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Geography A Level (Edexcel B) Dynamic Landscapes Topic 1: Tectonic Processes and Hazards Use this revision audit to identify areas of the specification that you find difficult, or are unsure of. This will help you to prioritise topics and to focus on what you need to know. Revision Audit Topics Response (Please tick) Confident Enquiry Question 1: Why are some locations more at risk from tectonic hazards? What is the global distribution of tectonic hazards (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis)? What is plate-tectonic theory and its key elements? The earth’s internal structure, mantle convection, palaeomagnetism and sea floor spreading, subduction and slab pull). What are the different plate boundaries (divergent, convergent, and conservative) and what causes them? Divergent – Eyjafjallajökull eruption in Iceland, 2010 Convergent (oceanic-continental) – Philippines, Convergent (continental-continental)– Himalayas Conservative / Transform – California, Haiti, Christchurch (New Zealand) Hotspots – Hawaiian Islands Understand the causes of intra- plate earthquakes and volcanoes associated with hotspots. What physical processes impact on the magnitude and type of volcanic eruption, earthquake magnitude and focal depth (Benioff zone)? What are the different type of earthquake waves (P, S and L waves)? What are the primary effects (ground shaking and crustal fracturing) and secondary effects (liquefaction, landslides and tsunamis)? E.g. - Loma Prieta or Christchurch for liquefaction What primary hazards (lava flow, pyroclastic flow, tephra/ash fall and gas eruptions) and secondary hazards (lahars, jökulhlaup)? E.G. - Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland for pyroclastic flows - Lake Nyos, Cameroon gas eruptions How are tsunamic caused by sub-marine earthquakes at subduction zones? - E.g. 2004 Asian tsunami OK Unsure Confident Enquiry Question 2: Why do some tectonic hazards develop into disasters? What is the definition of a natural hazard and a disaster? How important are resilience and risk in determining the outcome of a hazard? Explain how the Pressure and Release model (PAR) show the complex inter-relationship between the hazard and other factors. E.g. Haiti, 2010 Why do some countries suffer more impacts than others (PAR model)? What different scales are used to measure magnitude and intensity of tectonic hazards? Mercalli, Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS) and Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI). Using hazard profiles compare the different characteristics of earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis (magnitude, speed of onset and areal extent, duration, frequency, spatial predictability), showing the severity of social and economic impact in developed, emerging and developing countries. E.g. Eyjafjallajökull eruption in Iceland, 2010 Explain why the impacts vary in different countries for different reasons relating to the physical and human geography of the area. Explain why the impacts vary in different countries for different reasons relating to physical (causes) and human geography (governance, access to education, housing, healthcare, vulnerability and resilience) of the area:E.g. Developing country – Haiti, 2010 Emerging country – Sichuan, 2008 Developed country – Japan, 2011 OK Unsure Confident Enquiry question 3: How successful is the management of tectonic hazards and disasters? Describe and interpret the geophysical disaster patterns and trends since 1960 questioning accuracy and reliability. Evaluate two different case studies of mega-disasters. E.g. - 2004 Asian tsunami - 2011 Japanese tsunami Assess why some countries suffer from multiple hazards and appreciate the impacts this can have on a country. E.g. - Hydrometeorological Philippines OR California Evaluate and explain the importance of different hazardmanagement strategies to examine impacts and management response. E.g. Compare Haiti, 2010 and Japan 2011 - The hazard-management cycle - The Park hazard-response curve Explain the difference between mitigation and adaptation. For both look at a range of strategies and question their effectiveness. Assess the role of different players e.g. planners, governments, local governments and individuals in hazard preparation and response. Explain the variety of different techniques to reduce vulnerability to hazards. Describe different techniques for countries at different levels of development. OK Unsure Dynamic Landscapes Topic 1: Tectonic Processes and Case Studies Case studies Earthquake Haiti, 2010 (Developing) Volcanic eruption Eyjafjallajökull eruption in Iceland, 2010 (socioeconomic impacts) Japan, 2011 Lake Nyos, (Developed) Cameroon gas eruptions (rhyolitic) Sichuan, 2008 Kilauea/ Mauna Loa (emerging) (Hawaii, USA) – hotspot (basaltic) Christchurch, 2011 Montserrat, 1995 / Loma Prieta, 1989 (secondary / (liquefaction) primary impacts) Nepal, 2015 (Avalanches / Landslide / role of NGOs) Other – Tsunami Asian tsunami, 2004 (megadisaster) Japan, 2011 (mega-disaster) Hydrometeorological Philippines OR California Dynamic Landscapes Topic 1: Tectonic Processes and Hazards Key Terms All key term definitions can be found in the Geography for Edexcel textbook. Key term Natural hazard Definition A naturally occurring process or event that has the potential to affect people. Natural disaster A major natural hazard that causes significant social, environmental and economic damage. Seismic hazards Generated when rocks within 700km of the Earth’s surface come under stress that they break and become displaced. Asthenosphere The part on which tectonic plates ‘float’ Lithosphere The surface layer of the Earth is a rigid outer shell composed of the crust and upper mantle. It is broken up into huge sections, which are tectonic plates. Oceanic crust A thin dense layer (6-10km thick), which lines the ocean floors. Continental crust An older, thicker layer (usually 45 – 50km thick), which makes up the Earth’s landmasses. It is less dense than oceanic crust. Mantle plume Volcanoes can also form in the middle of plates, where plumes of hot magma rise upward and erupt onto the sea floor (at what is called a hotspot). Palaeomagnetism The study of past changes in the Earth’s magnetic field (determined from rocks, sediment or archaeological records). Convection In the mantle convection, heat produced by decay of radioactive elements in the earth’s core heats the lower mantle – creating convection currents. These hot, liquid magma currents are thought to move in circles in the asthenosphere – thus causing plates to move. Slab pull Newly formed oceanic crust at mid oceanic ridges becomes dense and thicker as it cools. This causes it to sink into the mantle under its own weight – pulling the rest of the plate further down with it forming deep ocean trenches. Convergent Where two plates collide also known as destructive boundary margins. Divergent boundary Where two plates move apart also known as constructive margins. Conservative boundary Locked fault Where two plates slide past each other, also known as transform margins. A fault that is not slipping because of frictional resistance on the fault is greater than the sheer stress across the fault, that is, it is stuck. Fold Mountains As two continental plates collide, the plates are folded and slowly push up, forming chains of Fold Mountains. Sea floor spreading These are formed when hot magma is forced up from the asthenosphere and hardens – forming new oceanic crust. The new crust pushes the tectonic plates apart in a process called sea floor spreading. Island arcs Volcanoes created as a result of subducted plates. These volcanoes rise above sea level to form separate island volcanoes, which are usually found in a curved lines. Subduction New crust is being created in one place, it is being destroyed in another by subduction. As two oceanic plates (or an oceanic and a continental plate) move towards each other, one slides under the other into the mantle – where it melts in an area known as the subduction zone. Intensity A measure of the ground shaking. It is the ground shaking that causes building damage and collapse, and all the loss of life from the hazard. Magnitude The magnitude of an earthquake is related to the amount of movement, or displacement, in the fault, which is in turn a measure of energy release. Benioff zone The friction created between colliding plates (and subduction) causes intermediate and deep earthquakes in an area called the Benioff zone. Primary waves, Primary (P) waves – these are the fastest and first to secondary waves reach the surface. They travel through both solid and and surface love liquid. waves Secondary (S) waves – these are slower. They only travel through solids. Surface love (L) waves – these are the slowest but cause the most damage shaking the ground from side to side. They are larger and focus all their energy on the Earth’s surface. Seismic waves Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS) Focus or hypocentre and epicentre Intra-plate earthquakes Primary and secondary effects Crustal fracturing Soil Liquefaction Landslide and avalanches Tsunami Water displacement Water Column Gas eruptions Pyroclastic flows Tephra and ash fall Shock waves released by tectonic movement and measured using a seismometer. The generally preferred scale to measure magnitude (energy released at the epicentre). It measures total energy released by an earthquake the moment it occurs. Focus or hypocentre - The point within the ground where the strain energy of the earthquake stored in the rock is first released. The distance between this and the epicentre on the surface is called the focal length. Epicentre – the location on the Earth’s surface that is directly above the earthquakes focus. Earthquakes which occur in the middle interior of tectonic plates and are much rarer than boundary earthquakes. Primary – happen as a direct result of a hazard. Secondary – happen as an indirect result of a hazard. When energy released during an earthquake causes the Earth’s crust to crack. Secondary hazard -The process by which watersaturated material can temporarily lose normal strength and behave like a liquid under the pressure of strong shaking. Occurs in saturated soils. Secondary hazard - The ground shaking places stress on the slopes, so they may fall resulting in landslides, rock slide, mudslide and avalanches. Secondary hazard - A series of larger than normal waves, which are caused by a volcanic eruption or underwater earthquakes. The energy released during an earthquake causes the seafloor to uplift – displacing the water column above. This displaced water forms a tsunami wave. The area of seawater from the surface to the sea floor. Magma contains dissolved gases that are released into the atmosphere during a volcanic eruption. A mixture of dense hot rock, lava, ash and gas ejected from a volcano. Tephra are pieces of volcanic rock and ash that blast Lahars Jökulhlaups Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) Resilience Risk Vulnerability Development Inequality Governance Mercalli Tectonic Hazard profile Hazard Mitigation into the air during volcanic eruptions. Secondary hazard - Masses of rock, mud and water that travel quickly down the sides of a volcano. Secondary hazard - The heat of a volcanic eruption can melt snow and ice in glaciers – causing heavy and sudden floods caused jökulhlaups or glacial outburst floods. This is used to describe and compare the size or magnitude of volcanic eruptions. The VEI uses a scale from 0 (non-explosive) to 8 (extremely large) The ability to protect lives, livelihoods and infrastructure from destruction, and to restore an area after a natural hazard has occurred. The exposure of people to a hazardous event. More specifically, it is the probability of a hazard occurring that leads to the loss of lives and/or livelihoods. The ability to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from a natural hazard. Linked to and improving society, enabling people to achieve their aspirations. It includes the provisions of social services, acquisition of economic assets, improved productivity and reducing vulnerability to hazards. Loew levels of development are closely associated with high levels of risk and vulnerability to natural disasters. An unfair situation or distribution of assets and resources. It may be sued when people or nations and non-state players have different levels of authority, competence and outcomes. The sum of many ways individual, institutions, public and private manage their common affairs. It is a continuing process through which conflicting or diverse interests may be accommodated and co-operative action may be taken. A scale which measure earthquake intensity, which takes observations from people who experienced the earthquake and puts them on a scale of I (hardly noticed) to XII (catastrophic). A technique used to try to understand the physical characteristics of different types of hazards. Strategies meant to avoid, delay or prevent hazard Hazard adaptation Multiple-hazard zones Land use zoning Spearman’s Rank correlation Hydrometeorological Precursors Pressure and Release (PAR) model Hazard management cycle The Park Model Early Warning systems Hazard risk equation events (e.g. land use zoning, diverting lava flow, GIS mapping and hazard resistant design and engineering). Strategies designed to reduce the impacts of hazard events (e.g. high-tech monitoring, public education and community preparedness). An area at risk from multiple hazards, and is vulnerable. Process by which local government regulates how land in a community may be used. A statistical method used to test the strengths of a relationship between two variables. +1 indicates a perfect correlation, -1 indicates a negative correlation and 0 indicates no correlation. Natural hazards caused by climate processes (including droughts, floods, hurricanes and storms). Warning signs that may suggest a hazard is about to happen. PAR model looks at the underlying causes of a disaster. Looking at processes which create vulnerability (root cause, dynamic pressures and unsafe conditions) and the hazard itself. A process in which governments and other organisations work together to protect people from natural hazards that threaten their communities. The different stages in the hazard management cycle (response, recovery, mitigation, preparedness). The Park hazard-response curve is a model that shows how a country might respond after a hazard event. In place in both the Pacific and Indian Oceans. These systems use seismic sensors to detect underwater earthquakes. Revision Techniques Below are a list of suggestions of revision techniques, and ways to improve your exam performance. See which ones work best for you. If you know what works well for you, then your revision will be more successful. Revision Style/Content Response (Please tick) Techniques Mind Maps (spider diagrams) Out loud (Speak the information that is to be learned) Discussion Revision Postcards Listen to revision tapes Condensing class notes Teacher led revision session Revise alone without teacher input Revise in groups Revise in pairs Use a revision guide Quizzes Other: Improving your performance in the exam Practise A level questions Analysis of questions – what’s the difference between a grade C and D answer? Making sure you understand command words Peer/self-assessing answers using mark schemes Other: Tried Useful Unsure