verb, “colonized”. And from this case, the inflectional morpheme is subject to Righthand Head Rule. Exercise 3.6 Think of possible arguments to decide between the two structures for the complex category unhappiness shown in 1 and 2. 英研所一年級英語教學組 69312206 陳景鴻 1. 2. N N A Aff Aff N A A N happy ness N un happy ness un Structure 1 is better than structure 2. In structure 1, the prefix first combines with the adjective “happy” to form “unhappy”; then unhappy combines with the suffix “ness” to form the word “unhappiness”. There is no problem with structure 1. The prefix “un-“ can combine with an adjective to form an adjective with opposite meanings to the original one. Examples of this are unconscious, and unlucky. And adjectives can also combine with suffixes to form nouns, such as sadness and quickness. On the contrary, in the structure 2, the adjective “happy” first combines with “ness” and then the noun “happiness” combines with the prefix “un”. There is a problem with structure 2. The prefix “un-“ does not combine with a noun to form another noun with the opposite meaning to the original one, such as *unpolicy, and *unoffice. Exercise 3.7 The list in 1~5 includes compounds, which are complex categories formed with independent (i.e. non-affixal) lexical items. For example, the compound verb dryclean is made up of the adjective dry and the verb clean and has the structure [V[A dry] [V clean]. Assign a tree structures to each of the compounds in 1~5. Try to justify your proposals with arguments: 1. crybaby 2. bankroll 3. overestimate 4. steamboat 5. bluebottle Ans: 英研所一年級英語教學組 69312206 陳景鴻 1. 2. N N V N cry baby 3. V N bank roll 4. P V over N estimate N N N steam boat 5. N A blue N bottle Notes: That these compounds are composed of two lexical items can be justified by finding relationship between compounds and their components. Thus, a crybaby is a person who cries, a steamboat is a boat driven by steam, bankroll means supplies of money (In slang, roll refers to paper money folded), overestimate means estimating 英研所一年級英語教學組 69312206 陳景鴻 something too highly, and a bluebottle is blowflies that have bodies iridescent with blue in color.