Download 2_Neuro-Bio_Review

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Ch. 2 St. Guide Neuro Bio
Neurobiology
The Neuron
What is a Neuron? A neuron is a nerve cell. The brain is made up of about 100 billion neurons.
Soma (cell body): Contains nucleus and support systems
Dendrites: Tree-like branches that receive information from other neurons
Axon: Long fiber that passes info to other neurons
Myelin: Fatty substance on some axons--speeds up neural transmissions
Terminal Branches of Axon: Form junctions with other cells and contain synaptic vesicles
Synaptic vesicles: sac-like structures that contain neurotransmitters
Synapse: The tiny gap between the sending and receiving neurons
Neural Networks: Clusters of neurons that work together and become strengthened with use.
Neurons are similar to other cells in the body in some ways such as:
1. Neurons are surrounded by a membrane.
2. Neurons have a nucleus that contains genes.
3. Neurons contain cytoplasm, mitochondria and other "organelles".
However, neurons differ from other cells in the body in some ways such as:
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1. Neurons have specialized projections called dendrites and axons. Dendrites bring information to
the cell body and axons take information away from the cell body.
2. Neurons communicate with each other through an electrochemical process.
3. Neurons form specialized connections called "synapses" and produce special chemicals called
"neurotransmitters" that are released at the synapse.
It has been estimated that there are 1 quadrillion synapses in the human brain. That's 1015 or
1,000,000,000,000,000 synapses! This is equal to about a half-billion synapses per cubic millimeter.
(Statistic from Changeux, J-P. and Ricoeur, P., What Makes Us Think?, Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 2000, p. 78)
Neural Communication: Neurons communicate via an electrochemical process
Electrical Process
Resting Potential: Neuron is at rest and is said to be Polarized (-70 milivolts). The inside of the cell is
more negative than the surrounding fluid.
Action Potential: When stimulated at or above threshold, the cell becomes depolarized (+50 milivolts)as
positively charged sodium ions rush into the cell. The neuron has now "fired". It is an all-or-nothing
response. The cell then returns to its polarized state.
Refractory Period: For 1/1000 of a second after firing, the cell cannot fire again. This is Somewhat like
a camera flash recharging itself.
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Chemical Process
1. When the action potential reaches the terminal buttons on the ends of the terminal branches, it causes
the synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitters into the synapse.
2. The neurotransmitters then bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron (like a key fitting into a lock).
Some neurotransmitters are excitatory (create a new action potential) while others are inhibitory.
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3. After neurotransmitters have done their job, they may be destroyed by other chemicals released into the
synapse. Or, reuptake may occur.
Reuptake: Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron and recycled for future use.
Reputake of Neurotransmitters – re-absorption of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft is disallowed,
allowing them to go to other areas of need.
Blocking Neurotransmitter receptors – This is used when amounts of neurotransmitters needs to be
lowered.
Mimicking Neurotransmitters – Chemicals within the drugs are so similar to neurotransmitters, they are
allowed into receptor areas in the postsynaptic neuron.
How Do Drugs Work?
For a drug to affect our behavior, it has to get into our bloodstream through ingestion (eating or drinking the substance);
inhalation (heating or burning the substance and breathing the fumes); absorption through the mucous membranes of
the mouth or nose; or injection with a hypodermic needle.
Once in our bloodstream, psychoactive drugs influence our behavior by altering the functioning of the central nervous
system (CNS). Then, over a period of hours, the influence of the drug gradually wears off as the liver produces enzymes
that metabolize the drug.
Drugs and Neurotransmitters
Psychoactive drugs may be categorized according to their
effects on the central nervous system. In this module we’ll
consider two major groups: stimulants, which enhance the
activity of the CNS, and depressants, which slow down or
impair the activity of the CNS. We’ll also briefly discuss
marijuana, which represents a third class of drugs:
hallucinogens.
Although psychoactive drugs influence the central nervous
system in a variety of ways, in this module we’ll focus on the
most important mechanism, namely the way that drugs
alter the action of certain neurotransmitters at the synapses
(spaces or junctions) between neurons. We’ll present a
simplified version of the story, focusing especially on the
neurotransmitter called dopamine.
Understanding how drugs affect the action of dopamine is
one of the keys to understanding drug addiction. It should
also facilitate your understanding of how drugs affect other neurotransmitters. You’ll learn more about how these drugs
work later in this module.
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Drugs that mimic or facilitate the action of a particular neurotransmitter are called agonists.
Drugs that oppose or block the action of a particular neurotransmitter are called antagonists.
Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (Ach): Muscle movement, learning, and memory. An undersupply is involved in
Alzheimer's disease.
Dopamine: Involved in learning, attention, and emotion. An Excess dopamine is involved in
schizophrenia.
Serotonin: Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. An undersupply is linked to depression.
Norepinephrine: Helps control alertness and arousal. An undersupply can lead to depression. An
oversupply can lead to manic symptoms.
GABA (gamma-aminobutytic acid): Major inhibitory neurotransmitter. An undersupply can lead to
tremors, seizures, and insomnia.
Glutamate: Major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory. Oversupply can overstimulate the
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brain leading to migraines (this is why some people avoid MSG in food).
Endorphins: natural opiate-like neurotransmitter linked to pain control and pleasure.
Drugs and Neurotransmitters
Agonists: Drugs that are so similar to a neurotransmitter that they can mimic its effects-or-they may block
reuptake of a neurotransmitter.
Antagonists: Drugs that inhibit a neurotransmitters release-or-they may occupy the receptor site on the
receiving neuron, thus blocking the neurotransmitter form binding.
How do drugs affect each of the above neurotransmitters?
Examples: Drug Effects
Alcohol – depressant; stimulates GABA receptors, leading to a reduction of anxiety and a loss of
inhibitions.
Marijuana – There is a specific receptor for THC (tetra-hydro-cannabinol) throughout the brain, including
the hippocampus, cerebellum and limbic system.
Hallucinogens – Increase the amount of dopamine in the auditory and visual cortex areas and inhibits flow
to the prefrontal cortex with mescaline. With LSD (acid) and Psilocybin ('shrooms), seratonin receptors
are blocked.
LSD
Psilocybin
Mescaline
Ecstasy
Stimulants – Increase the production of dopamine as well as blocking its reuptake, sending it to other
magical areas affecting sensation, mood, and motor skills.
Amphetamines
Cocaine
Caffeine
Nicotine
Opiates – mimick the function of naturally produced endorphins in the body. It has its own receptors
within the brain, and continual use can lead to a decrease in naturally produced endorphins, leading to
severe withdrawal and addictions. It also causes constipation.
Opium
Morphine
Heroin
Abnormal Psychological Issues … how neurotransmitters are affected (SEE ABOVE IN THE
CHART)
Schizophrenia – ???
Anxiety disorders –???
Mood disorders (depression and bipolar) – ???
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The Nervous System
I. Central Nervous System
a) Brain
b) Spinal Cord
II. Peripheral Nervous System
a) Somatic (skeletal) nervous system:
Voluntary behaviors
b) Autonomic: Self-regulation of internal
organs and glands.
1. sympathetic NS: arousing
Pupils dilate, HR, BP, respiration increase,
and digestive processes slow down.
Fight or flight response.
Sympathetic Nervous System – Increase in physiological reactions, usually part of fight-or-flight
responses.
2. parasympathetic NS: calming-opposite
of sympathetic nervous system response. Parasympathetic Nervous System – Brings it all back
down.
Three types of Neurons
1. Sensory (afferent) neurons of the peripheral NS take incoming sensory information to the spinal cord
and brain / Afferent neurons – Send information from the body to the brain.
2. Motor (efferent) neurons take information from the spinal cord out to muscles and glands. Efferent
neurons – Send information from the body to the brain.
3. Interneurons are neurons in the central NS (brain & spinal cord). They communicate with each other
and connect the sensory and motor neurons.
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The Simple Reflex
A simple reflex involves afferent (sensory) neurons
carrying sensory information to the spinal cord.
Interneurons connect the afferent neurons to the efferent
(motor) neurons. A reflex does not involve the brain.
Studying the Brain-Phineas Gage
Lesions: Destruction of brain tissue
EEG (electroencephalogram): amplified recordings of brain wave activity.
CT (computerized tomography) scan: X-ray photos of slices of the brain.
CT (or CAT) scans show structures within the brain but not functions of the brain.
PET (positron emission tomography): visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive
form of glucose is being used while the brain performs certain tasks.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to see structures
within the brain.
fMRI (functional MRI): allows us to see where oxygen is being used in the brain while various tasks are
being performed.
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Structure and Function of the Brain
Brainstem: Oldest area of the brain. Also called the reptilian brain.
1. Medulla: the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
2. Reticular Formation: A neural network within the brainstem; important in arousal including sleep.
Thalamus: Sits on top of the brainstem; received all incoming sensory information (except smell) and
sends it to the appropriate part of the brain for further processing.
Cerebellum: The "little brain" attached to the back of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary
movement and balance.
The Limbic System: A doughnut-shaped structure between the brainstem and the cerebral hemispheres.
It is considered the "seat of emotion" and is also involved in motivated behavior like eating, drinking, and
sex.
1. Amygdala: Involved in rage and fear as well as emotional
memories.
2. Hippocampus: Involved in memory
3: Hypothalamus: Involved in eating, drinking, and sexual
behavior. It also controls the endocrine (hormonal system)
via the pituitary gland. It is sometimes referred to as "the
pleasure center" of the brain.
Cerebral Cortex: The intricate fabric of interconnected
neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres. The
ultimate information-processing center of the brain.
Lobes of the Brain
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Frontal Lobes: Contain the motor cortex which
control voluntary movement. In the LEFT frontal
lobe is Broca's Area which controls our ability to
speak.
Parietal Lobes: Contain the somatosensory cortex
which registers bodily sensations (touch).
Temporal Lobes: Contain the primary auditory
cortex (audition) and areas for the senses of smell
(olfaction) and taste (gustatory sense).
The LEFT temporal lobe contains Wernicke's Area
which control language comprehension and
expression.
Occipital Lobes: Contains the Primary Visual
Cortex.
Association Areas: Areas of the cortex not
involved in sensory or motor functions. They are involved in higher mental functions such as
learning, remembering, thinking, planning, and language. About 75-80% of the brain is composed
of association areas.
Hemispheres of the Brain
Virtually all activities require BOTH hemispheres.
However, the Left Hemisphere receives sensory information from
the right side of the body and controls movement of the right side
of the body. It is also involved in language, science, math, etc.
The Right Hemisphere receives sensory information from the left
side of the body and control movement of the right side of the
body. It is involved in music, artistic ability, and spatial skills.
Split Brain Research: Review information in your text and check
it out:
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:
Hypothalamus: Controls pituitary gland
Pituitary: Secretes growth hormone and many
other hormones that affect other glands.
Thyroid: Affects metabolism
Parathyroids: Regulate calcium levels in the
blood
Adrenal Glands: Secrete the hormones
epinephrine and norepinephrine which trigger the
"fight or flight" response.
Pancreas: Regulates glucose levels in the blood
through the release of insulin.
Ovaries and Testes: Secrete female and male
sex hormones.
Endocrine system – system of all the glands and
their chemical messages taken together
Hormones – chemical regulators that control
bodily processes such as emotional responses,
growth, and sexuality
Pituitary gland – the master gland of the body
that activates other glands and controls the
growth hormone
Growth hormone – hormone that regulates the
growth process
Thyroid gland – controls and regulates the speed
of bodily processes called metabolism
Metabolism – the speed at which the body operates of the speed at which it uses up energy
Adrenal glands – glands that release the hormone that causes excitement in order to prepare the body for
an emergency
Adrenaline – chemical that prepares the body for emergency activity by increasing blood pressure,
breathing rate, and energy level
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Reviewing the Biological Processes of the Brain
Big Picture
CNS
PNS
Somatic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous
System
Sympathetic Nervous
System
Parasympathetic Nervous
System
Function
Central Nervous System – brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System – any neurons that extend past CNS
The muscles and functions you can control
Regulates glands, blood vessels and flow, internal organs
Breaking it down
Medulla
BRAIN FUNCTIONS
Regulates breathing and heart rate – hanging a person works b/c (if
done correctly) it breaks this in half
Involved in sleeping, waking and dreaming
The “lesser brain” coordinates balance and coordination
Relays all sensory information to specific perception areas of the
brain, with the exception of smell
Part of the “old brain” – it controls survival elements such as hunger,
thirst, emotion, sex drive and reproduction. Works in conjunction with
the pituitary gland.
Secretes hormones as “directed” by the hypothalamus to regulate the
body during a “primal” function
Instantaneously evaluates sensory information from the thalamus and
determines its emotional importance – helps to decide if something
needs to be addressed immediately; the “fight or flight” brain section
(PART OF THE LIMBIC SYSTEM)
The gateway to all memory functions; also works with the reticular
activating system to relate sensory input to what the brain already
“knows” about it (PART OF THE LIMBIC SYSTEM)
Pons
Cerebellum
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
Amygdala
Hippocampus
THE LOBES
Occipital lobe
Parietal lobe
Temporal lobe
Frontal lobe
Corpus Callosum
Left side of brain
Right side of brain
Roger Sperry
Prepares the body for stress; builds energy/adrenaline
Helps to bring the body back to a normal state
Lower back of the brain; contains the visual cortex
Top of the brain; contains the somatosensory cortex, which receives
all info about pressure, pain, heat, etc., from the body.
Sides of the brain; involved in memory storage, perception and
emotion; contains the auditory cortex as well as Wernicke’s area,
which processes language comprehension.
Front of the brain (duh) and contains the motor cortex, which controls
over 600 muscles all over the body. Also contains Broca’s area, which
allows us to know how to speak. It also helps us think creatively and
think rationally; dopamine that is supposed to reach this lobe is shut
off during schizophrenia, making it impossible for the victim to tell
what is real and what is hallucinatory.
Serves as the network between the left/right sides of the brain.
Rational and analytical thought
Intuitive, creative, holistic thought
Most well known split-brain psychologist; worked with cats and
severed their corpus callosum to see what would happen
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NEURONS
Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
Mylein sheath
Synaptic cleft
Plasticity
Action potential
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Information receptors
Determines how/when a neuron is supposed to fire and emit a signal
The “tail” of the neuron; sends info away from the cell body
Made up of several glial cells, insulates the axon to make sure no
random signals get in and no signals slip out
The areas between the synaptic end bulbs and dendrites of another
neuron where neurotransmitters are released and taken.
The brain’s ability to recover from brain/nerve damage by possibly
creating new pathways for previous messages
This allows messages to flow from neuron to neuron as an electrical
charge is created when positively charged sodium ions flow into a
neuron and flows out as positively charged potassium charges.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Serotonin
Affects appetite, perception, temperature regulation, pain suppression
and mood – the neurotransmitter that is inhibited during
DEPRESSION; increased by stimulants.
Dopamine
Affects voluntary movement, learning, memory, emotion – the
neurotransmitter that is overactive during SCHIZOPHRENIA; can be
replicated by certain psychoactive drugs like THC (marijuana); also in
low amounts for Parkinson’s victims
Acetycholine
Affects cognitition, muscle movement, memory and emotion
GABA
An inhibitor; it is unable to reuptake into neurons when depressants
such as alcohol are present in the blood system
Norepinephrine
Increases heart rate, involved in dreaming, sleeping and emotion
Epinephrine
Secreted by the endocrine system; basically, it is adrenaline
SEEING THE BRAIN
CAT
Computerized Axial Tomography – a cross-section shot
MRI
PET
Magnetic Resonance Imaging – picks up iron in the blood to show
what parts of the brain are active
Positron Emission Tomography – radioactive glucose injections show
up in specific parts of the brain during activity or during abnormal
behavior
Conditions we’ve discussed are marked with an **(the rest you must “get” by the end of this course)
… a potential essay question may ask you to take one of these and analyze their cause from
different perspectives (biological, cognitive, etc.)
Autism
** Alzheimer’s
Anorexia
Anxiety
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Aphasia
Bipolar Depression
Bulimia
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** Depression
Dissociative disorders (amnesia, multiple personality, fugue)
Down syndrome
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Gender Identity Disorder
Phobias
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Seasonal Affective Disorder
** Schizophrenia (esp. catatonic and paranoid)
Somatoform disorders
RETICULAR FORMATION (ACTIVATION) -- Deals with arousing the forebrain (deals with
reasoning, sleeping, emotions)
The info in this chart is important for you to read over…….it is valuable but you DO NOT need
to commit it to memory!! BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR THE HUMAN BRAIN
The influence of biology (sometimes called the neuroscience or biopsychological perspective) is
growing. Some researchers predict that someday psychology will be a specialty within the field
of biology.
The human brain consists of three major divisions; hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain
Major Division
Subdivision
Structures
Neocortex; Basal Ganglia; Amygdala; Hippocampus;
Telencephalon
Lateral Ventricles
Prosencephalon
(Forebrain)
Thalamus; Hypothalamus; Epithalamus; Third
Diencephalon
Ventricle
Mesencephalon
Mesencephalon
Tectum; Tegmentum; Cerebral Aqueduct
(Midbrain)
Cerebellum; Pons; Fourth Ventricle
Rhombencephalon Metencephalon
(Hindbrain)
Myelencephalon
Medulla Oblongata; Fourth Ventricle
Brain Structure
1. Hindbrain- structures in the top part of the spinal cord, controls basic biological
functions that keep us alive.
a. Medulla- controls blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing
b. Pons- connects the hindbrain with the mid and forebrain, also involved in the control of
facial expressions
c. Cerebellum- portion of the lower brain that coordinates and organizes bodily
movements for balance and accuracy.
2 Midbrain-between the hind and forebrain, coordinates simple movements with sensory
information.
3 Forebrain- controls what we think of as thought and reason.
a. Thalamus- portion of the lower brain that functions primarily as a central relay station
for incoming and outgoing messages from the body to the brain and the brain to the
body
b. Hypothalamus- portion of the lower brain that regulates basic needs (hunger, thirst)
and emotions such as pleasure, fear, rage, and sexuality
c. Amygdala and Hippocampus- two arms surrounding the thalamus, important in how
we process and perceive memory and emotion
NOTE: The three parts above are grouped together and called the limbic system because they all
deal with aspects of emotion and memory.
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Comparative Brain sizes:
How big is the brain? How much does the brain weigh?
The adult human brain weighs between 1300 g and 1400 g (about 3 lbs).
A newborn human brain weighs between 350 and 400 g.
For comparison:
elephant brain = 6,000 g
chimpanzee brain = 420 g
rhesus monkey brain = 95 g
beagle dog brain = 72 g
cat brain = 30 g
rat brain = 2 g
Ways of studying the brain: Accidents, Lesions, Electroencephalogram, Computerized axial
tomography, Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Positron emission tomography, Functional MRI,
Neuroanatomy
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Chapter 2 Study Guide and Answers
SG 2
___ 1. Which of the following was a major problem with phrenology?
A) It was “ahead of its time” and no one believed it could be true.
B) The brain is not neatly organized into structures that correspond to our categories of behavior.
C) The brains of humans and animals are much less similar than the theory implied.
D) All of the above were problems with phrenology.
___ 2. A biological psychologist would be more likely to study:
A) how you learn to express emotions.
B) how to help people overcome emotional disorders.
C) life-span changes in the expression of emotion.
D) the chemical changes that accompany emotions.
___ 3. Dr. Hernandez is studying neurotransmitter abnormalities in depressed patients. She would most likely describe herself as
a:
A) personality psychologist. B) phrenologist. C) psychoanalyst. D) biological psychologist.
___ 4. The axons of certain neurons are covered by a layer of fatty tissue that helps speed neural transmission. This tissue is:
A) the glia. B) the myelin sheath. C) acetylcholine. D) an endorphin.
___ 5. The myelin sheath that is on some neurons:
A) increases the speed of neural transmission.
B) slows neural transmission.
C) regulates the release of neurotransmitters.
D) does a. and c.
___ 6. During an action potential, the electrical state of the axon becomes:
A) polarized, as positively charged atoms are admitted.
B) polarized, as negatively charged atoms are admitted.
C) depolarized, as positively charged atoms are admitted.
D) depolarized, as negatively charged atoms are admitted.
___ 7. In a resting state, the axon is:
A) depolarized, with mostly negatively charged ions outside and positively charged ions inside.
B) depolarized, with mostly positively charged ions outside and negatively charged ions inside.
C) polarized, with mostly negatively charged ions outside and positively charged ions inside.
D) polarized, with mostly positively charged ions outside and negatively charged ions inside.
___ 8. Which is the correct sequence in the transmission of a neural impulse?
A)
C)
B)
D)
___ 9. A neuron will generate action potentials more often when it:
A) remains below its threshold.
C) receives more excitatory than inhibitory inputs.
B) receives an excitatory input.
D) is stimulated by a neurotransmitter.
___ 10. A strong stimulus can increase the:
A) speed of the impulse the neuron fires.
B) intensity of the impulse the neuron fires.
C) number of times the neuron fires.
D) threshold that must be reached before the neuron fires.
___ 11. Several shy neurons send an inhibitory message to neighboring neuron Joni. At the same time, a larger group of partygoing neurons send Joni excitatory messages. What will Joni do?
A) fire, assuming that her threshold has been reached
C) enter a refractory period
B) not fire, even if her threshold has been reached
D) become hyperpolarized
___ 12. Since Malcolm has been taking a drug prescribed by his doctor, he no longer enjoys the little pleasures of life, such as
eating and drinking. His doctor explains that this is because the drug:
A) triggers release of dopamine.
C) triggers release of ACh.
B) inhibits release of dopamine.
D) inhibits release of ACh.
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___ 13. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) is most likely to be found:
A) at the junction between sensory neurons and muscle fibers.
B) at the junction between motor neurons and muscle fibers.
C) at junctions between interneurons.
D) in all of the above locations.
___ 14. Melissa has just completed running a marathon. She is so elated that she feels little fatigue or discomfort. Her lack of pain
is probably the result of the release of:
A) ACh. B) endorphins. C) dopamine. D) norepinephrine.
___ 15. The pain of heroin withdrawal may be attributable to the fact that:
A) under the influence of heroin the brain ceases production of endorphins.
B) under the influence of heroin the brain ceases production of all neurotransmitters.
C) during heroin withdrawal the brain's production of all neurotransmitters is greatly increased.
D) heroin destroys endorphin receptors in the brain.
___ 16. The effect of a drug that is an agonist is to:
A) cause the brain to stop producing certain neurotransmitters.
B) mimic a particular neurotransmitter.
C) block a particular neurotransmitter.
D) disrupt a neuron's all-or-none firing pattern.
___ 17. Parkinson's disease involves:
A) the death of nerve cells that produce a vital neurotransmitter.
B) impaired function in the right hemisphere only.
C) impaired function in the left hemisphere only.
D) excess production of the neurotransmitters dopamine and acetylcholine.
___ 18. Heartbeat, digestion, and other self-regulating bodily functions are governed by the:
A) voluntary nervous system.
B) autonomic nervous system.
C) sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
D) somatic nervous system.
___ 19. Voluntary movements, such as writing with a pencil, are directed by the:
A) sympathetic nervous system.
C) parasympathetic nervous system.
B) somatic nervous system.
D) autonomic nervous system.
___ 20. Following Jayshree's near-fatal car accident, her physician noticed that the pupillary reflex of her eyes was abnormal. This
may indicate that Jayshree's ________ was damaged in the accident.
A) occipital cortex B) autonomic nervous system C) left temporal lobe D) cerebellum
___ 21. Your brother has been taking prescription medicine and experiencing a number of unpleasant side effects, including
unusually rapid heartbeat and excessive perspiration. It is likely that the medicine is exaggerating activity in the:
A) reticular formation. B) sympathetic nervous system. C) parasympathetic nervous system. D) amygdala.
___ 22. When Sandy scalded her toe in a tub of hot water, the pain message was carried to her spinal cord by the ________
nervous system.
A) somatic B) sympathetic C) parasympathetic D) central
___ 23. Which is the correct sequence in the transmission of a simple reflex?
A) sensory neuron
C)
B)
D)
___ 24. Which of the following are/is governed by the simplest neural pathways?
A) emotions B) physiological drives, such as hunger C) reflexes D) movements, such as walking
___ 25. You are able to pull your hand quickly away from hot water before pain is felt because:
A) movement of the hand is a reflex that involves intervention of the spinal cord only.
B) movement of the hand does not require intervention by the central nervous system.
C) the brain reacts quickly to prevent severe injury.
D) the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system intervenes to speed contraction of the muscles of the hand.
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___ 26. In the brain, learning occurs as experience strengthens certain connections in cell work groups called:
A) action potentials. B) neural networks. C) endocrine systems. D) dendrites.
___ 27. Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands are called:
A) agonists. B) neurotransmitters. C) hormones. D) enzymes.
___ 28. I am a relatively slow-acting (but long-lasting) chemical messenger carried throughout the body by the bloodstream. What
am I?
A) a hormone B) a neurotransmitter C) acetylcholine D) dopamine
___ 29. The gland that regulates body growth is the:
A) adrenal. B) thyroid. C) hypothalamus.
D) pituitary.
___ 30. Epinephrine and norepinephrine are ________ that are released by the ________ gland.
A) neurotransmitters; pituitary B) hormones; pituitary C) neurotransmitters; thyroid
D) hormones; adrenal
___ 31. A bodybuilder friend suddenly seems to have grown several inches in height. You suspect that your friend's growth spurt
has occurred because he has been using drugs that affect the:
A) pituitary gland. B) thalamus. C) adrenal glands. D) medulla.
___ 32. The brain research technique that involves monitoring the brain's usage of glucose is called (in abbreviated form) the:
A) PET scan. B) fMRI. C) EEG. D) MRI.
___ 33. The technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer images of structures within the brain is
called:
A) the EEG. B) a lesion. C) a PET scan. D) MRI.
___ 34. In primitive vertebrate animals, the brain primarily regulates ________; in lower mammals, the brain enables ________.
A) emotion; memory B) memory; emotion C) survival functions; emotion D) reproduction; emotion
___ 35. The part of the human brain that is most like that of a fish is the:
A) cortex. B) limbic system. C) brainstem. D) right hemisphere.
___ 36. Following a head injury, a person has ongoing difficulties staying awake. Most likely, the damage occurred to the:
A) thalamus. B) corpus callosum. C) reticular formation. D) cerebellum.
___ 37. Moruzzi and Magoun caused a cat to lapse into a coma by severing neural connections between the cortex and the:
A) reticular formation. B) hypothalamus. C) thalamus. D) cerebellum.
___ 38. Jessica experienced difficulty keeping her balance after receiving a blow to the back of her head. It is likely that she
injured her:
A) medulla. B) thalamus. C) hypothalamus. D) cerebellum.
___ 39. Dr. Frankenstein made a mistake during neurosurgery on his monster. After the operation, the monster “saw” with his ears
and “heard” with his eyes. It is likely that Dr. Frankenstein “rewired” neural connections in the monster's:
A) hypothalamus. B) cerebellum. C) amygdala. D) thalamus.
___ 40. Though there is no single “control center” for emotions, their regulation is primarily attributed to the brain region known
as the:
A) limbic system. B) reticular formation. C) brainstem. D) cerebellum.
___ 41. A scientist from another planet wishes to study the simplest brain mechanisms underlying emotion and memory. You
recommend that the scientist study the:
A) brainstem of a frog. B) limbic system of a dog. C) cortex of a monkey. D) cortex of a human.
___ 42. If Dr. Rogers wishes to conduct an experiment on the effects of stimulating the reward centers of a rat's brain, he should
insert an electrode into the:
A) thalamus. B) sensory cortex. C) hypothalamus. D) corpus callosum.
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___ 43. Beginning at the front of the brain and moving toward the back of the head, then down the skull and back around to the
front, which of the following is the correct order of the cortical regions?
A) occipital lobe; temporal lobe; parietal lobe; frontal lobe C) frontal lobe; occipital lobe; temporal lobe; parietal lobe
B) temporal lobe; frontal lobe; parietal lobe; occipital lobe D) frontal lobe; parietal lobe; occipital lobe; temporal lobe
___ 44. The visual cortex is located in the:
A) occipital lobe. B) temporal lobe.
C) frontal lobe.
D) parietal lobe.
___ 45. Raccoons have much more precise control of their paws than dogs do. You would expect that raccoons have more cortical
space dedicated to “paw control” in the ________of their brains.
A) frontal lobes B) parietal lobes C) temporal lobes D) occipital lobes
___ 46. Research has found that the amount of representation in the motor cortex reflects the:
A) size of the body parts.
B) degree of precise control required by each of the parts.
C) sensitivity of the body region.
D) area of the occipital lobe being stimulated by the environment.
___ 47. In order to pinpoint the location of a tumor, a neurosurgeon electrically stimulated parts of the patient's sensory cortex. If
the patient was conscious during the procedure, which of the following was probably experienced?
A) “hearing” faint sounds
C) movement of the arms or legs
B) “seeing” random visual patterns
D) a sense of having the skin touched
___ 48. Cortical areas that are not primarily concerned with sensory, motor, or language functions are:
A) called projection areas.
C) located mostly in the parietal lobe.
B) called association areas.
D) located mostly in the temporal lobe.
___ 49. The increasing complexity of animals' behavior was accompanied by a(n):
A) increase in the size of the brainstem.
C) increase in the size of the frontal lobes.
B) decrease in the ratio of brain to body weight.
D) increase in the amount of association area.
___ 50. Following a nail gun wound to his head, Jack became more uninhibited, irritable, dishonest, and profane. It is likely that
his personality change was the result of injury to his:
A) parietal lobe. B) temporal lobe. C) occipital lobe. D) frontal lobe.
___ 51. Damage to ________ will usually cause a person to lose the ability to comprehend language.
A) the angular gyrus B) Broca's area C) Wernicke's area D) frontal lobe association areas
___ 52. Three-year-old Marco suffered damage to the speech area of the brain's left hemisphere when he fell from a swing.
Research suggests that:
A) he will never speak again.
B) his motor abilities may improve so that he can easily use sign language.
C) his right hemisphere may take over much of the language function.
D) his earlier experience with speech may enable him to continue speaking.
___ 53. The nerve fibers that enable communication between the right and left cerebral hemispheres and that have been severed in
split-brain patients form a structure called the:
A) reticular formation. B) association areas. C) corpus callosum. D) parietal lobes.
___ 54. A split-brain patient has a picture of a knife flashed to her left hemisphere and that of a fork to her right hemisphere. She
will be able to:
A) identify the fork using her left hand.
C) identify a knife using either hand.
B) identify a knife using her left hand.
D) identify a fork using either hand.
___ 55. Dr. Johnson briefly flashed a picture of a key in the right visual field of a split-brain patient. The patient could probably:
A) verbally report that a key was seen.
C) draw a picture of a key using the left hand.
B) write the word key using the left hand.
D) do none of the above.
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___ 56. (Thinking Critically) Based on research, which of the following seems true about the specialized functions of the right and
left hemispheres?
A) They are more clear-cut in men than in women.
B) They are more clear-cut in women than in men.
C) Most complex tasks emerge from the activity of one or the other hemisphere.
D) Most complex activities emerge from the integrated activity of both hemispheres.
___ 57. Which of the following is typically controlled by the right hemisphere?
A) language B) learned voluntary movements C) arithmetic reasoning
D) perceptual tasks
___ 58. Anton is applying for a technician's job with a neurosurgeon. In trying to impress his potential employer with his
knowledge of the brain, he says, “After my father's stroke I knew immediately that the blood clot had affected his left
cerebral hemisphere because he no longer recognized a picture of his friend.” Should Anton be hired?
A) Yes. Anton obviously understands brain structure and function.
B) No. The right hemisphere, not the left, specializes in picture recognition.
C) Yes. Although blood clots never form in the left hemisphere, Anton should be rewarded for recognizing the left
hemisphere's role in picture recognition.
D) No. Blood clots never form in the left hemisphere, and the right hemisphere is more involved than the left in
recognizing pictures.
___ 59. Which of the following is typically controlled by the left hemisphere?
A) spatial reasoning B) word recognition C) the left side of the body
D) perceptual skills
___ 60. Which of the following is not true regarding brain organization and handedness?
A) If a person has a left-handed identical twin, odds are that he or she will also be left-handed.
B) Right-handedness is far more common than left-handedness throughout the world.
C) On average, right-handers live longer than left-handers.
D) Left-handers are more common than usual among people with reading disabilities.
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Answer Key
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B
D
D
B
A
C
D
D
C
C
A
B
B
B
A
B
A
B
B
B
B
A
C
C
A
B
C
A
D
D
A
A
D
C
C
C
A
D
D
A
B
C
D
A
A
B
D
B
D
D
C
C
C
A
A
D
D
B
B
A
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