Download Grammar Overview

1

Theories of Language Acquisition and Development:
Innateness Hypothesis: Attributed to Noam Chomsky and Eric Lennenberg
Children acquire language naturally; that is, they are born with the ability to differentiate between phonemes,
acquire words and process grammar (UG). This process, according to Chomsky, must be activated by around
age three or so. If the LAD is not activated around this time period, then the child will have significant language
deficits. The innateness hypothesis suggests that children are “hard-wired” with this ability. Lennenberg also
suggested the Critical Period Hypothesis, which suggests that the LAD ceases functioning around puberty, and
the ability to learn languages easily disappears.
Imitation Hypothesis: suggests that children acquire language through imitation. This theory cannot account
for a child’s ability to acquire language despite a poverty of stimulus or when incomplete sentences are the
norm in the child’s environment. Also cannot account for the forms a child might generate that they haven’t
heard. “Mommy goed to store.”
Reinforcement Hypothesis: suggests children learn language through positive reinforcement. Again, this
theory does not account for the idea that most of the responses a child hears are answers to questions.
Interactionist Hypothesis or Constructivism: Through interaction, observation, and trial and error children
use their innate language abilities to acquire the phonology, syntax, and semantics of their language.
Stages of Language Development:
1. Phonology: 3-12 months approximate. verbal sounds (Provides evidences for UG) babbling 4-6 months,
cooing first vowels sounds, experimenting with sounds.
2.Syntax: 12 months One word utterances (holophrases) Child uses dog for “See the dog.” Holophrastic Stage
3. Two Word Utterances: begins after 18months. Two words that express a complete thought.
4. Telegraphic speech after the two word stage: Resembles telegram, function words are largely missing such as
auxiliaries (helping verbs) articles, pronouns, to be verbs (copula verbs).
Second Language Acquisition: L2 learners go through a similar process when acquiring a second language.
Some key terms and concepts you might want to be familiar with:
L1} Interlanguage Grammar{ L2 This diagram describes the process by which an L2 leaner acquires
language. Interlanguage is the idea that a systematic grammar develops between the acquisition of the first and
second language.
Fossilization: When the interlanguage grammar fossilizes (freezes) at a particular level.
The Affective Filter: embarrassment or other factors inhibits SLA or production
Methods of teaching L2 learners:
Grammar Translation: lists of words, sets of grammatical rules, extensive memorization
Audio- Lingual: structures of the language are presented as sets that move from the simple to the more
complex. Extensive oral drills generally performed in response to audiotape. Berlitz
Communicative Approach: functional approach to language learning. Functions of language emphasized, such
as asking for directions, eating out at a restaurant, etc. .
Overview of Proficiency Levels: http://www.k12.wa.us/MigrantBilingual/ELD.aspx
Journal Article: Critical period effects in second language learning: the influence of maturational state
on the acquisition of English as a second language.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=2920538&dopt=Citatio
n
Stephen Krashen’s Theories of Second Language Acquisition: http://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.html

Processes of Word Formation: Words in English are formed by a variety of processes:
http://www.ling.umd.edu/soltan/LING200/FALL2002/HANDOUTS/Processes%20of%20word%20formation.p
df
http://cla.calpoly.edu/~jrubba/morph/morph.over.html#terms

Language History and Change: West Germanic is the ancestor of modern German, Dutch, Flemish, Frisian,
and English. English is a member of the Proto-Indo European Language family.
2


Stages of Development in English: Old English was spoken from approximately the 7 th century to the 11th
century A.D. . Middle English from 1100-1500 A.D. and Modern English from 1500 A.D. to present.
The English Spelling System: English has about 38 phonemes, but our alphabet only has 26 letters. This
means there is no one to one correspondence, so we have to be inventive.
Historical Changes: In Old English, there was near perfect correspondence between the sound and the spelling;
over time pronunciations changed, yet the older spellings remained. English is considered primarily a
morphophonemic spelling system; in other words, each morpheme has a unique graphemic representation. Ex:
–s ending same, although pronounced differently in caps, cabs
Metathesis: reversal of two adjoining sounds: frist>first
Epenthesis: a sound is added to the middle of a word: aemtig>empty
The Great Vowel Shift occurred near the end of the Middle English period, and marks the shift from Middle
English into Modern English pronunciation. Jakob Grimm (one of the fairytale brothers) provided initial
scholarship on the vowel changes that occurred during this time period.
Read more about it: http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/great_vowel_shift.html
Important to remember:
High long vowel sounds became dipthongs
Non-high long vowel sounds are raised
Short vowels are changed and became more unrounded and centralized

Dialect Areas of the USA: http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/NationalMap/NatMap1.html
The role and nature of dialects: A dialect is a variety of language that varies systematically. This variation may
be based on class, region and in some instances, even gender. Linguists distinguish between levels of dialects:
Acrolect: used in formal situations by educated speakers
Mesolect: intermediate variety less formal, used by a majority of speakers, from all classes
Basilect: low variety, informal, least educated speakers
The difference between a language and a dialect is a matter of power. A language is spoken in a state that has
chosen to give this language power; in other words, a language is a dialect with an army and navy. In the 20’s
Afrikaans went from being considered a dialect of Dutch to an autonomous language.

Semantics: including ambiguity, euphemism, and connotation.
Affective connotations: aspects of meaning having to do with feelings/attitudes.Ex. What’s the difference
between a resistance fighter and terrorist?
Collocative connotations: the aspects of meaning that have to do with linguistic environment where the
expression usually occurs. Ex. Cease and desist, bleeding heart liberal when you utter cease-- evokes the word
desist b/c the two words are used together in a common phrase. Socio-cultural influence.
Social connotations: words, syntactic turns of phrase, intonation and other linguistic features are encoded for
varying levels of formality: Shut the door vs. Please shut the door
Reflected connotations: this is when a word or linguistic expression that is being used activates other irrelevant
meanings. Frequently taboo word or phrases.
Individual or restricted connotations: the associations that occur when you associate a word or group of
words with a family, group, etc.. These connotations are valid only for the people exposed to the environment.
Ex: Erleichda!
Coded connotations: aspects of meaning evoked by cultural or literary codes: pigs evoke dirt, bad manners, lily
evokes purity
None of these categories are clear-cut because connotative meaning is very difficult to pin down. A good way
to think about these categories is to consider connotative meaning as a ring of evocative meaning that surrounds
the denotative core of meaning.
Euphemism Definition: A polite or vague word or phrase used to replace another word or phrase that is
thought of as too direct or rude. (noun)
Also known As: circumlocution, periphrasis
3
Homonyms: words can also have unrelated meanings: Ex.: a bank is a place you cash checks, or a place by the
river that you can sit and fish. The verb to get carries some 25 different meanings. The word comb can be a
noun or a verb.
Homophones: words that sound alike, but carry different meanings. EX: blew, blue
So how do we make sense of sentences? We make sense out of the context that a word is used in; linguists call
this process disambiguation. When I say “Did you get an A on the test?” you know the sentence is asking you if
you earned a good grade. When I say “Did you get the joke?” you understand I’m not serious.
Ambiguity: property of having more than one meaning. Ex. coat: garment, fur, layer of paint.
Disambiguation is the process you use to discard irrelevant meanings to arrive at the true meaning of a
sentence. Once a sentence has one clear meaning, some linguists say we have arrived at the truth value of a
sentence.

Syntax, word order, and sentence structure, traditional grammar, including parts of speech, clauses, and
sentence parts.
There are four main types of sentences: exclamatory, imperative, interrogative, declarative.
All human languages can be grouped together into a small number of classes: syntactic categories.
How do we categorize these categories? Usually by the type of meaning the words express, the type of affixes
they take, or the type of structures in which they can occur. Linguists generally refer to the vital parts of a
sentence as constituents.
Here are some common word-level categories we use.
Lexical categories:
N,V,Adj, Prep, Adv
Non Lexical categories
Determiners (specify or point out) a an the
But within these categories, we can also further categorize:
We can categorize verbs:
Auxiliary verb: mark meaning with tense information. Ex: have taken, was seen. Aux
Modal verbs: mark condition, fact, or possibility. will can may must should could
Linking: usually “to be” verbs; also can be sensory verbs like appears, seems, became.
Transitive: An action verb with a direct object is called a transitive verb. The students studied their
assignment.
Intransitive: A verb without a direct object is called intransitive. The students rested.
These categories can be confusing because the classification depends on the use in the sentence.
Verbs can also be phrasal: verb+particle produces a meaning that can’t be predicted by the individual words.
Ex: look up look out
*particle a word that combines with a verb to create a phrasal verb
Conjunctions work like two part connectors: and or but
Three categories:
Definition: Coordinating conjunctions join together clauses that are equally important: and, or but, so
Definition: Correlative Conjunctions: correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs and also join similar
elements. When joining singular and plural subjects, the subject closest to the verb determines whether the verb
is singular or plural. Correlative conjunctions are always pairs: either/or ; neither/nor; not only/but also;
whether/or. Remember that when either and neither are used without or/ nor they act as adjectives or pronouns.
Definition: Subordinating Conjunctions: demonstrate some type of relationship between two ideas. One of
the clauses must be dependent or subordinate.
Time: when, after, before, since Concession: although, if Reason: because
We also have degree words : Deg. too so very more quite
Some items can belong to more than one category
Comb used as a noun and comb can be used as a verb
Near used as a prep
4
The child stood near the fence.
Near used as a verb
The runner neared the finish line.
Near used as an adjective:
The end is nearer than you think.
So how do we decide?
We decide by meaning:
Nouns name entities.
Adjectives designate the properties and attributes of the actions of entities that are named by nouns.
Adverbs denote properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states described by the verb
Still, this is not always a straightforward relationship:
1.
The word/meaning relationship can be complicated by words that carry similar meanings, but belong to
different categories: Think of like and fond. Their meaning is similar, yet like is a verb and fond is an adjective.
2. Inflection: We look at how affixes are used with words
What is an affix? It’s just a cover term for a prefix or a suffix
Lexical categories and their inflectional affixes
Inflectional Affixes
N, plural -s. possessive s ‘s
V past tense -ed, progressive -ing
Third person singular. -s arrives melts
Adjective, comparative: er, superlative est
In English, not all adjectives can take comparative and superlative affixes: we don’t say someone is intelligenter
or the beautifullest
Some nouns can’t be pluralized: moisture, bravery, knowledge
Collective nouns: A noun that denotes a collection of persons or things regarded as a unit.
3. Distribution: Criterion for determining a word’s category involves the type of elements, especially functional
categories with which they can co-occur: we call that its distribution
Example: nouns typically appear with a determiner: a car, the wheat
Verbs occur with an auxiliary: has gone, will stay
Adjectives occur with a degree word: very rich, too big
There are rules for the way the categories interact or work together
We don’t use verbs with determiners: the destroy
Or a verb with a degree word: very arrive
Or a noun with an auxiliary: will destruction
A brief pause for a few definitions:
Direct Objects: A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb or shows the result of
the action and answers the question "What?" or "Whom?" after an action verb. An action verb with a direct
object is called a transitive verb. Don't confuse direct objects and subject complements. Barb broke my
favorite coffee mug.
Only action verbs can have direct objects. If the verb is linking, then the word that answers the what? or
who? question is a subject complement.
Indirect Objects An indirect object precedes the direct object and tells to whom or for whom the action of
the verb is done and who is receiving the direct object. There must be a direct object to have an indirect object.
Indirect objects are usually found with verbs of giving or communicating like give, bring, tell, show, take, or
offer. An indirect object is always a noun or pronoun that is not part of a prepositional phrase. Ex: Sara gave
me the book.
5
Phrases and Clauses:
What are phrases? Phrases are generally one or more words.
What are clauses? A clause is basically a unit that contains one or more phrases.
Definition:
An independent clause contains a subject and a verb. An independent clause is a complete thought.
Dependent clauses are missing either a subject or a verb. They are incomplete thoughts and must be joined to
an independent clause.
Subject Complement or Subject predicatives: When an adjective functions as a subject complement it
describes the subject. They describe, characterize or specify the subject noun phrase.
A subject complement can either be a predicate noun, which renames the subject, or a predicate adjective which
describes the subject. Linking verbs connect subject complements to the subject.
Ex. The lake was [a tranquil pool.]
Object Complement: An object complement works like a subject complement, but modifies an object, rather a
subject. An object complement characterizes, describes, or specifies the direct object noun phrase and follows
the direct object. Ex: They named their youngest son [Jeffrey O.C.]. [youngest son is the D.O.]
Note: Generally, if you can identify the direct and indirect objects in a sentence, you can then identify verb use, and subject
and object complements.
Infinitive phrases: base form of the verb+to Can function as adverb or adjective or nominally.
Appositive Phrases: often a NP,that renames another structure. Ex: My friend, an experienced auto mechanic,
recently lost his job.
Participial phrases: -ing(present) or –en(past) verb functioning as an adjectival or adverbial phrase
Phrase Structure Rules:
Sentences have a design hierarchy, right? We structure phrases in particular ways to make sense. Our word
order is fixed, so our sentences must occur in this order to be understood. SVO
We break phrases into three parts: a head, a specifier, and a complement.
Definition: The head of the sentence is the nucleus around which the phrase is built
Four word categories can function as the head of a phrase: Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, and Prepositions.
Definition: Specifiers: The type of specifier that we see in a particular phrase depends on the category of
the head. Determiners serve as the specifiers of nouns: the a this those
Adverbs function as the specifiers of verbs: never, perhaps, often, always
and degree words function as the specifiers of adjective or prepositions: very quite more almost
Np: the books
Verb phrase: never overeat
Adjective phrase quite certain
Prepositional Phrase: almost in
Specifier and a head
specifiers make the meaning of the head more precise: the is a determiner that indicates specific books
adverb: never indicates it does not happen while quite and almost indicate the limit to which something happens
Complement phrases: more complex phrases
NP:(Head)The books about the war
VP: Never eat a hamburger
AP:Quite certain about Mary
PP:Almost in the house
Noun Phrases can take various forms, and can be entire sentences. We call these phrases complement clauses
because they complete the main clause. Sometimes they are called nominal clauses because they function as
noun phrases. They can be subjects or objects of sentences, and can be phrases or complete sentences.
The word that introduces the complement phrase and is called a complementizer or complementizing
conjunction. It serves to signal a complement clause follows. CompP
6
The complementizer can be omitted when the complement clause acts as the DO of the main sentence. It is
needed when the complement clause is the subject of the sentence.
Nominal Complement
Follow and complement other noun phrases.
NP—{Art} {Adj}+N {PP} (Comp P)
In addition to its constituents a noun phrase can include a nominal complement clause.
Some adjectives can be complemented by clauses that complete their meaning. An adjectival complement
clause complements an adjective that follows a linking verb. Together, the adjective and complement clause
constitute a phrase which we call an adjectival phrase or Adjp. Linking verbs suggest states of being, not
actions. Ex: smell looked and felt (should be followed by adjectives, not adverbs. When an adjective
functions as a subject complement it describes the subject.)
Adverbial Phrases
Adverbs modify verbs
VP—V (NP) (PP) (ADV)
Most adverbs formed by adding –ly to an adjective
Adverbs that don’t end in ly: well much little once twice
Place adverbs: here there eastward and skyward
Time adverbs: soon, often, yesterday, now and then
Prep Phrase and adverbs seem interchangeable in variety of combos.
Some adverbs and prep phrases are equivalent in meaning enthusiastically and with enthusiasm.
Category: Adverbial phrase or ADVP
Any number of adverbial phrases can occur within a verb phrase
VP V (NP) (AdvP)+
ADVP{ ADV+PP}
Adverbials that follow Linking Verbs
Linking Verbs can be followed by noun phrase The plane is a jet.
Or an adjectival phrase: The plane is new
Adverbial phrases can also follow a linking verb
The plane is here
The plane is on the runway
VP=V(L){Np AdjP AdvP}
Not all adverbial phrases can follow linking verbs but only adverbials of place such as here and “on the runway
“or of time such as “tomorrow”

Knowledge of modern grammatical/linguistic theories, including embedding and kernels: language as
recursive, productive, ambiguous. Visiting relatives can be boring.
Definition: embedding, strings of phrases.
Kernel sentences: Deep structure, Surface Structure, Transformations: Parataxis: parallelism Mary left
and John went to bed. Hypotaxis: subordination Mary believes John is the culprit.
Active vs. Passive (the direct object is shifted to the subject position and be+en is added to the verb)
Active: Barb ate the pizza. Passive: The pizza was eaten by Barb.