Download LABELS

LABELS
WORD CLASSES (parts of speech)
8 word classes: noun, adjective, numeral determine, verb, preposition , adverb, conjunction
NOUN: common noun: food battery, house
proper noun: Hussein , Al Manar news paper, Al Rai TV, Salwa Street...
pronouns: personal pronouns : I he she mine urs ....
why-pronouns: whom whose which...
*** note plz check fig 2.2 page 21 to know the possessive pronouns that can not stand alone in a
sentence.
VERB: lexical( main verb) eat, drawing, ..
Auxiliary: Ali( is) playing
Finite: Ali might have been playing. Might: finite, have, been: auxiliaries.
**** Subset of finites is modal operators : could might ... they do not add -s for 3rd person
singular.
ADJECTIVES: comparative (more, -err)
superlative (-est., most)
*** non gradable adjectives: male female, left...
DETERMINERS: (articles)a an the
NUMERALS: ( more like determiners than adjectives)
ex:one book...
ADVERBS: (characterized by the morphological feature -ly) ex: quickly.
Adverbs of manner(suddenly) time(now) place (here)
PREPOSITIONS: b4 the noun is preposition after is adverb:)
CONJUCTIONS: Linking conjunctions : must follow the clause to which it is linked.
Binding conjunction: generally follow or precede the clause to which it is bound
************************************
Subjects:
the subject is the item in the clause which is picked up in the pronoun in a mood tag
ex: Sara went to school, didn't ((she)) ? The she refers to the subject Sara.
GROUPS:
NOMINAL GROUPS: Sara went to school. Sara is subject and nominal subject.
Sara the girl with blue eyes went to school: Sara is the head of the nominal group. The nominal
group is: Sara
the girl with blue eyes: modifiers.
****definition: top of page 31.
VERBAL GROUPS: same as nominal group could be 1 word could be group ex: may have been :)
we have also adverbials, proportional, conjunctional groups :)
good luck.
exercises are very important at least solve 4 from each question.
Dot for get the close sets and open sets:
Close: pronouns, aux and finites, determiners,
open: common and proper nouns. Lexical verbs
chapter5:
*when we use language to talk abut language we r using & when we use lang to link other
pieces of lang or help our ideas hang together we are exercising TEXTUAL FUNCTION.
sentences in order to form a text they should be structural and cohesive.
structural: given/new theme/rhyme
cohesive: reference, ellipsis, substitution, conjunction, lexical cohesion.
in texts we have 4 thematic progressions:
1.constant theme pattern :( fig 5.1)
where a common theme is shared by each clause and this theme equates with given information.
***plz figures are so important to make ur idea clear. do look at them; u can use them in the
exam.
2. the linear theme pattern (fig5.2)
Rhyme of one clause is taken up as the theme of the subsequent clause.
3. the split rhyme pattern. (fig 5.3)
when the rhyme of a clause has two components, each of which is taken in turn as the theme of
a subsequent clause.
4. derived themes :( 5.4)
there is no direct definitions in the book. I can tell u here that the it is when we refer to things
not in the same paragraph, may be in another section or chapter. this is mostly used in
novels...encyclopidias.
* there are information in page 87, I didn't cover them bcoz they are mentioned also later in
other sectoins.do not worry :)
cohesive ties:
these were also mentioned as i said on page87, do have alook if u want. but now we will cover
them in details:
w has 4 5ypes of cohesive ties:
reference, ellipsis, substitution, conjunction, lexical.
reference:
reference can be cohesive when two or more expressions in the text refer to same person, thing
or idea.
halliday definitions for the term reference:
is an extension of the term as used in philosophy and some types of semantics to mean an act of
referring to entities outside the discourse.
endephoric reference: reference to something within the text.
2 classifications of endephoric reference:
---cataphoric reference: forward pointing; the reader does not understand the sense of the
reference until he reads on to the next line. (see example1 page 94)
---anaphoric reference: backward looking.
there are three (3) types of cohesive reference:
personal reference: referred by a pronoun
demonstrative reference: referred by determiners, adverbs
comparative reference: referred by adjectives
see examples 2 3 4 page 95.
Identify the differences between speech and written?
Spoken language is naturally spontaneous, while written language cannot consider to be
spontaneous. It is said that written language tends to be lexically dense and grammatically
simple. Spoken language tends to be lexically intricate and lexically sparse. In other words,
written version consists of one clause while spoken version consists of four clauses. The
complexity of written language is crystalline whereas the complexity of spoken language is
choreographic. The complexity of spoken language involves flow and dynamic mobility, whereas
the sentence of written language, there is solidarity among its parts.
It is said that speech is marked by hesitations, false starts, slips, and trips of tongue and
performance errors. Speech and writing as forms of discourse are typically associated with the
two modal points on the continuum from most spontaneous to most self – monitored language:
spontaneous discourse is usually spoken, self – monitored discourse is usually written. Spoken
and written do differ in their preferred patterns of lexico- grammatical organisation. Spoken
language tends to accommodate more clauses in the syntagm with fewer lexical items in the
clause. written language tends to accommodate more lexical items in the clause with fewer
clauses in the syntagm. However, written language represents phenomena as if they were
product. spoken language represents phenomena as if they were process.
Spoken and written differ in terms of linguistic system. Spoken language consists of three
interrelated subsystems. These are semantic system ( meaning) , lexic-grammatical system(
wordings) , and phonological system ( sounds). Written language has an alternative form of
expression of a given wording. In this ase meanings are coded as words and structures which
are then expressed either in sound or in writing. However, written language tends to display a
high degree of grammatical metaphor.
Grammatical metaphor is not confined to written language. This means that a part from its
tendency to be borrowed from speech into writing. In other words, some written language are
originated in speech, for example have a bath (( bath)). However, written language is
nominalised more than spoken language.
Ultimately, speech and writing appear as different ways of meaning: speech as oriented towards
events and process- like intricate. Writing as dense, structured. Oriented towards things,
product- like with meanings related as components.
In Hallidayan grammar, there are two types of structure in the analysis of a clause: information
structure and thematic structure. Discuss the two structures providing examples that illustrate
your understanding of the various parts that make up both structures.
Answer notes:
Information structure
• An information unit is made up of:
1. Given information-shared or mutual information usually found at the beginning of a clause.
(example: ‘The kettle’ in ‘The kettle is boiling’)
2. New information- information that is the focus of a speaker’s message (example: ‘is boiling’ in
‘The kettle is boiling’).
• The Given is optional while the New is obligatory.
• Both types are found in both dependent and independent clauses.
• In written English, New information is usually presented in the 2nd part of the clause. There
are two exceptions to this:
1. at the beginning of a new topic of conversation or section of written text where all the
information is new (example: ‘it’ in ‘It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in
possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife’) ‘It’ carries no information here; it is an
empty subject.
2. when ellipses are used to leave out Given information and only present the New. (example:
‘organizes information in and out of the computer’ in ‘It controls how the parts of a computer
interact and organizes information in and out of the computer’.) The information here is all New
where the subject of ‘organizes’ is omitted, and it refers to a previous subject ‘operating system’
• In real life (spoken English), the social context provides the source of Given information. The
words that appear most frequently as Given are pronouns (I, we, you) as well as proper nouns.
• An unmarked clause is a clause where the Given information is presented first followed by the
New information. In an unmarked declarative clause, the New information is considered to have
the most communicative dynamism and is signaled by a falling intonation.
Thematic structure
• With the exception of some phrases like ‘Hi’ and ‘Good morning’, all clauses have a thematic
structure.
• Although there are many parallels between information and thematic structure, Halliday shows
that they are separate structures.
• Thematic structure consists of:
1. Theme- the idea represented by the constituent at the starting point of a clause; ‘the point of
departure of a message’ (example: ‘Kuala Lumpur’ in ‘Kuala Lumpur is the capital of Malaysia’.)
2. Rheme- the rest of the message (example: ‘is the capital of Malaysia’ in: ‘Kuala Lumpur is the
capital of Malaysia’.)
• There are many types of themes, but all clauses in English include a topical theme. The topical
theme represents a participant, circumstance, or process (examples: ‘for example’, ‘in this
country’, ‘in my opinion’). The topical theme is always realized by one of the following elements:
subject, predicator, complement, or circumstantial adjunct.
• An unmarked theme is a theme which is typical (i.e. when a subject is in Theme position in a
declarative clause) (example: ‘Kuala Lumpur’ as theme and subject ‘is the capital of Malaysia’ as
Rheme and finite complement) while a marked theme is untypical. It occurs where other
elements are found in Theme position of English clauses (examples of circumstantial adjunct in
the form of a prepositional phrase as theme: ‘After the war’ in: ‘After the war, the Spartans
erected a memorial on the battlefield.’ and ‘For a long time’ in: ‘For a long time, the Spartans
proved themselves invincible on land). (example of complement as theme: ‘Nature I loved.’
• Each mood in a clause has a typical unmarked thematic pattern:
MOOD THEME realized by
Declarative (Ziggy played guitar) Subject (Ziggy)
Interrogative (Had he written down something of the greatest importance?) Finite +Subject
(Had he)
Imperative (Write it down) Predicator (Write) OR implied (you)
Explanative (How sweetly she sings!) Wh-word complement OR Wh-word Adjunct (How
sweetly)
• Some clauses have more than one theme, a multiple thematic structure. Such themes relate to
the three metafunctions:
1. Topical theme-serves the ideational metafunction; the theme that represents what the clause
is about; found in every clause.
2. Textual theme- commenting on the previous speaker’s text.
3. Interpersonal theme- addressing the listener directly by using a name or term of affection.
Extra credit should be given to students who give precise illustrative examples. Credit should
also be given to candidates who maintain a logical chain of argument and who use specialized
terminology.