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Alfred Wegner was the first scientist to popularize his concept of continental drift. Wegner
proposed that the continents were once all stuck together in one “supercontinent” he called Pangaea,
but over time they “drifted” to their current positions. Wegner used four pieces of evidence to support
his theory.
1. Continent fit:
Wegner noticed
that the edges
of many
continents fit
together like
puzzle pieces
2.
Fossil
evidence:
fossils of the
same landbound
organisms were
found on the
edges of
continents now
separated by a
large body of
water
3. Rock evidence:
the types of
rocks on the
edges of distant
continents
matched
4. Glacial
evidence: the
movement of
glaciers leaves
marks on rocks
and landforms.
These markings
were similar on
land of South
America and
Africa.
However, people thought Wegner’s idea was too radical and did not believe him until further
research was conducted. Evidence of continental drift collected from the sea floor and through the
explanation of convection currents finally convinced people that continental drift did occur.
Evidence from the sea floor
Three main pieces of evidence from the sea floor provided a way for scientists to explain how
the continents could have moved over time. First, when the age of the sea floor was studied,
scientists found that rocks are YOUNGER closest to the mid-ocean ridge and progressively older as
you move further away from the ridge. This suggests that magma is continuously rising up from the
mid-ocean ridge and hardening to push the two plates apart from one another. Second, alternating
magnetic patterns of rocks on the sea floor indicate that magma was been rising up through the
divergent boundary mid-ocean ridges and pushing plates apart as the earth changed its magnetic
poles over time. Third, subduction zones, convergent boundaries where a dense oceanic plate
dives beneath a continental plate, show that there are places within the earth that crust is being
destroyed and melted back into magma.
These three pieces of evidence helped scientists suggest that continental drift occurred
through a process called sea-floor spreading. Sea floor spreading is when new crust is made as
magma bubble up through the mid-ocean ridges. As more and more magma bubbles up, the
continents on either side of the ridge begin to be pushed farther and farther apart. Additionally, at
subduction zones, old oceanic crust is forced back into the earth where it is melted back into
magma.
Lastly, scientists had to come up with a theory for HOW the magma is pushed up through the
mid-ocean ridge. They call this the idea of convection currents. When hot magma from the center of
the earth rises, it forces the cooler magma down. Think of rice boiling in a pot of water. When the
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Earth Environmental: FINAL EXAM REVIEW
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water is boiling, the hot rice kernels at the bottom of the pot are forced upward toward the surface and
the cooler rice kernels fall to the bottom of the pot. This process allows small amounts of magma to
leak up through the mid-ocean ridge, causing sea-floor spreading to occur.
Directions: Answer all questions below based on what you learned in the paragraphs above.
1. What are the four pieces of evidence that Wegner used to support his theory of continental drift?
2. What is the theory of continental drift?
3. Why was Wegner’s theory and evidence not well accepted at first?
4. What additional evidence was needed to support Wegner’s theory in order to make it easier to
believe?
5. What are the three main pieces of evidence from the sea floor that supported the theory of
continental drift?
6. Describe what scientists saw when they examined the age of rocks on the sea floor AND how this
finding supports continental drift.
7. Describe what scientists found when they studied the magnetic patterns of rocks on the sea floor
AND how this finding supports continental drift.
8. Describe what scientists found when they studied subduction zones on the sea floor AND how this
finding supports continental drift.
9. What is sea-floor spreading?
10. How do convection currents help to support the theory of continental drift?
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Lithosphere – layer of solid rock consisting of Earth’s crust and the solid part of Earth’s mantle
Tectonic Plates – Large fragments that Earth’s lithosphere is divided into that “float” on the mantle.
These plates are thicker and denser beneath continents than they are beneath the ocean.
Convection Cells form in Earth’s mantle when heated rock rises toward Earth’s surface and cooler
(denser) rock sinks towards Earth’s core. These convection currents move the tectonic plates of Earth.
Sound familiar? Got it now? Ready to prove It?
Go ahead.
11. How does the thickness of Earth’s oceanic crust
compare to the thickness of the continental crust? (Use
the picture at right to help you answer the question.)
12. Pieces of Earth’s lithosphere are pushed around by
(a)Winds in the atmosphere (c) Movements in the mantle
(b)Waves in the ocean
(d) Organisms in the soil
13. Convection currents in Earth’s mantle are believed to be responsible for
(a)Ocean currents
(c) Climatic changes
(b)Crustal plate movements (d) Uneven surface heating
14. Arrows in the drawing at right show which of the following?
(a)Earthquakes
(c) Continents
(b)Convection cells
(d) Continental drift
15. Describe what causes Earth’s continental plates to move. Include a picture, if needed.
____________________________________________________________________________________
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The earth is made up of tectonic plates. These plates are basically huge slabs of the rocky
lithosphere floating on the magma, or flowing asthenosphere below them, similar to a piece of
cardboard floating on pudding.
The places where two different plates meet are called plate boundaries. There are three
different types of plate boundaries. They are convergent boundaries, divergent boundaries, and
transform boundaries. Different types of geological structures are formed at each plate boundary.
See the chart below for an overview.
Plate boundary
Picture
Convergent boundaries are 1. Continent-continent convergence
when two plates converge or
push together.
Structures Formed
Continent-continent
convergence:
mountains
2. Ocean-continent convergence
Ocean-continent
convergence: ocean
trench, volcano
Divergent boundaries are
when two plates diverge or
pull apart (think of the word
divergent like divide, which
both start with the prefix di,
meaning to break something
apart)
mid-ocean ridge
Mid-ocean
ridge
Transform boundaries are
when two plates scrape past
each other
(molten rock
bubbles up through
the ridge to form
new land)
Fault line
Fault line
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Directions: Answer all questions below using the information on the previous page
16. What are the principle structures found at a divergent boundary (Reference Sea Floor Spreading
from First Section)?
17. What are the geologic structures found at a continent-continent convergent boundary?
18. What are the structures found at an ocean-continent convergent boundary?
19. What structure is found at a transform boundary?
20. Illustrate and describe how the movement of plates differ between convergent, divergent, and
transform boundaries?
21. What is an easy way to remember the direction of plate movement in a divergent boundary (the
way that I give you on this worksheet)
22. Describe what happens at a mid-ocean ridge and how can you determine the relative age of the
rock.
23. What is a hot spot?
24. Name 3 locations where they exist.
25. What is the asthenosphere?
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Rocks are inorganic (non-living) substances made up of one or more minerals. There are three
main types of rocks.
1. Igneous rocks are made from magma (molten rock inside the earth) or from lava (molten
rock outside of the earth). Examples of igneous rocks include pumice, obsidian, and granite.
Igneous rocks can either be intrusive igneous rocks, which are made from cooled magma
inside the earth, or extrusive igneous rocks, made from cooled lava outside the earth. Think of
extrusive like exit, which has to do with the outside of a place.
2. Sedimentary rocks are made from pressed sediment (small bits of other rocks, sand, soil, or
shells). Layers of sediment are deposited by rivers and begin to pile up on top of each other.
All the water and air pockets are forced out of the deepest layers of sediment due to the weight
of the layers on top. It is these deep layers that cement into sedimentary rock. Limestone
(CaCO3), coquina, sandstone, and shale are all types of sedimentary rocks.
3. Metamorphic rocks are formed deep inside the earth. As igneous and sedimentary rocks get
buried deeper and deeper inside the earth due to the movement of tectonic plates, the intense
heat and pressure they experience causes them to change their crystal structure. This intense
heat and pressure forces the layers in the rocks to change from straight to wavy, or foliated
(think of the demonstration with the colored towels laid on top of each other). Under this
intense heat and pressure, foliated metamorphic rocks are formed. Slate and marble are two
types of metamorphic rock.
Directions: Complete the chart below using the information above.
Types (plus
Type of rock
How is it formed?
definitions)
Igneous rock
Sedimentary
rock
Metamorphic
Rock
Examples
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Earth Environmental: FINAL EXAM REVIEW
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The Rock Cycle - Rocks are identified by “How they are formed!”
Rocks do not stay the same forever! They can change from one type to another through a
process called the rock cycle. During the rock cycle, sediments pile up to form sedimentary rocks,
which undergo heat and pressure to form metamorphic rocks. These rocks melt into magma,
which cools and crystallizes into intrusive igneous rock, or erupts through a volcano to crystallize
into extrusive igneous rock. The igneous rock is eroded by wind and water back into sediment.
Igneous rocks can also be buried and turned into metamorphic rock through intense heat and
pressure. Sedimentary rocks can be melted directly into magma, which will eventually crystallize to
form igneous rock.
Directions: Complete the rock cycle and answer the questions below using the information above.
1.
2.
3.
9.
8.
7.
4.
5.
6.
Fill in the boxes 1 - 9 with the correct process that forms the rock types. You may use the terms
as many times as needed in the diagram:
Weathering and Erosion
Cooling
Heat and pressure
Melting
Compaction and cementation
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Earth Environmental: FINAL EXAM REVIEW
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26. Explain the difference between extrusive and intrusive igneous rock?
27. Explain fully how metamorphic rock is made from sediment.
28. Which type of rock is characterized by wavy, foliated layers?
29. Explain the process that turns igneous or metamorphic rock back into sediment?
30. Explain the process that describes how extrusive igneous rock is formed from lava after a
volcanic eruption.
There are two kinds of volcanoes: one with violent eruptions (pyroclastic) producing steep slopes and
the other kind with voluminous lava flows producing gentle slopes.
A volcano is an opening in the earth that usually forms at a convergent boundary subduction
zone. As the oceanic and continental plate at the convergent boundary are forced together, pressure
builds up underneath the volcano. Think of taking an inflated balloon and squeezing it really, really
hard. If you squeeze hard enough, the balloon will burst, allowing all the air trapped inside to escape.
What if that balloon was filled with poisonous gas and magma? When a volcano undergoes a large
amount of pressure, the magma and poisonous gas under the crust will be forced up through the top
of a volcano in a volcanic eruption.
There are two main types of volcanoes. The shield volcano is a gentle, sloping volcano that
looks like a dome or a curved shield. A shield volcano contains non-viscous magma. Non-viscous
magma is runny like water and unable to create large amounts of pressure by trapping air bubbles.
Therefore, the volcanic eruptions experienced by shield volcanoes are gentle, or non-violent. The
Hawaiian islands are shield volcanoes.
The composite volcano, on the other hand, is cone-shaped because it contains highly
viscous, thick magma that sticks to the top sides of the volcano when it erupts, giving it a steep
conical shape. This viscous magma is able to trap large amounts of poisonous air bubbles, creating
an intense amount of pressure inside the volcano. The composite volcano will therefore experience
very dangerous, violent volcanic eruptions. Mount St. Helens is an example of a composite volcano.
Directions: Fill out the chart below and answer the questions using the information you learned
above.
Volcano Type
Picture
Magma Type
Eruption Type
31. Describe why viscous(thick) magma in composite volcanoes leads to violent volcanic eruptions
32. At what plate boundary does a volcano usually occur? Draw it please.
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Earth Environmental: FINAL EXAM REVIEW
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Soil types are determined by grain size. All soils are composed of the three grain sizes as
represented on the soil triangle below. The largest grain size is 33._________________________.
This grain size allows the quickest flow of water and filters water quickly. The next smallest grain size
is 34._________________________ and doesn’t allow water to percolate as fast which slows the
movement of water to an aquifer or to drain away on the land. The smallest grain size is
35.__________________________ and is the least permeable(ability to pass through) of the soil
texture sizes. It is formed from the breakdown of the mineral feldspar and is the major component of
the type of soil in our region of North Carolina. The soil type in temperate regions, such as ours, is
known as PEDALFER soil. PEDOCAL soils are found in drier (desert type) regions where the soils
contain more calcium carbonate, CaCO3 and calcites. LATERITE soils are found in tropical areas
such as the tropical rain forests of the world. They contain iron and aluminum oxides. These soils
are the least fertile which explains why these regions of the world are not productive for agriculture
and farming.
Use the diagrams below to answer the following questions:
A
36. The soil type at point A is__________________________________________.
It is made up of
37. _______________________________________% Clay,
38. _______________________________________%Sand and
39. ________________________________________% Silt.
40. In the soil horizon, what layer would contain the most nutrients to grow
plants?____________________________
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Earth Environmental: FINAL EXAM REVIEW
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41. Describe what happens to the soil as it is washed with acid rain (acid deposition)? Hint:
Leaching of ?
42. When sedimentary deposits are dissolved beneath the ground level, the area is weakened which
causes the surface to collapse. This process occurs in many places but is common to coastal areas
and areas with sedimentary parent material. The term used to describe this process which creates a
sinkhole is _________________________________.
43. Charlotte’s coordinates (at the
)on the map above would be written as _______oN, ______oW.
44. Which coordinate represents Latitude?_________________________
45. Which coordinate represents Longitude?_______________________
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Earth Environmental: FINAL EXAM REVIEW
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200
46. The point labelled A represents________________ on the contour map above.
47. The line nearest to point C is called _______________________________________.
48. The contour interval of the map above is ___________________________________
49. Identify finite resources from the chart to
the left._____________________________
50. How are renewable resources defined?
51. What are the two resources of heat
energy that drives Earth’s processes?
52. Identify the process in the illustration below.
53. Where does this process
occur?__________________
54. The rotation illustrated below lasts for what
length of time?__________________________
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Earth Environmental: FINAL EXAM REVIEW
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55. The revolution illustrated below is known as ___________and lasts for ___________________.
56. The Equinoxes are on what days above?_______________________________
57. The First day of Summer is known as ___________________and is the __________day of year.
58. The First day of Winter is known as _______________and is the _______________day of year.
53. Go to page 240 in the book to do the lab
Location
Difference in arrival
times of S and P waves
Copy the data table from page 240 on to your paper.
Distance from Epicenter
New York
Seattle
Mexico City
54, Explain the process to determine the location of the epicenter
below.
55. How are seismic waves used to determine the interior of the
Earth? Explain using the detail provided in class. Refer to your
textbook.
56. How do we measure the intensity of earthquakes?
57. The difference between a magnitude 3 and a magnitude 5
would be:________________
a. 2
b. 20
c. 100
d. 10
58. Where is the focus of an earthquake
located?___________________________
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Earth Environmental: FINAL EXAM REVIEW
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58. Where do earthquakes occur in North Carolina?
59. Label the diagram to the right with the layers of the atmosphere.
Identify the pauses as well. Identify issues associated with each layer.
60. Give the chemical formula for ozone_____. Ozone provides protection from ______________.
61. Identify the parts of the electromagnetic spectrum and the source of this energy. How does this
energy arrive on Earth?
E
B
A
C
G
F
D
62. What is meant by the term “urban heat island?”
63. The line marked 0o represents _________________.
64. The cells demonstrate the transfer of
_______________________energy on Planet Earth.
65. Explain the impact of El Nino on the Planet.
What impact does the phenomenon have on weather
around the world?
A. ____________________
B. ____________________
C. ____________________
D. ____________________
E. ____________________
F. ____________________
G. ____________________
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Earth Environmental: FINAL EXAM REVIEW
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66. Label the processes shown on the diagram
What is name given to this cycle? __________ Cycle
A_____________________________
B_____________________________
C_____________________________
D_____________________________
E_____________________________
67. Define a watershed.
68. What watershed do you depend on for your water resources?
69. The estuaries provide an important function to maintain the biodiversity of the planet. Explain the
function of estuaries that is being referred to.
70. Wetlands provide a vital function in the recharge of aquifers. Explain this function.
71. Where are the storage places for freshwater on the planet?
72. The oceans cover ______% of the planet’s surface. The warm ________currents transfer warm
water toward the poles while the colder___________currents run deep and return toward the equator.
73. Identify the cyclone and anticyclone below.
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B
A
Diagram A
Diagram B
74. The numbers on the lines above in diagram A represent ___________which is measured in mb
By what instrument_____________________________________?
75. Identify and explain the following symbols (the fronts) in diagram B:
A._____________
B._____________
76. What are four main causes of soil degradation?
77. List and describe the four methods that farmers use to conserve soil
78. What is the number one cause of erosion?
79. Explain and give examples of the 3 R’s listed in the symbol to the left.
Global carbon cycle: the different physical and chemical forms of carbon in the atmosphere, oceans,
biomass, fossil fuels, and the movement of carbon among these sinks or reservoirs. Carbon is the
element that makes up the majority of the solid tissue in our bodies. However, carbon is finite,
meaning the amount of carbon on earth today is the same as the amount of carbon that existed when
the earth was made. How, then, is it possible for new organisms to grow by adding more and more
carbon to their bodies? Carbon is reused and recycled through a process called the carbon cycle.
First, lets talk about how carbon is removed from the atmosphere. The great sink or reservoir
(holding place) for carbon in the form of carbon dioxide gas (CO2) is the atmosphere. Plants take in
carbon dioxide from the air and turn it into carbon-based sugars that they use to build body tissue
through a process called photosynthesis. When animals consume, or eat other plants or animals,
they convert the carbon in the body tissue of their prey into carbon for their own tissues. When these
plants and animals die, their bodies are broken down by decomposers or detritus feeders, which
release carbon into the soil. After many years, the remains of these dead plants and animals are
turned into fossil fuels.
So then how is carbon returned to the atmosphere to complete the cycle? When animals
undergo respiration, or breathing, they release CO2 back into the atmosphere as a waste produce.
Additionally, the combustion (burning) of fossil fuels or trees in forest fires releases CO2 back into
the atmosphere.
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Earth Environmental: FINAL EXAM REVIEW
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80. Name the major way carbon is removed from the atmosphere and show the chemical formula as
learned in class.
81. Name three ways to return carbon to the atmosphere.
82. Describe STEP BY STEP how carbon goes from being held as CO2 in the atmosphere to being
held in fossil fuels in the ground.
83. How is Ocean Acidification connected to the carbon cycle?
84. In the table below, complete the information regarding greenhouse gases.
Gas
Carbon dioxide
Chemical Formula
Source
Effect on atmosphere
Cows
SOx
85. Why is the greenhouse effect necessary for life on earth?
86. Explain the relationship between chemical weathering and acid rain.
87. Make a pie graph and give the percentages of fresh water and salt water. Include the
percentages of frozen fresh water.
88. Using the illustration to the right, explain the terms precession and nutation.
89. Distinguish between biotic and abiotic factors in our environment.
Provide at least two examples of each in North Carolina.
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Ocean Acidification: The Other Carbon Dioxide Problem
Ocean acidification, or "OA" for short, is the term given to the chemical changes in the ocean as a result of
carbon dioxide emissions.
Fundamental changes in seawater chemistry are
occurring throughout the world's oceans. Since the
beginning of the industrial revolution, the release of
carbon dioxide (CO2) from humankind's industrial and
agricultural activities has increased the amount of CO2
in the atmosphere. The ocean absorbs about a quarter of
the CO2 we release into the atmosphere every year, so as
atmospheric CO2 levels increase, so do the levels in the
ocean. Initially, many scientists focused on the benefits
of the ocean removing this greenhouse gas from the
atmosphere. However, decades of ocean observations
now show that there is also a downside — the CO2
absorbed by the ocean is changing the chemistry of the
seawater, a process called OCEAN ACIDIFICATION.
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What Is an Urban Heat Island?
As urban areas develop, changes occur in their landscape. Buildings, roads, and other
infrastructure replace open land and vegetation. Surfaces that were once permeable and
moist become impermeable and dry.1 These changes cause urban regions to become
warmer than their rural surroundings, forming an "island" of higher temperatures in the
landscape.
Heat islands occur on the surface and in the atmosphere. On a hot, sunny summer day, the
sun can heat dry, exposed urban surfaces, such as roofs and pavement, to temperatures
50–90°F (27–50°C) hotter than the air,2 while shaded or moist surfaces—often in more rural
surroundings—remain close to air temperatures. Surface urban heat islands are typically
present day and night, but tend to be strongest during the day when the sun is shining.
In contrast, atmospheric urban heat islands are often weak during the late morning and
throughout the day and become more pronounced after sunset due to the slow release of
heat from urban infrastructure. The annual mean air temperature of a city with 1 million
people or more can be 1.8–5.4°F (1–3°C) warmer than its surroundings.3 On a clear, calm
night, however, the temperature difference can be as much as 22°F (12°C). 3
 Increased energy consumption: Higher temperatures in summer increase energy demand for
cooling and add pressure to the electricity grid during peak periods of demand. One study
estimates that the heat island effect is responsible for 5–10% of peak electricity demand for
cooling buildings in cities.3
 Elevated emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gases: Increasing energy demand
generally results in greater emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions from
power plants. Higher air temperatures also promote the formation of ground-level ozone.
 Compromised human health and comfort: Warmer days and nights, along with higher air
pollution levels, can contribute to general discomfort, respiratory difficulties, heat cramps
and exhaustion, non-fatal heat stroke, and heat-related mortality.
 Impaired water quality: Hot pavement and rooftop surfaces transfer their excess heat to
stormwater, which then drains into storm sewers and raises water temperatures as it is
released into streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes. Rapid temperature changes can be stressful
to aquatic ecosystems.
What Can Be Done? Communities can take a number of steps to reduce the heat island
effect, using four main strategies:

increasing tree and vegetative cover;

creating green roofs (also called "rooftop gardens" or "eco-roofs");

installing cool—mainly reflective—roofs; and

using cool pavements.