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Why did the Cold War begin?
BACKGROUND
Between 1942 to 1945, the Grand Alliance comprised of the Soviet Union, the
US and Britain fighting against Germany, Italy and Japan. World War Two saw
levels of cooperation between both the Soviet Union and the West at the highest
levels. Yet, by 1945, the US and the Soviet Union had become increasingly
suspicious with each other over ideological issues and misunderstandings over
various issues. Why did the Cold War break out?
The suspicion and tension was so great for both sides, war threatened to break
out. This period is called the Cold War. It was called the Cold War because it
was a ‘war of words’ rather than direct military conflict. The Soviet Union and the
US would wage direct war on each other. However, there were several occasions
when conflict between the two sides threatened to break out. What were the
circumstances which almost led to a ‘hot war’?
A war between the Soviet Union and the US was a great threat to humanity
throughout the 20th century because such a war could involve the use of nuclear
weapons. By early 1960s, both sides had sufficient nuclear weapons to destroy
the world several times over. Strangely, despite the threat of a nuclear
holocaust, the Cold War made the 20th century the most peaceful and stable
period in human history. There were fewer wars in the 20 th century compared to
any other century. Why was this so?
WHY DID THE COLD WAR BEGIN?
IDEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES
Some have argued that the Cold War resulted from ideological differences.
The communist system of organizing the state and society was based on the
ideas of Karl Marx. According to communist ideas, the wealth of a country should
be collectively owned and shared by everyone. Under Stalin, this idea translated
into state-ownership of the country’s resources and a centrally planned
economy. Politically, the communist state made it's decisions based on the
politburo and believed firmly in one-party rule. Office holders and important
appointments were made based on whether you were an obedient Communist
party member. Western ideas of democracy and free elections were opposed in
communist thought.
The capitalist system of the West operated on the ideas of private ownership of
land and property. The driving force behind capitalism was profit and private
enterprise. Politically, the US and Britain believed in parliamentary democracy.
Free elections were held. Office holders and important appointments were made
based on these elections
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HISTORY OF POOR RELATIONS BETWEEN THE WEST AND THE
SOVIET UNION
The Russian Revolution
Poor relations between the Soviet Union and the West began from as early as
1917. You have read about the Russian revolution in Chapter Two. When the
Russian Revolution occurred in November 1917, Western countries like the
USA, Britain and France were fearful of the communist ideology. They were
fearful because communist ideology called for revolution and radical social
changes. The communist ideology worried the Western countries so greatly that
they gave aid and sent troops to help the White armies fight against the Reds.
Despite the Grand Alliance against Hitler during World War Two , the Soviet
Union remained very suspicious of the West because of what they had done in
the 1920s during the Russian Civil War.
The Comintern
Conversely, the West also remained very distrustful of the Soviet Union because
of its aggressive ideology. The West were suspicious of Soviet ideology because
of the activities of the Comintern. In 1919, Vladimir Lenin, set up the Communist
International or Comintern. This was an international organization aimed at
promoting 'permanent revolution' and ‘world revolution’. These actions of many
governments in the West distrustful of the Soviet Union.
SECOND WORLD WAR TENSIONS
Even during World War Two, relations between East and West were soured by
various issues. The West remembered the background to the start of World War
Two. During World War Two, it was the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression pact which
made war in Poland possible.
This mistrust was temporarily forgotten when Germany invaded the Soviet Union.
and pushed the Soviet Union into an alliance with the West. There were
however, various issues which divided the Allies. These issues would become
more important after 1945
The Second Front
Between 1942 to 1944, the Soviet Union were anxious for the US and Britain to
commit troops to a land-sea military operation to liberate of France. They felt this
military move would relieve the horrendous casualties suffered by the Soviet
Union on the Eastern Front
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Britain and the US were however concerned about not having sufficient
amphibious equipment (like landing crafts) and experience in such large-scale
amphibious operations. As a result, Britain and the US delayed their liberation of
France till June 1944. Instead, the West fought in North Africa and Italy. This
delay convinced the Soviet leader, Stalin, that the West was insincere in helping
the Soviet Union. Stalin thought that the Allies wanted to let the Soviet Union
spend all their resources fighting against the Germans, leaving the Soviet Union
weak and vulnerable in the post-war period.
YALTA AND POTSDAM CONFERENCE: THE BEGINNINGS OF
THE COLD WAR
Towards the end of the Cold War, there were even more contentious issues
which divided the Soviet Union from the West. Two such issues involved the
division of Germany and the political future of Eastern Europe.
At the Yalta Conference, ( 4th to 11th February 1945), the atmosphere was warm
and cordial. Joseph Stalin, FDR Roosevelt and Winston Churchill agreed on very
important issues:
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A United Nations would be set up in which the Soviet Union would be a
permanent member of the Security Council
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Germany and Berlin would be carved into four zones of occupation.
Austria and Vienna would be divided in a similar manner.
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A Reparations Commission would be set up to allocate reparation
payments to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union claimed US$11 billion
because of her heavy casualties.
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The communist government in Poland would be “reorganized on a
broader democratic basis with the inclusion of democratic leaders from
Poland itself and from Poles abroad” until free elections could take place.
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The Allied powers would insist on the unconditional surrender of
Germany, rather than make separate peace agreements with Germany
which might undermine the unity of the Alliance.
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The Soviet Union would declare war on Japan. In return she would
receive South Sakhalin islands, Outer Mongolia, the least of Port Arthur
as a naval base and commercial rights in Dairen and Manchuria.
However by the time. the Big Three met in Potsdam (July 1945), the
atmosphere was very different.
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Germany and the German Issue
At Potsdam, the Big Three agreed to administer Germany under a single joint
administration. The four commander-in-chiefs of the occupation forces in
Germany would form a Control Council, on which decisions needed to be
reached unanimously. A Council of Foreign Ministers would also be set up to
resolve disputes among the victors.
In practice, however, creating a joint council proved impossible. The Soviet
Union wanted both revenge and reparations on Germany. They removed
equipment, machinery and even whole factories from their zone to rebuild the
Soviet Union. Still, Stalin felt that German reparations from his zone were. He
demanded that reparations be given to the Soviet Union from the US, British and
French zones.
In 1946, the US and British zones were merged into a single economic zone and
issued a single, unified currency. Stalin refused to let the Soviet zone join
because he was opposed to any form of reunification of Germany.
By 1947, the four zones in Germany were divided politically and ideologically.
The Soviet Union insisted that a communist political system was best for their
zone and set up communist parties. The US and British zones set up a multiparty system and promoted democracy.
Poland and Eastern Europe
The borders and status of Poland were also other issues which divided the Big
Three at the Postdam Conference. The Soviet Union announced that the
western border of Poland was the line of the Rivers Oder and Neisse. At
Potsdam, the West argued that this arrangement was not part of the Yalta
agreement.
The Soviets also forcibly expelled five million Germans who lived in Poland . This
was conducted with great violence. his forced expulsion was raised as an issue
of human rights .
The Soviet Union had also set up a communist government in Poland and
refused to allow politicians from the London-based Polish government-in-exile
from returning. Neither did Stalin allow for free-elections in Poland. At the
Potsdam peace conference, the Western leaders criticized Stalin for going back
on his promises made at Yalta.
The West also criticized the Soviet Union for setting up communist governments
in Eastern Europe without free elections. For example, in Hungary, the Soviet
Union allowed for free elections in 1945 but although the communists won less
than 20 percent of the votes, a pro-communist government was still installed. In
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Poland, through vote-rigging and political oppression, the Soviet Union set up a
pro-communist government . Communist governments were also set up in
Bulgaria, Albania and Romania. In these countries, non-communist members of
coalition governments were expelled. There were mass arrests and executions
of those suspected of being anti-communists. Democratic parties were forcibly
dissolved.
The Soviet Union annexed Eastern Europe because they were obsessed with
security. The Soviet Union wanted to keep Eastern Europe under communist
influence because it created a buffer zone between the West and the Soviet
Union. Soviet strong arm tactics however alarmed the West and convinced them
that Stalin was committed to spread communism world-wide.
STALIN’S AGGRESSIVE FOREIGN POLICY
The chart below highlights the Soviet Union’s sphere of influence by 1948.
US AND BRITISH REACTIONS TO SOVIET POLICY
US and British reactions to Stalin's foreign policy worsened relations between the
both sides
The Long Telegram
US expert on Soviet affairs, George Kennan, wrote a "Long Telegram" to the
President of the US about how the Soviet Union was "committed fanatically" to
the belief that the communism could not co-exist with the US. He predicted a
“lengthy, life-and-death struggle” between democracy and communism.
Kennan's telegram led to US adoption of a hard-line policy towards the Soviet
Union. President Truman would later call this the policy of containment.
The Iron Curtain Speech
In 1946, in reaction to events in Eastern Europe, the former British Prime
Minister Winston Churchill gave a speech at Westminster College in Fulton,
Missouri, USA. He warned that "an iron curtain had descended across the
continent" and claimed that the Soviet Union was committed to territorial
expansion. He called for a western alliance which would stand firm against the
communist threat.
US pubic opinion viewed Churchill's speech as being too extreme. It’s effect
however was far-reaching. In Moscow, Churchill's speech was viewed with
increasing anger. His speech worsened relations between the Soviet Union and
the West. For the Soviet Union, his speech seemed to confirm Stalin’s
suspicions that the West was hostile towards the Soviet Union. The Iron Curtain
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speech also represented the split of the Grand Alliance.
The Greek Civil War and the Truman Doctrine
Relations between the Soviet Union and the West also worsened over the issue
of Greece. In Greece, a civil war was raging in 1947. On one side was the Greek
government, supported by Britain. On the other side were communist guerrillas
supported by Yugoslavia, Albania and Bulgaria. (Stalin had previously agreed in
1944 that Greece was part of the Western sphere of influence and honored this
agreement)
Due to Britain’s economic weaknesses in the postwar period, Britain declared
she could no longer give aid to the Greek government. The communists were
receiving help from nearby Albania, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. The Soviet Union
was not directly involved in the civil war.
In March 1947, the British Foreign Minister, Ernst Bevin, appealed to the US for
help. Despite the lack of direct involvement by the Soviet Union, Truman
announced that the US 'would support free peoples’ and provide aid to those
who resist ‘subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures’ anywhere
and everywhere.
Truman then sent arms and supplies to Greece. By 1949, the communists were
defeated in both Greece and Turkey. Although communism was not specifically
mentioned in Truman’s speech, the US sent a strong message that she was
committed to a policy of containing communism throughout the world. This
became known as the Truman Doctrine or Containment policy.
Marshall Plan
Marshall Plan was intended to be the economic extension of the Truman
Doctrine. In June 1947, the US Secretary of State George Marshall, produced
his European Recovery Programme (ERP) or Marshall Plan. It offered economic
and monetary aid to European countries.
The purpose of Marshall Plan was to provide economic and financial aid to help
Europe recover from World War Two; thus ensuring markets for US exports.
Although George Marshall never declared the political aims of his plan, his Plan
aimed to build a prosperous and successful Western Europe. A prosperous and
successful Western Europe would act as a defence and barrier to communism.
By September 1947, 16 nations joined the plan. Over the next four years, US$13
billion dollars of aid was pumped into Western Europe to help rebuild the
agriculture and industrial sectors.
Eastern European states were invited to participate in Marshall Plan but the
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Soviet Union was suspicious of Marshall Plan. The Soviet Union prevented any
communist government in the East from participating. The Soviet Union saw
Marshall Plan as 'dollar imperialism' and a US tool to gain control of Europe.
Cominform
As an answer to the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan, Stalin gathered
Communist Party leaders from Eastern Europe and created a new Soviet
alliance called Cominform (Communist Information Bureau). It's aim was to
encourage the setting up of fully communist governments with centrally
controlled and planned economies like that in the Soviet Union. Eastern Europe
was to be industrialized, collectivized and centralized in the manner of the Soviet
Union; All states were expected to trade only with Cominform members.
In 1949, as an answer to Marshall Plan, the Soviet Foreign Minister Vyachslav
Mikhailovich introduced the Molotov Plan or Council for Mutual Economic
Cooperation (Comecon). Comecon coordinated economic policy among the
communist countries. Comecon also offered Soviet aid to communist countries.
SOVIET ACTIONS IN 1948 - 1949
Between 1948 to 1949, Soviet policy became increasingly aggressive and took
the form of military interventions.
Czechoslovakia 1948
Until 1948, Czechoslovakia was a freely elected coalition government which
comprised of communist and other left-wing parties. However, in early 1948, with
elections due in May, all signs pointed to democratic parties winning elections.
To pre-empt this, the communists seized power in an armed coup. Noncommunist political leaders were executed, imprisoned or banished. Elections
were still held in May but this time, all the political candidates were communists.
The Berlin Blockade (1948 - 1949)
You have already read earlier about how Germany was split into four zones and
how the occupation zones in the west were merged as a single economic unit
with a uniform currency. The western Allies turned over increasing authority to
German officials and by 1948, created a constituent assembly for West
Germany. In June 1948, the Western allies were discussing the possibility of
creating an independent West Germany with Bonn as it’s capital. Free elections
would be held to create this new government.
The Soviet Union was against this action. In retaliation, Soviet authorities sealed
off all road, rail, canal links between West Germany and East Germany. All links
between East and West Berlin were also shut. Stalin's purpose for the blockade
was to also force the West to withdraw from West Berlin by reducing the city to
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starvation.
The Berlin Airlift (1948 - 1949)
The West was not going to surrender Berlin to the Soviet Union. For them, Berlin
was the first test of Truman's containment policy. There was also concern that
any retreat from Berlin would lead to a Russian military attack on West Germany.
As a result, Truman ordered a fleet of B29 bombers to begin a continual daily
airlift which brought much needed food and supplies into the city of West Berlin.
Over the next 10 months, 2 million tons of supplies were airlifted to West Berlin.
2.5 million West Berliners were fed and kept warm throughout Winter. The Berlin
Airlift ends on May 12 1949 when the Soviet government yielded and lifted the
blockade.
NATO AND WARSAW PACT
Soviet actions in 1948 and 1949 worsened East-West relations and heightened
Cold War tensions. In 1949, the West went ahead to conduct free elections in
West Germany. They gave Germany a new constitution and called West
Germany the Federal Republic of Germany. The West Germans voted Konrad
Adenauer to be their new German leader.
In April 1949, in response to the Berlin crisis, the West formed NATO (North
Atlantic Treaty Organization). According to the terms of the NATO agreement,
any attack on any NATO member was seen as an attack on them all. All member
countries (USA, Canada, Portugal, Eire, Italy, Norway, Britain, France, Holland,
Belgium, Luxembourg) would place their defence forces under a joint NATO
command organization which would defend the West.
In 1955, the Warsaw Treaty of Friendship Cooperation and Mutual Assistance
(Warsaw Pact) was signed in 1955 by Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East
Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and the Soviet Union. Like NATO, the
Warsaw Pact allowed for the Soviet army to be based in member states. It also
provided for a unified military command and a system of mutual assistance.
SUMMARY
Timeline of the Cold War
1940s
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1945: January - Soviet Union disbands the Polish Home Army and
creates a Provisional Government for Poland.
1945: February 4-11- Yalta Conference - Cold War Begins
1945: July 17 - August 2 - Potsdam Conference - Cold War Begins
1945: August 6 -- United States first used atomic bomb in war
1945: August 8 -- Russia enters war against Japan
1945: August 14 -- Japanese surrender - End of World War Two
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1946: March -- Winston Churchill delivers "Iron Curtain" Speech
1947: January - Polish elections are held and the communists win through
electioneering fraud.
1947: March -- Truman declares active role in Greek Civil War - Truman
Doctrine is born.
1947: May -- Communist Government set up in Hungary
1947 June -- Marshall Plan is announced
1947 September - US and British zones in Germany and Berlin merge
1947 October - Cominform is formed
1948: February -- Communist takeover in Czechoslovakia
1948: April - London Conference to discuss the creation of the Federal
Republic of Germany.
1948: June - A single, unified German currency is introduced in the US,
French and British zones.
1948: June 24 - Berlin Blockade begins
1949: January - Comecon is formed
1949: May - Berlin Blockade ends
1949: July - NATO is formed
1949: May 12 - Berlin Blockade ends
1949: September -China becomes Communist
1949: September -- Soviets explode first atomic bomb
1950s
 1950: February - Senator Joe McCarthy begins Communist witch hunt US enters a period of anti-communist hysteria
 1950: June -- Korean War begins
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