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Byzantine Civilization
Content Goals and Objectives:
Goal 2 – The Byzantine Empire
The student will examine the influence of the Byzantine Empire on medieval Europe.
2.01 Trace the geopolitical developments of the Byzantine Empire over the length of its
existence.
2.02 Detail the major political developments of the Byzantine Empire during the rule of Emperor
Justinian.
2.03 Evaluate the major achievements of the Emperor Justinian.
2.07 Examine the causes and effects of the decline of the Byzantine Empire.
2.09 Evaluate the contributions of Byzantine civilization to the culture of medieval Europe
including but not limited commerce, agriculture, learning, architecture, and art
The End of Rome?
The Byzantine Empire or Byzantium, as it is sometimes called, was the eastern half of the
Roman Empire which had been divided administratively in 395 CE. Its capital and cultural
center was Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) which was built up by the Roman Emperor
Constantine who favored the site and the eastern territories of the Roman Empire. The city itself
is located on the narrow Bosporus Strait overlooking the Black Sea making it a natural
crossroads for trade between Europe and Asia. Constantinople is geographically located in
Europe, but across the Bosporus Strait twelve miles away is the continent of Asia and the culture
of the “East.” This, in effect, gives the city a unique position of almost being of two worlds, the
West and the East. Maybe it was because of its unique position that Byzantium was able to
survive long after the barbarian invaders killed the last Roman emperor of the Western Roman
Empire. Or maybe it was because of the combination of Latin and Greek heritage that it took on.
The emperors still spoke Latin but the people of the empire spoke Greek. The emperors did look
to Western Roman past but also stressed the Greek heritage of the territories of Byzantium.
Regardless of its dualistic nature, West and East or Latin and Greek, the Byzantine Empire, after
the fall of the Roman Empire in 476, was considered by most people of the classical period to be
the New Rome. So to most, Rome did not fall but continued on in another location.
The Byzantine Empire
The territory of the Byzantine Empire consisted more than just the city of Constantinople and its
immediate area. During various times the empire held territory in Asia Minor, North Africa, the
Balkans, and Italy including the city of Rome itself. But as Islam expanded and the Germanic
barbarians consolidated power and developed kingship, the empire lost its territory in North
Africa and in Italy. Although the walls of Constantinople were besieged several times the empire
retained its possessions in Asia Minor and the Balkans for most of its existence.
The Byzantine Emperors
During the Byzantine Empire’s reign there were many different dynasties and interesting
characters as emperors. Nevertheless it would be pointless to spend much time evaluating the
merits of each dynasty and subsequent emperors in this text. But some generalizations can be
made about the imperial office of Byzantium. First, there were many periods of political peace
and prosperity but there were also many times of instability caused by the succession issues
related to the imperial office. Oddly it was during these periods that the imperial bureaucracy
saved the day by continuing with the daily business of empire. There were some dynasties that
did stand out as being exceptionally able at ruling an empire. These were the dynasties of Justin
(518-610), Heraclius (610-717), the Syrian dynasty (717-820) and the Macedonian dynasty (8671059). Also from the dynasties that ruled the Byzantine Empire, some emperors truly stood out
as exceptional rulers that put their stamp on the imperial office. These emperors include Justinian
the Great, Heraclius, and Leo III.
Justinian the Great
Justinian the Great ruled the Byzantine Empire during the dynasty of Justin from 527 to 565. He
was sometimes called the “Emperor that never sleeps” because of the long hours of work that he
dedicated to the empire at the height of its power. Militarily, Justinian was able to defeat the
Persians and secure the eastern borders of the empire. In addition he tried with some success to
expand the empire’s border to include the old former territories of the Western Roman Empire
including territories in Italy, Sicily, and the city of Rome itself. Domestically Justinian reinitiated
the Roman legal tradition by compiling the laws of the empire into the Corpus Juris Civilis or
The Body of Civil Law that remained a standard legal work in Europe well into the 19th century.
He also spent time revitalizing Constantinople including overseeing the additions to the Hagia
Sophia. This large and beautiful Christian church became a central point of the city and inspired
many people with its magnificent art and architecture. In one instance, when a mission of pagan
Russians during the 10th century came to the Hagia Sophia to see the Orthodox Christian
religion, they were so impressed by it that one of the members of the delegation reportedly said,
“There God dwells among men.”
Heraclius and Leo III
Heraclius and Leo III were two other outstanding emperors of the empire. Heraclius ruled from
610 to 641 began the dynasty of Heraclius. It was during his reign that the empire took a more
eastern direction. Heraclius unlike previous emperors spoke Greek not Latin. His entire reign
was preoccupied with resisting several Islamic and Persian invasions. Although he was unable to
completely stop the Islamic expansion into the Levant and Egypt, he did break Persian power
and influence in Asia Minor. Leo III or Leo the Isaurian, who ruled from 717 to 740, was the
first emperor of the Syrian dynasty. Unlike like his predecessor Heraclius, he was able to defeat
the Islamic armies and reclaim much of the territory of the Levant. Leo III also added more
territory from Asia Minor to the Byzantine Empire. Interesting enough, Leo III pursued a
controversial iconoclastic policy which offended the western Christians. This started the slow
division in the Christian Church which still exists to this day although for other reasons than
theology of icons. It has been speculated that Leo III, despite being a devout enemy of Islam,
was heavily influenced by Islam’s theology which resulted in his policy of iconoclasm.
Byzantine Religion
Byzantine culture and religion were almost entirely inseparable just as the empire and the
Christian church were. There was no separation of church and state. Christianity, culture, and
empire were intertwined to produce the grandeur and ceremony that was the Byzantine Empire.
Emperors led the Christian church just as they led the empire and the people. This authoritative
stance did not make relations with the Christian church in the West and its leader, the bishop of
Rome or pope, easy. The iconoclastic controversy during Leo III’s reign was just one of many of
the periods of disagreement between the Western and Eastern Christian churches. Eventually the
friction between the East and the West lead to a schism or separation of the church in 1054 with
the Roman Catholic Church in the West and the Eastern Orthodox Church in the East.
The Economy of Byzantium
The Byzantine Empire lasted for almost a millennium because of the strength of its economy.
The base of this economy was agriculture which was continually protected by various
governmental polices enforced by the emperors. Maybe learning from the decline of the Western
Roman Empire, the emperors appeared to have recognized the importance of an agricultural
base. In addition, because of the geographic location of the empire, commerce and trade fueled
the economy. Using the well-developed Silk Road, goods from China and India poured into
Constantinople before making their way into Europe. This made Byzantium, and more
specifically, Constantinople, one of the richest cities and civilizations of the late antiquity.
Lastly, silk weaving developed as an industry in the empire as early as 550 again adding fuel to
the massive economy of Byzantium.
Byzantine Art and Learning
Supported by the strength of the Byzantine economy, the arts and learning flourished within the
borders of the empire. In art the subject of the Christian religion was dominant. Despite the
iconoclastic tendencies of the empire, icons and mosaics were created that depicted Jesus, Mary,
the Apostles, saints and martyrs. In addition intricate illuminated manuscripts of the Bible were
made. And just as art was heavily influenced by religion, so was education and learning. The
Eastern Orthodox Church provided schools for parishes to train priests and the laity. Medicine,
law, philosophy, math, geometry, astronomy, grammar, and music were all taught in these
schools. Of course, all of the subjects were taught with a decidedly religious perspective. Higher
education was also available at the University of Constantinople, founded in 850, which trained
scholars and lawyers for service in the bureaucracy of the Byzantine Empire. Some of those
scholars spent their time copying the classical writing of the Greeks and Romans for the
Byzantine libraries. Literary achievements of the empire were once again dominated by the
Christianity. Byzantium literature focused on the salvation of the soul and obedience to God’s
will. Hymns and poems were written in honor of Jesus Christ and his mother, Mary. The books
that were written detailed the lives of the various saints for the people to learn from and imitate.
All of these products of Byzantine art, architecture, and scholarship were heavily studied and
imitated in Europe by the Germanic and Slavic people. It even influenced the culture of Islam to
the east.
The Spread of Eastern Orthodox Christianity
With the amazing amount of energy spent pursuing religious ends, it only seems fitting that the
Byzantine Empire sought to spread the message of Christianity. Many monasteries and religious
communities were founded throughout the Byzantine Empire during the 300s and 400s. Later
these monasteries sent missionaries to the northern lands to convert the pagan Slavs and
Germanic tribes. The missionaries Saint Cyril and Methodius were the most successful at this
type of dangerous missionary work. Around 863 Cyril developed an alphabet loosely based on
the Greek alphabet to help in his conversion of pagan tribes. Later this alphabet known as
Cyrillic formed the basis for the Russian and other Slavic languages. This missionary work and
subsequent spread of Christianity is arguably the most enduring legacy of the Byzantium Empire
because as it declined it was the once pagan now converted Christian Slavs that carried on its
traditions.
The Decline and Fall of Byzantium
The decline of Byzantium occurred over an extended period of time. In general the never ending
struggle to maintain its borders on the east and the west put the empire at a disadvantage. In
addition the economic trading interests of Byzantium came into conflict with late developing
Italian city-states such as Venice and Genoa. This led to several economic, political, and military
conflicts which peaked during the period of the 4th Crusade (1202-1204) when the Venetians
convinced or possibly coerced crusading European knights to sack Constantinople. After that the
Byzantine Empire existed but like a faded image of its former self until the walls of
Constantinople were again breached and conquered by the invading army and cannons of the
Ottoman Turks in 1453. Although it would appear to be the end of Byzantium, the leadership and
traditions of the empire and Eastern Orthodox Church that was so much apart of it passed on to
the Slavic people that missionaries had begun to convert hundreds of years before.