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Language Arts Study Guide Prefix A word part that is added to the beginning of a base word that changes the sense or meaning of the root or base word (e.g. re-, dis-, com-) Prefixes and their meanings; pre- (before, in advance) post- (after) mono- (one) poly- (many) uni- (one) bi- (two) tri- (three) quad- (four) co-, com- (together, with) contra-, counter- (against, opposite) sub- (under, below) super-, sur- (over, above, beyond) un- (not, none) dis- (not, none) inter- (between, among) intra- (within, inside) circ-, circum- (round, around) trans- (across, through) mal- (bad or badly, wrong, ill mis- (bad or badly, wrong) re- (again, back) sym-, syn- (together, same) hypo- (under, below, less) hyper- (over, beyond, high) Figurative Language and Literary Devices Figurative language -language that communicates ideas beyond the literal meaning of the words. (ex.) Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Hyperbole Alliteration-repetition of the same consonants in lines of poetry or pose (ex.) rough and ready The repetition of the same or similar sounds (usually consonants) that are close to one another (e.g. the timid, tiny tadpole). Analogy-comparison between two things or ideas Ex. Cat is to kitten: as dog is to_____. Hyperbole- extreme exaggeration Metaphor- comparing two unlike things without using the words “like” or “ as” Onomatopoeia- splash ,buzz, hiss, boom The formation of a word by imitating the natural sound associated with the object or action. For example, the "crack" of the bat, or the "twang" of the guitar strings. Personification-giving human qualities to something not human { Sweet face of the moon} _____________________________________________________________ Suffix A word part that is added to the ending of a root word and establishes the part of speech of that word (e.g. the suffix -ly added to immediate, an adjective, creates the word immediately, an adverb). Pun--A play on words that sound similar or exactly the same. Critics with too much time on their hands use the term from classical rhetoric, paronomasia. Simile- comparing 2 things using "like" or "as" Suffixes and their meanings. -able (able to be) -less (without) -ology (study of) -phobia (fear of) -ian, -or (a person who) -ance, -ence (state or quality of) __________________________________________ Idiom- A phrase or expression that means something different from what the words actually say. An idiom is usually understandable to a particular group of people (e.g. using over his head for doesn’t understand). For example, "Don't let the cat out of the bag" means to not tell something one knows, to keep silent. It’s raining cats and dogs. Root (Root word) A word or word element to which prefixes and suffixes may be added to make other words. For example, to the root graph, the prefix di- and the suffix –ic can be added to create the word digraphic. Image/Imagery- Words and phrases that create vivid sensory experiences for the reader. Most images are visual, but imagery may also appeal to the senses of smell, hearing, taste, or touch. See Style, Sensory detail. Literary Reading Terms Literary Writing- Fictional writing and stories Character- person in story Antagonist- rival of hero( Bad guy) Protagonist- hero or main character (Good Guy) Characterization The method a writer uses to develop characters. There are four basic methods of revealing character: (a) through a character’s physical appearance; (b) through his/her own speech, thoughts, feelings, or actions; (c) through the speech, thoughts, feelings, or actions of other characters; and (d) through direct comments by the narrator about the character. Types of Writing *Prose-fiction or nonfiction writing that contains sentences, paragraphs, and follows grammatical rules of writing. Does not include poetry or drama writing. ___________________________________________ *Dramatic literature- A form of literature that is intended to be performed before an audience. Drama for stage is also called theatre. In a drama, the story is presented through the dialogue and the actions of the characters. (Play) Scenes--a stage setting in a play (ex.) a winter scene Acts--one of the main divisions of a play Cast of Characters--to assign parts to actors Climax-turning point of story Narrator-the person or voice telling the story. Conflict- the argument, struggle, or problem in a story __________________________________________ Foreshadowing-clues or hints of what is to come Mood-the feeling or atmosphere *Poetry- is writing that uses figurative language and literary devices to evoke emotions in the reader. Is written in lines and stanzas, and does not follow the rules of prose, or regular, writing. Plot- pattern of events in a story; There are five basic elements in a plot line: (a) exposition; (b) rising action; (c) climax; (d) falling action; and I resolution or denouement. Meter-(sounds) When a rhythmic pattern of stresses recurs in a poem, it is called meter. Setting-place and time in a story a poem or song, esp. at the end of each stanza Place-location Time-when a story occurs Suspense-anticipation of what is to happen Theme-message or meaning in a story; Sometimes the theme is directly stated in the work, and sometimes it is given indirectly. There may be more than one theme in a given work. Narrator- person telling story First person point of view- Story told from I point of view Third person point of view- Story told from the “He, she or they” point of view Dialogue- conversation between two or more people Refrain--a phrase or verse repeated at regular intervals in Rhythm- the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry. Poets use rhythm to bring out the musical quality of language, to emphasize ideas, to create mood, to unify a work, or to heighten emotional response. Rhyme-last lines in poetry have same sounds Rhyme Scheme- in poetry, the pattern in which rhyme sounds occur in a stanza. Rhyme schemes, for the purpose of analysis, are usually presented by the assignment of the same letter of the alphabet to each similar sound in the stanza. The pattern of a Spenserian stanza is ababbcbcc. Stanza- a recurring grouping of two or more verse lines in terms of length, metrical form, and, often, rhyme scheme. Informational Reading Terms Informational Writing- Nonfiction or factual writing. Nonfiction-writing about real people, places, and events. Text features Various ways of manipulating and placing text to draw attention to or emphasize certain points or ideas in narrative (e.g. bolding or boxing questions, italicizing key vocabulary, listing, bulleting, numbering). Graphic Aid —visual representations that support understanding of text (e.g. webs, t-charts, Venn diagrams, K-W-L charts). Diagrams—a drawing, sketch, plan, or chart that makes something clearer or easier to understand Caption—the explanation or description accompanying a pictorial illustration (as a cartoon or photograph) Text structure-The organizational pattern an author uses to structure the ideas in a text (e.g. cause/effect, compare/contrast, description, problem/solution, sequential, goal/action/outcome, concept/definition, proposition/support). Compare & Contrast--to describe as similar or different Sequence of events- what order things happened in Chronological order- in order from first event to the last event Spatial order-observing by bottom. left to the right, inside to outside, East to West, near to far. The way things appear in the space around them Cause- the event or reason {Because of rain (cause), the grass grew (effect)} Effect- the result (ex.) The speeding car(cause) crashed (effect). Fact-can be proven by observation, statistics, or research (ex.) The car is red. Opinion- What you think feel or believe (ex.) Everyone loves vanilla ice cream. Parts of a Book Appendix- The extra stuff in the back of the book Bibliography- sources where the information was gathered Glossary- Definitions of words in book Index-topics, heading, subheadings, people, places, events & the page they are on; it is usually found in the back of a book. Preface-introduction; the introductory remarks of a speaker or author Table of Contents-Chapter titles and page numbers Title page-has title of book, author, copyright, and publishing company ___________________________________________ Reading Terms Antonyms—A word which is the opposite of another word. Large is the antonym of small. Classification-arrangement into groups by some criteria. Context clues --the surrounding words that clarify the meaning of a story Propaganda- information which tries to falsely persuade you or influence you Valid argument-good logic, solid evidence Secondary source- a quote or reference that is quoting or interpreting information from the original creator of the idea. Synonym-a word that has a meaning identical with, or very similar to, another word in the same language (e.g. in some situations, right is a synonym of correct). Dictionary--a reference source in print or electronic form giving information about the meanings, forms, pronunciations, uses, and origins of words listed in alphabetical order Euphemisms-Mild words{ passed away instead of died} Thesaurus--a book of words and their synonyms and antonyms Reading Terms Continued Types of Genre Homograph One of two or more words spelled alike but different in meaning and derivation or pronunciation (e.g. the noun conduct and the verb conduct). Example: “the bow of a ship” and “a hair bow” Genre-a category of literature. The main literary genres are fiction, nonfiction, poetry, mystery, fantasy, and drama. Fiction-a story that is not true Homonym One of two or more words spelled and pronounced alike but different in meaning (e.g. the noun quail and the verb quail). Night/knight, cents/sense Nonfiction-true story Homophone two or more words pronounced alike but different in meaning or spelling (e.g. the words to, too, and two). Example: pause and paws, ate and eight Autobiography-story of a person's life by that person Implied information Content or meaning that is suggested by text or verbal exchange, but is not specifically provided. Inferences- the forming of a conclusion from premises rather than explicit information provided in a passage. Main idea-in informational or expository writing, the most important thought or overall position. The main idea or thesis of a piece, written in sentence form, is supported by details and explanation. The point the author is making about a topic. Topic and main idea are not the same. Biography-written story of a person's life by someone else Fantasy- bizarre characters in an exaggerated world Science Fiction-the future, in other worlds, or different dimensions of time & space Mystery-terror plays a controlling point Romance-passionate love, heroic events, and extravagant places Fable- gives a moral story; A short, simple story that teaches a lesson. A fable usually includes animals that talk and act like people. Tall tale- A distinctively American type of humorous story characterized by exaggeration;Paul Bunyan or Davy Crockett Poem-Concentrated words expressing strong feeling Folk tale- simple story set in the past Multiple meaning—words that have more than one meaning. (ex.) blue—color, or a sad feeling Primary source The original person or text from which an idea, concept, or research came. _________________________________________ Writing Terms Topic sentence--a sentence that states the main thought of a paragraph Concluding sentence- a sentence that restates the topic sentence and sums up the story. Myth- supernatural characters and events used to explain religious beliefs; a traditional story passed down through generations that explains why the world is the way it is. Legend-story associated with some people in history Epic- long poem Novel- long fictional story, has chapters Short story-just what it says Language Arts (Grammar) Study Guide Kinds of Sentences Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences Declarative sentence—makes a statement; tells something and ends with a period (.) Imperative sentence—gives a command; tells someone to do something and ends with a period (.) Interrogative sentence—ask a question and ends with a question mark (?) Exclamatory sentence—shows strong feeling and ends with an exclamation point (!) Simple sentence—is one independent clause that has one subject and one predicate. (ex.) Many officials marched in the Fourth of July parade. Clause-a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. (ex.) We ate dinner at a restaurant. Run-on sentence—two or more sentences that run together incorrectly. (ex.) Electricians often wear rubber gloves electricity cannot go through rubber. Complex sentence—consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. (ex.) After I finish my essay (dependent clause), we can take a walk (independent clause). ____________________________________________ Fragment—a group of words that does not express a complete thought. (ex.) Ran onto the field by first base 1. Use a comma to separate the elements in a series Example: I like apple, oranges, and bananas. Compound sentence—consists of two or more independent clauses separated either by a comma and a conjunction or by a semicolon. (ex.) I like to fly, but the rest of my family would rather drive. Comma Rules Subject and Predicate Subject—tells whom or what the sentence is about. (ex.) The large jet carries many people. Predicate—the part of a sentence that tells what the subject does or is. (ex.) The large jet carries many people. Simple subject—the main noun or pronoun of a sentence. (ex.) Mary met at the campsite. Compound subject—has two separate but equal nouns or pronouns joined with either the word and or the word or. (ex.) I hope either Juan or Thomas receives the award. Simple Predicate—is the main verb or verb phrase in a sentence. (ex.) The tallest boys stood at the end of the line. Compound Predicate—has two separate but equal verbs that have the same subject. (ex.) At the end of the contest, the prize winners will be interviewed and photographed. 2. Use commas to join two sentences. Use a comma + a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so) to connect two independent clauses. Example: He hit the ball well, but he ran toward third base. 3. Use a comma to set off introductory elements, transitions, and interjections at the beginning of the sentence. Example: Running toward third base, he suddenly realized how stupid he looked. Example: Wow, we won the game. Example: Later, we will go to the store. 4. Use a comma to set off extra information in a sentence. Example: My son, Austin, is a football player. 5. Use a comma to separate more than one adjective before the noun. Example: The small, soft cat is adorable. 6. Use a comma to set off a quotation or said the quotation Example: Sally said, “can I have a piece of cake?” Example: “Can I have a piece of cake,” Sally said quietly. 7. A comma (,) separates words like yes, and no, from the rest of a sentence. Example: Yes, he planned to go on the trip. Parts of Speech Adjectives—a word that describes a noun. It can tell what kind, how many, or which one. (ex.) We have six apples. (how many) (ex.) He wore a fancy shirt. (what kind) (ex.) That girl lives here. (which one) Adverbs---a word that describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb by telling how, when where, or to what degree. (ex.) How When Where Easily, safely, Always, soon, Ahead, here, slowly, quietly, first, then, around, nearby, together, fast, later, today, away, out, far, secretly next, tomorrow upstairs To what degree—She sings very well. Noun—names a person, place, thing, or idea. (ex.) boy, Six Flags, boat Common noun—names any person, place, thing, or idea and begins with a lowercase letter. (ex.)toy Proper noun—is the name of a particular person, place, thing, or idea and begins with a capital letter. (ex.) Dr. Johnson, Fourth of July Pronoun—a word or group of words used in place of a noun. (ex.) I, you, he she, it, we, they, me us, them my, mine, ours, that, who, anyone, no one, myself Preposition—a word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words. (ex.) about, above, across, at, alongside, besides, beneath, for, from, in, into, onto, outside, according to, as for (ex.) Jim went to the store. Prepositional phrase-- begins with a preposition and ends with a noun. (ex.) Above the clouds, it was clear. Conjunction—joins words or phrases together. (ex.) Mary and Stan can swim. (ex.) The baby crawls, but doesn’t walk. Interjection—shows surprise or expresses strong feeling. (ex.) Oh! That is wonderful news! or Wow, we won the game! Verbs Verb—a word that shows action or a state of being. (ex.) The fire burns brightly. It lasts for hours. Helping verb—they help other verbs to show past time. Use the verb has or have. (ex.)Mary has played the game. The boys have helped her. Linking verbs—does not show action; it connects the subject of the sentence to a related noun, pronoun, or adjective in the predicate. (ex.) am, are, be been being, was, were (ex.) Helen and Tom were the candidates for treasurer. Verbs in present time—tell what is happening now. (ex.) Rob tosses a ball. Verbs in past time-- show that an action has already happened. It usually ends in –ed. (ex.) We cooked our dinner over a campfire. Verbs in future time—show action that will take place at a future time. It usually is formed by adding will or shall. (ex.) I will see you tomorrow afternoon. (ex.) Next spring I will plant flowers in the garden. Irregular verbs—they do not follow any verb tense pattern. (ex.) Present Past Past with has, have, or had in front Be Was. Were (has)been Begin Began (have) begun Break Broke Broken Swim Swam Swum Write Wrote written Past Perfect Verb tense- uses “had” and past tense of verb. Ex: He had jumped off of it before. Present Perfect Verb tense- uses “has or have” and past tense of verb. Ex: We has jumped off of it every day. Future Perfect Verb tense- uses “will have” and the past tense of the verb. Ex: He will have jumped off ten times by Monday. Double negative - do not use two negative words together in a sentence. (ex.) Never put none of these paints on the table. (incorrect) (ex.) Never put any of these paints on the table. (correct)