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CHAPTER 12
The Making of Europe
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CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. The Emergence of Europe in the Early Middle Ages
A. The New Germanic Kingdoms, result of migration of Germanics peoples beginning 200s C.E.
1. Fusion of Romans and Germans, with warrior caste dominating larger population
2. The Kingdom of the Franks was the work of Clovis (c. 482-511)
a. Clovis converted to Catholic Christianity, thus so did the Franks
b. Post-Clovis divided into Neustria, Austrasia, and Burgundy
3. The Society of the Germanic Peoples
a. Family dominated by males was the core
b. German law was personal, e.g. blood feuds
1) Tempered by wergeld payments, depending upon social status
2) Use of the ordeal to determine guilt or innocence
B. The Role of the Christian Church: Christianity the dominant religion by 400
1. The Organization of the Church
a. Church played major role with the decline of the Roman state
b. Urban bishop and diocese under provinces and archbishops
1) Rome, Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch primary
2) Rome claimed primacy because Peter was given the keys to heaven
a) Peter became first bishop of Rome, the papa/pope
2. The Monks and Their Missions
a. Hermit monks replaced by monasteries, notably under Benedictine Rule
b. Benedicts rules were a communal regimen of prayer and manual labor
c. Monasteries to be self-sustaining, under rule of an abbot (or abbesses for nuns)
1) Became centers of learning, monks copies manuscripts
d. Monks spread Christianity to all of Europe
C. Charlemagne and the Carolingians
1. Clovis’ dynasty ended with Pepin, mayor of the palace, assuming the kingship in 751
2. Charles the Great/Charlemagne (768-814)
a. Extended his territories to include most of Western and Central Europe
b. Was a patron of learning
c. Sent out missi dominici to keep check on counts/aristocrats
d. Crowned emperor of Rome in 800
D. The World of Lords and Vassals
1. Charlemagne’s empire divided into three parts in 843
a. Nobles gained more power as Charlemagne’s descendents fought each other
2. Invasions of the Ninth and Tenth Centuries by Arabs, Magyars, and Vikings
a. Vikings/Northmen raided/settled in Ireland, northern England, northern France
3. The Development of Fief-Holding result of decline of central governments
a. Feudalism, a relation between lord (gives land) and vassal (promises service)
b. Adoption of the stirrup/larger horses in 700s led to heavily armored cavalry
4. The Practice of Fief-holding
a. Fief: a grant of land by lord to vassal, including legal and political authority
b. Subinfeudation: vassals could allocate part of their fiefs to other vassals
c. Lord and vassal relationship: an honorable relationship between free men
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5.The Manorial System
a. Manor was an agricultural estate operated by a lord and worked by peasants
1) Serfs were unfree peasants, about 60 percent of population by 800s
2) Peasants required to work lord’s demense as well as their own plots
II. Europe in the High Middle Ages
A. Land and People, population doubled to 74 million
1.The New Agriculture
a. Climate improved
b. Expansion of cultivated land by draining land cutting down forests
c. Heavy plow, the carruca
d. Water and windmills
e. Adopt the three-field system
2. Daily Life of the Peasantry, simple with a diet based upon bread
3. The Nobility of the Middle Ages: chief concern of lords and vassals was warfare
a. Upper class women could have influence, e.g. Eleanor of Aquitaine
B. The New World of Trade and Cities
1. The Revival of Trade by 900s, led by Italian and Flanders cities, especially in wool
a. Many fairs, including that at Champagne
b. Money economy emerged and rise of commercial capitalism
2. Trade Outside Europe
a. Mongol Empire allowed trade with China, e.g. the Polos from Venice
b. Crusader states encourage Middle East trade
3. The Growth of Cities by 900s, average about 5,000 (London in 1200 had 30,000)
a. Often begin as fortresses, thus borough, burgh, burg,or bourg
b. Townspeople often buy charters of liberties from local lords, or organize a
commune and seize freedom by force
c. Self-governing, dominated by merchants
d. Average population of 5,000, London in 1200 having 30,000, and Venice and
Florence having 100,000
4. Daily Life in the Medieval City
a. Stone walls, narrow streets, fire a threat, polluted with human and animal
wastes, but public baths
C. Evolution of the European Kingdoms
1. England in the High Middle Ages
a. 1066 and William the Conqueror
b. Henry II (1154-1189) and the common law
c. John, Runnymeade, and Magna Carta, 1215
d. Edward I (1272-1307) and development of Parliament (first in 1295), later
Lords and Commons
2. Growth of the French Kingdom: by 1300 the largest, wealthiest, best governed state
a. Hugh Capet as king with death of last Carolingian in 987
b. Philip II Augustus (1180-1223) drove England out of France, created a
bureaucracy
c. Philip IV the Fair (1285-1314) established Estates-General, 1302
3. The Lands of the Holy Roman Empire
a. Dukes of the Saxons became kings of eastern Frankish kingdom (Germany)
b. Otto I (936-973) crowned emperor of the Romans in 962 (reviving
Charlemagne’s title in 800)
c. Frederick I (1152-1190) and Frederick II (1212-1250) attempted to rule Italy
but failed v. the popes
1) By focusing upon Italy, the German monarchy became weak, subject
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to powerful lords
d. Germany and Italy consisted of many small independent states, the converse of
France and England
4. The Slavic Peoples of Central and Eastern Europe divided into three groups
a. Western Slavs formed Poland and Bohemia/Czechs, converted by German
Catholic missionaries
1) Non-Slavic Hungary also converted by Catholic missionaries
b. Southern and eastern Slavs converted by Byzantine Orthodox missionaries—
Cyril and Methodius
c. Eastern Slavs (Russians and Ukrainians) and encountered Swedish Vikings
(the “Rus) in 700s
5. The Development of Russia
a. Oleg (873-913), a Viking, created principality of Kiev
b. Vikings took Slavic wives and became assimilated
c. Vladimir (980-1015) married Byzantine emperor’s sister and accepted
Christianity in 987
d. Internal rivalry and Asiatic nomad invasion brought down Kiev in 1169
e. Mongols demanded tribute
f. Alexander Nevsky, prince of Novgorod, defeated Germans in 1242, gained title
of grand-prince from the Mongols, and his descendants became princes of
Moscow and eventually rulers of Russia
D. Christianity and Medieval Civilization
1. The Papal Monarchy
a. Ruled Papal States, involved in feudalism
b. Lay Investiture: Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085) v. Henry IV (1056-1106)
c. Concordat of Worms, 1122
2. The Church Supreme: Innocent III (1198-1216), use of interdict to restrict sacraments
3. New Religious Orders and New Spiritual Ideals
a. Cistercians, 1098, strict discipline, Saint Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153)
b. Growth of religious houses for women
c. Franciscans (St. Francis of Assisi, 1182-1226) worked with the poor in society,
not in monasteries
d. Dominicans (Dominic de Guzman, 1170-1221), Inquisition against heresy
E. The Culture of the High Middle Ages
1. The Rise of Universities
a. Begin at Bologna with Irnerius (1088-1125), who taught Roman law
1) Students, many laymen, formed a guild (universitas), charter in 1158
b. Liberal arts: grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy
c. Lecture/read by teachers to students as few books, and subsequent
comprehensive examinations
d. After BA/MA, could study law, medicine, or theology
e. Careers as royal advisors and bureaucrats
2. The Development of Scholasticism: “Theology, the queen of the sciences”
a. To harmonize Christian theology with Aristotle’s rationality
b. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), Summa Theologica, reconcile faith and reason
3. Romanesque Architecture: barrel vaults, massive walls and pillars, dark interiors
4. The Gothic Cathedral: lighter and higher than Romanesque
1. Ribbed vaults and pointed arches and flying buttresses
2. Stained glass windows, light was the symbol of the divine light of God
3. Abbot Suger’s abbey of Saint-Denis near Paris was the first
4. A produce of the entire community
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III. Medieval Europe and the World
A. The First Crusades: Holy wars against Islam
1. Against Seljuk Turks, authorized by Pope Urban II at Council of Clermont in 1095
2. First Crusade captured Jerusalem in 1099, establishing several crusader states
3. Third Crusade (and three kings) the result of recapture of Jerusalem Saladin
B. The Later Crusades
1. Fourth Crusade authorized by Innocent III, captured Constantinople, not Jerusalem
2. Crusades to capture Palestine ended in late 1200s in failure
IV. The Crises of the Late Middle Ages
A. The Black Death, or the bubonic plague, arrived in Europe from Asia in 1347
1. Almost 50 percent of population died, higher in urban areas
2. Processions of flagellants and pogroms against Jews
B. Economic Dislocation and Social Upheaval
1. Trade declined
2. Labor shortage and peasant revolts
C. Political Instability
1. The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453)
a. French cavalry v. English longbow (Crecy, 1346, and Agincourt, 1415)
b. Joan of Arc (1412-1431) inspired the French/Charles VII (the Dauphin)
2. Political Disintegration: breakdown of feudal structure by 1300s, more mercenaries
D. The Decline of the Church in the fourteenth century
1. France’s Philip IV moved papacy to Avignon in 1305 after quarrel with Boniface VIII
2. The Great Schism and Cries for Reform (1377-1417): era of multiple popes
V. Recovery: The Renaissance: rebirth of classical antiquity, an urban movement, began in Italy (1300s)
A. The Intellectual Renaissance
1. Renaissance Humanism: “Men can do all things if they will” (Leon Battista Alberti)
a. Individualism and secularism
b. Petrarch (1304-1374) and classical Latin
c. Leonardo Bruni and Greek language
c. Cicero and civic humanism, or a life in this world
B. The Artistic Renaissance: naturalism and the imitation of nature
1. Florence’s Masaccio (1401-1428) and frescos with naturalistic laws of perspective
2. Brunelleschi (1377-1446) and Florence’s Church of San Lorenzo and human space
3. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) and quest for ideal forms
4. Raphael (1483-1520) and frescos of balance, harmony, and order
5. Michaelangelo (1475-1564) and Neoplatonism (Sistine Chapel ceiling and his David)
C. The State in the Renaissance
1. The Italian States: Milan, Florence, and Venice established strong, centralized states
a. Unable to compete with northern kingdoms; Italy invaded by France in 1494
2. Western Europe
a. France’s Louis XI (1461-1483), use taille (direct tax) to strengthen monarchy
b. England’s War of the Roses, civil conflict, ended by Henry VII (1485-1509)
c. Spain unified by Isabella of Castile (1474-1504) and Ferdinand of Aragon
(1479-1516)
3. Central and Eastern Europe
a. Germany remained divided into many semi-independent states
1) Habsburgs strong in Austria but weak in the Holy Roman Empire
b. Poland weak, where nobles were powerful
c. New Russian state established by Prince Ivan (1462-1505), rid of Mongol yoke
VI. Conclusion
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THOUGHT/DISCUSSION QUESTIONS FOR THE PRIMARY SOURCES
(BOXED DOCUMENTS)
1. “Germanic Customary Law: The Ordeal”—Does this account by Gregory of Tours appear to be an
objective one? What do the claims and views indicate about the relative influence of Germanic and
Christian traditions at the time? What impact would this story have upon sixth century Christians?
(page 326)
2. “The Achievements of Charlemagne”—Considering the activities of the Merovingians before
Charlemagne and others later, does he appear to have been truly great, or merely a fairly competent figure
among mediocre rivals? Or, what was “great” about Charles the Great? Would Charlemagne have been a
role model to the later Middle Ages? Why or why not? (p. 328)
3. “An Italian Banker Discusses Trading Between Europe and China”—From this excerpt, what are the
challenges presented to those who wish to trade with China? What are the possible reasons why Pegolotti
claims that the road to China is safe, both day and night? Is there anything in the account that would
cause surprise in Europeans of that era? If so, what? (p. 334)
4. “A Muslim’s Description of the Rus”—Does Ibn Fadlan’s account seems accurate? Why or why not?
Would a Japanese reader be likely to share Ibn Fadlan’s assessment of the Rus? How might a Mongol
interpret his views? Why, in each case? (p. 338)
5. “A Miracle of Saint Bernard”—What does this story reveal about the Christian beliefs of the High
Middle Ages? How might a Daoist, Buddhist, or Muslim respond to this story? A Roman stoic? A Greek
philosopher such as Plato or Aristotle? (p. 341)
6. “The Siege of Jerusalem: Christian and Muslim Perspectives”—Are the two accounts of the capture of
Jerusalem believable? Why and/or why not? Do the two excerpts differ in any way? If so, where and
why? What does the excerpt reveal about Christendom during the High Middle Ages? (p. 344)
7. “A Medieval Holocaust: The Cremation of the Strasbourg Jews”—Why were the Jews singled out for
persecution? Was the Black Death the reason or an excuse for the greedy actions of the people of
Strasbourg? How do the events depicted in the excerpt compare with recent events such as in Bosnia and
Rwanda? What possible reasons might explain the decision to allow the Jews to return to Strasbourg in
1368? (p. 348)
8. “Boniface VIII’s Defense of Papal Supremacy”—Compare and contrast Boniface VIII with Gregory
VII. How are they similar and how do they differ? Was Boniface “out of touch” with his times? If so,
how and why? Why did Philip’s treatment of Boniface receive such little condemnation? What, if
anything, has changed since the High Middle Ages? (p. 350)
STUDENT RESEARCH AND PROJECT TOPICS
1. Have students reexamine the reasons for the fall of the Western Roman Empire in light of the nature,
strengths and weaknesses of its Western European successor entities.
2. Invite students to examine the personal and political roles of Clovis, Charlemagne, Vladimir and
Alexander Nevsky in the light of their actions and historical significance.
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3. Assign students to examine the changing structure of the Western church between 600 and 1300,
focusing on its organization as an economic, political, intellectual, and spiritual institution, including the
functions of monasticism, and the rationale and resultant operation of the papacy.
4. Have students examine the question of clerical investiture and the broader question of the role of the
clergy in an age when church and state needed their literate expertise to run their bureaucracies. Student
role playing as Henry and Gregory might enhance the impact.
5. Invite students to examine the social structures, both rural and town, of medieval Europe to see how
these social structures of the different strata limited and enhanced the people’s lives.
6. Have students examine the role of military activity, internal and external, on medieval European
society. Ask if they can see major similarities and/or contrasts with medieval Japan.
7. Assign students to examine the conditions and actions of the peasant unrest/rebellions that erupted in
Europe after the Black Death. They might role-play and meet to discuss the issues at hand in an advocacy
proceeding, mock court setting, or debate.
8.Have students examine the attitudinal elements that made the accomplishments of the Italian
Renaissance come about. Was it, as the book implies, of direct importance to only a small, elite part of the
population or was there possibly some “trickle down” to lower social groups.
9. Have students read Machiavelli’s The Prince, and then consider in a discussion or debate whether his
observations about politics and human nature were representative of Renaissance politics as practiced in
Florence and elsewhere, and whether Machiavelli was an astute realist or just a cynic
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